Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

Geotechnical Design of Large Openings for Mining Operations in

Chile.
A. R.A. Gomes
GEOCONSULT Latinoamérica, Santiago, Chile.
J. C. Ulloa
GEOCONSULT Latinoamérica, Santiago, Chile.

ABSTRACT: The paper summarizes the methodological approach considered for the geotechnical
design of large underground openings, with particular reference to the authors´ experiences on a
number of projects developed for mining operations in Chile. The stepwise design approach includes
the geotechnical model, the assessments of the stress field, relevant boundary conditions, the analysis
of the rock mass behavior and the ground-support interaction, additionally addressing the
construction baseline scheme and some significant aspects associated to the construction stage. Two
case histories of large underground facilities developed for the mining sector in Chile, where this
methodology has been implicitly applied and proven adequate, are presented to illustrate typical
challenges and conditions faced by the design and construction of these types of underground
structures.

1 INTRODUCTION

The permanent infra-structure of major mining 2 GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN

projects in Chile often comprises of a number of METHODOLOGY
large underground openings, which are used for
housing operational installations, such as
2.1 General
crusher chambers, material handling systems,
electro-mechanical equipment and working In general terms, the geotechnical design
offices, among others facilities. Generally, in methodology shall aim at accomplishing the
accordance with the mine operational layout, following objectives:
these openings are interconnected by means of - To provide a comprehensive framework for
tunnels, drifts and vertical or inclined shafts, the project development throughout its lifecycle
resulting frequently in a cluster of various (including the operational period), with the
closed-located underground structures. opportune definition of key geotechnical-related
This paper summarizes the general issues.
methodological approach implicitly considered - To establish technically and economically
for the geotechnical design of such large efficient solutions for the specific geotechnical
underground openings, with particular reference conditions of the project in term of health and
to the authors´ experiences on a number of safety, environmental impact, structural
projects for mining operations in Chile. capacity, functionality and durability, in
Examples of two case histories are presented, accordance with its usage and expected lifetime.
where the first case consist of a large multi- - To establish a construction baseline scheme
cavern complex excavated with relatively for the proper management of budgetary,
shallow overburden conditions, whereas the schedule and geotechnical-related risks.
second case corresponds to deep seated large The following flowchart attempts to
openings excavated under high stress summarize the main steps and relevant aspects
conditions. implicitly considered in the geotechnical design
of large caverns and openings:
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 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

Figure 1. Geotechnical Design Methodology applied for Large Openings (Gomes A., 2013).

shall be covered in the description of each

BGU:
2.2 Geotechnical Model a) Lithology, alteration and mineralization;
Large openings´ design and construction hurdles b) Intact rock and rock mass
are usually directly related to the complexity of characterization:
the geotechnical conditions of its host rock - Qualitative data: sketches, photos,
mass. Therefore, good geotechnical knowledge characterization and understanding of basic
of the ground is required for the selection of the failure mechanisms) and;
optimum location and layout. - Quantitative data: key geotechnical
The site investigation campaign shall parameters and classification indexes (e.g.
typically include mapping of surface and RQD, IRS, GSI, Q’, RMR and MRMR).
existing near-by underground excavations, c) Geo-structural characterization and
drillings and geophysical investigations and properties of micro, meso and macro structures.
ground/water and in-situ/lab tests. For mining d) Hydro-geological model (permeability and
underground openings, the foregoing mine water flow and inflow).
operation typically generates an accumulative The geotechnical model defined at the design
geotechnical knowledge, which in conjunction stage shall be continuously updated during the
with site-specific investigations and construction stage by means of mapping and
interpretation, can contribute significantly to the monitoring of the actual geological conditions,
optimization of the projects. as to mitigate unexpected conditions and allow
For the geotechnical model, ground types for design adjustments and optimizations.
with similar geotechnical characteristics are
grouped in distinct “Basic Geotechnical Units
2.3 Assessment of the Stress Field
(BGUs)”, which shall be characterized both in
qualitative (descriptive) and quantitative terms The natural stress field is a factor of major
(key parameters), accounting for the relevance in the design of large openings. It can
information coherence and confidence levels be assessed by means of in-situ stress
and the probabilistic variation of each specific measurements (e.g. “hollow inclusion” and
set of key parameters. The following aspects hydraulic fracturing methods) used to calibrate
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tri-dimensional numerical models that considers largest stress anisotropy ratio to be on a

