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Medicinal Knowledge in South India (During Neolithic to Early Historic

Period): An Analysis of Staple Plant Dietary Nutrition
Article in Journal of Agricultural Sciences · December 2024
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Multi-Disciplinary Development Research, Dharwad. Paper in the ‘Indian Knowledge System (Past
Present- Future)' seminar, 27-28 January 2024.
MEDICINAL KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH INDIA (DURING NEOLITHIC TO EARLY

HISTORIC PERIOD): AN ANALYSIS OF STAPLE PLANT DIETARY NUTRITION
Sneha ML
Department of History and Archaeology
Central University of Karnataka
Kalaburagi-585367
E-mail: snehamlal00@gmail.com
and
Social Science Teacher
High school
ST. Paul’s EMHSS Thenhipalam
Kerala -673636
Arjun R
Department of History and Archaeology
Central University of Karnataka
Kalaburagi-585367
E-mail: arjunrao@cuk.ac.in
1. Introduction
As human societies evolve, their food habits undergo changes, and specialization is influenced
by factors such as landscape, climate, flora and fauna availability, subsistence patterns, and
lifestyle. In the early stages of being hunter-gatherers, communities developed specific skills
in identifying edible and non-edible plants through generations of experience. Their diets were
shaped by the naturally available forest products in their geographical location. With the advent
of agriculture during the Neolithic era, communities gained the ability to cultivate specific
crops of their choice, allowing them to produce food according to their needs rather than relying
solely on naturally available resources in their environment. The Southern Neolithic sites and
multi-period sites (Iron Age and Early History) in the core semi-arid regions (northern, eastern
Karnataka, western Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh) are mostly settled in the granitic and
granodiorite hills (Arjun, 2017, 2021). The hill-centered settlements with traces of multiple
bedrock mortars on the bedrocks and portable stone grinders indicate seasonal engagement in
the grinding and processing of food crops (see Arjun 2021, 2022, 2024)., example in the sites
of Bilamrayanagudda Gudda, Sanganakallu-Kupgal, Watgal, Tekkalakota, etc. Often, the
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bedrock mortars and grinding slicks are associated with rock bruisings, water pools, and spring
locations, suggesting key socio-economic activities were centered in well-defined locations
(Arjun, 2018, 2018a, 2018b, 2022a). Neolithic crop suits, sampled as charred grains, illustrate
wide varieties of crop cultivations in cereals, pulses, and millets with a combination of both
summer and monsoonal cropping seasons (Fuller et al., 2018). Further rock shelter locations
must have emphasized keeping a watch on cultivable landscapes and storing food grains (Arjun
and Pal, 2023-2024).
1.1. Southern Neolithic Culture (3200-1200 BC)
From 3200 to 1200 BC, South India's Neolithic period is characterized by unique features such
as ash mounds—accumulations of burned cow dung indicative of a pastoral economy. Recent
research identifies the northern Maidan of Karnataka and South West Andhra Pradesh as the
hotspot of the development of independent domestication of indigenous crops around 2500 BC,
with archaeological evidence of agriculture emerging by 2200 BC (Korisettar, 2002). The early
neolithic stages show the parenchyma evidence of tuber, rhizome, and forest product
consumption. Key crops included horse gram, green gram, brown top millet, and bristly foxtail
millet. There hasn't been any evidence in the Indus Valley or Ganga Valley neolithic, but the
diffused evidence assumed from South India has been observed in the late Ganga Valley
neolithic (Fuller, 2018). Foreign crops like sorghum, finger millet, pearl millet, cowpea, and
hyacinth bean were introduced by the late Neolithic period (1600-1500 BC), alongside other
millets and pulses such as kidney bean, chickpea, and Indian pea, which were staples in the
Neolithic diet (Boivin et al., 2018).
1.2 Iron Age Culture (1200-300 BC)
Between 1400 and 1200 BC, South India experienced a transition from the Neolithic to the Iron
Age, characterized by extensive megalithic burial practices. Known as the Megalithic Age, it
spanned from 1200 BC to 300 BC, predating similar developments in the Ganga Valley. During
this time, settlements shifted from hilltops to plains with better agricultural potential and
irrigation