the existing local geo-morphology and ground perpendicular plane to the opening.
conditions. Since the stress field and the seismic
activity caused by mining is a decisive factor in
the operation of deep underground mines, a
mine-scale stress field model is generally
available, which can be further refined to assess
the prevailing stress field at a specific mine
location. Otherwise, for projects where stress
data is minor or inexistent, the stress field needs Figure 2. Stress Anisotropy Concept.
to be extrapolated from general stress maps or
calibrations based on available measurements The minimum distance between openings
located distant from the project area. (pillars) is typically determined on the basis of
In any of the above cases, it is not unusual to experience and supported by results of detailed
observe large average deviation errors between numerical analysis. Particular attention is given
the numerical modelling stress fields with to large openings under high overburden (e.g.
respect to individual measurements. It occurs ≥700m) and tectonic stresses, due to the risk of
also due to rock mass jointing and spalling and rock burst, as well as in cases of
inhomogeneity, which causes deviations in the shallow rock cover conditions (e.g. ≤ 1-1.5
local stress fields. Hence, it is recommended to times the span) and interference with other
carry out additional site-specific stress openings, where stability issues associated to
measurements, as to allow for a probabilistic rock relaxation and tensile stresses can control
calibration of the effective local stress field (e.g the design and increase geotechnical risks.
with the Rosemblueth PEM, 1975). In all cases, large underground opening
complexes shall be carefully analyzed in an
opportune design stage for all relevant boundary
2.4 Geometrical and Functional Layout conditions to allow for an earlier selection of the
and Geotechnical Boundary Conditions optimum location, orientation and layout of the
The shape and layout of the cavern(s) and structures and definition of a preliminary
ancillary structures are majorly defined by their construction baseline scheme (methods, cost,
functional requirements; nevertheless other time, risks, etc.).
aspects such as the ground characteristics and
behavior, the proximity of existing adjacent 2.5 Analysis of the Rock Mass Behavior
openings (vibration and deformation limits) as and the Ground-Support Interaction
well as constructability requirements (e.g.
accesses, ventilation, interference with the 2.5.1 General
mining operation, etc.) must also be taken into
account. Commonly, the opening´s roof presents The proposed excavation sequences and support
a curved shape, with vertical walls. In other systems shall be developed to each project´s
cases, due to poor rock mass conditions and specific boundary conditions, as to allow the
high stresses, a curved shape cavity may help to ground to mobilize its self-supporting
reduce the zone of rock damage and associated capability, and achieve an economic and safe
support requirements (In Chile, this type of design.
solution is hardly applied due to the prevailing To verify the adequacy of the proposed
boundary conditions). method, analyses of the rock mass behavior and
As far as possible, sites with the presence of the ground-support interaction are carried out
strongly inhomogeneity between rock mass with the support of engineering tools (e.g.
units (e.g. large difference in stiffness and empirical, analytical or numerical methods), in
strength) or with low cover (e.g. under open pits the light of experienced engineering judgment.
active zones) are avoided. The opening axis
orientation is defined as a compromise between: 2.5.2 Rock Mass Behavior
crossing weak zones in the least distance; be For the rock mass behavior assessment, the
aligned normal to the line of intersection of the ground failure mechanisms shall be identified
main discontinuities families and avoid the (e.g., discontinuities-controlled, stress,
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dynamic/seismicity loads, groundwater and mentioned previously (see Table 1). Similarly,
presence of minerals) and assessed for the the degree of utilization of the support elements
preliminary geometrical layout and proposed are checked in terms of load, energy absorption
excavation sequence and support. Typically, and deformation for each analyzed scenario is
simplified analytical and empirical methods, assessed, to check for compliance with the
together with elastic tridimensional numerical required structural safety factors.
analysis (B.E.M.) are carried out for an earlier The process is interactive, allowing an
assessment of the ground response to optimization of the initially proposed excavation
unsupported excavation. Depending on the sequence and support.
results obtained, a first optimization and
adjustment of the general opening(s) layout can
be carried out, before more complexes 2.6 Construction Baseline Scheme
numerical analyses are carried out to obtain a The previous design stages allow the
more detailed assessment of the ground establishment of a construction baseline scheme
behavior (e.g. discontinuous modelling). and associated compensation clauses, where
Results obtained from the analyses are specific excavation sequences and support
compared with predefined failure and stability measures are defined and specified. Since
evaluation criteria, such as those shown in the geotechnical analyses are intrinsically affected
following Table 1. by uncertainty - both in terms of input data and
inherently limitations of engineering tools – the
Table 1. Examples of Stability Evaluation Criteria. design shall ideally be treated in probabilistic
Parameter Variables terms and be properly expressed in the
Stress concentration σ1 / UCS contractual documents to allow for flexibility
Shear failure potential (σ1 – σ3) and an adequate risk management during the
Deformation of roof and walls δV/B; δV/H construction stage. A risk management plan
Relaxation or tensile stresses (σ3) shall be outlined, identifying all possible
Critical level of strains (ε3)
Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria f(σ1, σ3)
geotechnical and natural risks, deviations and
Hoek-Brown failure criteria f(σ1, σ3) critical aspects that can negatively affect the
* Acceptable levels may vary in function of the construction. Those risks shall be controlled
ground composition, presence of nearby openings, during the construction, supported by a
functional requirements, etc. continuous mapping and monitoring of the
actual ground and support behavior
(observational approach), as an inherent part of
2.5.3 Ground-Support Interaction the design process.
The preliminary excavation sequence and
support systems, including opportunity of
installation of temporary and permanent 3 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS
support, are considered for the analyses of the
ground-support interaction (system behavior) Even though constructability aspects are largely
for different combinations of ground quality defined in the earlier design stages, a detailed
(range of expected key parameters’ variation). analysis of existing interferences, ventilation
Numerical modelling can be either continuous requirements, effective working time,
or discontinuous, iso- or anisotropic, based on transportation of muck and personnel, HSEC
various available methods (e.g. F.E.M., F.D.M., issues, accreditation time, among other relevant
D.E.M.) and with application of different factors, shall also be carried out by the
constitutive models and failure criteria (e.g. contractor in close cooperation with the client
Hoek-Brown, Mohr-Coulomb, etc.). The most (Mine owner), as to reach a realistic cost and
suitable methods are chosen in function of the time estimation. The construction baseline
rock mass composition and the type of failure scheme shall be revised and made its own by the
mechanism to be analyzed (e.g. squeezing, Contractor, which shall plan in detail how the
brittle failure, structurally controlled failure, design will be properly developed on site to
creep, etc.). fulfill the expected contractual performance
Results are compared to pre-specified (e.g. time, costs, quality, safety, etc.). This is a
acceptance criteria for the rock mass, as main issue, particularly considering the fact that
the mine is permanently in operation, with its
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own working schedules and agenda, which must against rock falling). Cement or chemical pre-
be catered for by the contractor. The grouting or ground treatment can be locally
construction shall be followed by an required to improve the ground or to control
engineering supervision, which shall make the water inflow in weak zones.
necessary design adjustments in function of the Another major construction issue is the
effective ground conditions and behavior. adequate control of the blasting damage and
Caverns and large openings are typically over-breaks and the avoidance of geometric
excavated with the use of Drill and Blast deviations, particularly as the openings are
methods. Road headers can be also be applied in typically excavated simultaneously from
weaker and less abrasive rock masses, also to different headings and a final irregular geometry
avoid blasting vibration acting on nearby can negatively affect the opening stability,
structures. However, to the author´s knowledge, increasing the need of maintenance or even
there is no record of use of road-headers for generating the need of major repair works.
cavern excavation in Chile.
Excavation works usually starts from the
access tunnels, which shall reach the top of the 4 CASE HISTORIES
caverns, allowing the excavation of a central
pilot tunnel, which is further enlarged to
4.1 Andina Mine – PDA Phase I - Caverns
materialize the cavern roof. Whereas the roof
geometry and structural function requires a for Operational Facilities
more careful excavation sequence, benches The Andina Mine of Codelco, which has both
(walls) can generally be excavated more surface and underground mining operations, is
massively with consideration of larger located at an elevation of 3.000m, at the Andes
excavation blocks and rounds (except in poor Cordillera, in a zone with abrupt geography,
rock conditions). high altitude and adverse climate. For these
conditions, the underground installation of the
operational facilities is a natural and efficient
solution.
The Project PDA Phase I comprises the
expansion of the mining production from 25k to
60k tons/day with the construction of new major
underground structures (~200.000 m3 of
excavations) for housing of operational
facilities, such as crush and milling chambers,
copper concentrate flotation systems, ore chutes,
electrical rooms, among other facilities, in
Figure 3. Example of Excavation Sequence (ACT, 2008) addition to the already existing infra-structure.
The typical ground support system is
customarily constituted by shotcrete, plain or
reinforced with wire mesh or fibers, grouted
bolts and cables and ground anchors in
particular cases. Longer cables have the
advantage that they can be more easily installed
in limited headroom conditions and therefore
are frequently used as long term rock support,
whereas shorter bolts can be used for advance
purposes (temporary support). In some cases, a
permanent inner in situ concrete lining is
provided, depending on the usage and functional
requirements of the opening (e.g. vertical ore Figure 4. View of Main Underground works – PDA Phase
1 – Andina Mine
chutes). On the other end, there can be cases of
openings constructed without provision of
linings, and supported only with bolts and These large openings were located at close
cables and light wire meshes in walls (to protect vicinity to each other and to the existing
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facilities, being excavated in fair quality adits, built specifically for the new facilities, as
Granodiorite (RMR 55 to 58) with the presence well as through the existing underground
of some localized major structures (faults). The tunnels and structures. The remote site location,
openings were located within one of the valley the limited working space and restrictions
slopes, away from the ore extraction sectors, so imposed by the mine operation required a strict
that rock cover varied from about 80m to a coordination of works between contractor and
minimum of about 50m due to the natural slope. the mine, logistic for access, transport of muck,
The caverns presented vertical walls and curved ventilation, etc.
roofs, generally with large span and height (e.g. The construction was followed by monitoring
milling cavern with 28mx37x58m). Chutes were and continuous mapping of geological
cylindrical-shaped with an inner diameter of up conditions. Particular attention was given to the
to 23m and heights of up to 30m. structural conditions, which in some areas
For this case, the geo-structural conditions of showed the presence of major structures (faults)
the rock were a key issue, so that the analyses with loose infilling and water inflow, which
were carried out with both continuous and required special excavation methodology and
discontinuous 3D numerical modelling (to ground treatments. These facilities’
verify the effect of major structural systems). constructions finished and they are operational
The detail design also included wedge stability since December 2010.
analysis and analysis of the ground-support
behavior with specific 2D and 3D models.
Analyses results showed that compressive stress
concentrations were of minor significance, so
that the greatest challenges corresponded to the
reinforcement of zones with relevant ground
relaxation and tensile stresses, and zones with
the presence of major faults and dikes.
Figure 6. Excavation of Crusher Chamber at PDA Phase 1
(photo by Aura/Compax/Tecsa JV, 2006)

4.2 Mina El Teniente – Crush Chambers at

the Diablo Regimiento Sector
The Mine El Teniente of Codelco is currently
the largest underground copper mine of the
world, producing 403k tons of Cu and 5.6k
metric-tons of molybdenum with the use of the
panel caving method. The mine is at present
developing El Teniente’s New Mine Level
Project (NMLP), which shall increase ore
Figure 5. Modelling of Caverns at PDA Phase 1 Project
production by mining the ore deposit (reserves
(Karzulovic A., 2008-2010) 2k Mt) located under the current ore body under
extraction.
Typical rock permanent support consisted of The present operation includes 6 productive
shotcrete with grouted bolts and cables with sectors, located at different elevations, which
various lengths. The shotcrete at the roof was extracts ore from the porphyry copper deposit
additionally reinforced with wire mesh and the that surrounds the Braden Breccia Pipe, a
walls were provided with a loose light mesh to massive volcanic intrusive body roughly
control minor rock falls. In some areas, long circular in plan view, with an inverted cone in
pre-stressed cables have also been considered, depth, with variable diameter (1200m at
to improve confinement conditions and bridge surface) and about 2000m height.
interferences between multiple openings. The largest part of the mining infra-structure
Construction works were carried out from is placed within the Braden Pipe, which consists
2007 to 2010, with the use of the drill and blast of a cemented breccia with practically no joints
method. Accesses were provided through new (weak cement behaviour). Even though, some
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large openings for crush chambers and material Pardo, 2006). Besides, in some cases, these
handling system are also located at the openings could also be affected by the stress
perimeter of some productive sectors´ footprint redistribution caused by the mining activity (e.g.
(mining polygon), within the so-called mafic abutment stresses due to the rock caving
complex (denominated CMET) and constituted process)
by diabases, porphyric basalts and gabbros, with
strong alteration and multi-directional
stockwork (previously classified as Andesite
primary rock), being also crossed by some
intrusions and dikes. The mentioned openings
are built in depths that go in excess of 1000m in
certain cases, i.e., under the effect of high stress Cavern
conditions.

Figure 8. Effect of Abutment Stress due to Caving

The analyses included continuous and

discontinuous 3D numerical modelling, where
the effect of major structural systems could be
evaluated. These analyses provided relevant
insight on the impact of different geo-structural
ubiquitous systems’ orientations and
gravitational stress field options analysed for the
various cavern sections and layouts.
Figure 7. Crusher Chambers at Diablo Regimiento
(Cavieres & Pardo, 2006)

The Diablo Regimiento corresponds to one

of these productive sectors, which include five
crusher chambers, each of them with a 9 to 13
years lifetime (Cavieres & Pardo, 2006). Each
of these chambers denominated CH-1 to CH-5,
encompasses about 5,000 m3 of underground
excavations. The CMET rock mass at the sector
presents RMR between 75 to 90 and hydraulic
conductivity lower tan 10-8m/s, so that water
inflow is generally not expected, except at
localized weak zones. The crush chamber is
constituted mainly by the discharge station, the Figure 9. Crusher Chambers Geometry and Modelling
vertical chute and the crusher room, being the
latter the largest opening with 31mx13m and a The detail design also included specific
length of 22,5m. The caverns present curved wedge stability analysis and analysis of the
roofs and vertical walls. ground-support behaviour with both 2D and 3D
To study the geomechanical behaviour of models. For these caverns, analysis showed that
these openings, various analysis were carried the geological structures had the largest impact
out during the feasibility design stages, on the cavern’s stability compared to the other
considering the different conditions to which the analysed aspects. The most critical issue
cavern will be subjected to (before, during and corresponded to the sub-horizontal systems that
after its construction) to identifying the most mostly affected the stability of the chamber’s
relevant parameters that impact its stability roof, which could be controlled by grouted bolts
(stress field, structural geology) and defining the installed for the excavation advances (temporary
chamber’s support requirements (Cavieres & support). Whereas stress concentrations around
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the openings could reach up to 100 MPa and the 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

rock damaged zone could reach depths of 6m,
rock permanent support (shotcrete reinforced The authors are in debt with the many
with fibres and mesh, with 5-10m long grouted institutions and professionals that, individually
cables), was proven sufficient to maintain the or collective, contributed in one form or other to
opening behaviour within acceptable the basis of knowledge upon which this paper is
performance levels. based on. They include consultants, contractors
Construction was carried out with the use of and not the least, the staff of the Geomechanical
the drill and blast method, under similar departments of the National Copper Corporation
restrictive logistic conditions, typically of an of Chile (Codelco). Additionally, the authors
operational mine. The construction was would like also to express their gratitude to
followed by monitoring and continuous Codelco for the permission to mention two of its
mapping of geological conditions, allowing projects in this article.
timely identification of singularities and
anomalies. Currently, four out of five chambers
are already in operation, where the first chamber 7 REFERENCES
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Cavieres, P. & Pardo, C. (2006). Geomechanical
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Figure 10. Excavation at Crush Chamber at at Diablo Gomes, A. R.A., Reyes G., Ulloa, J.C, (2013)
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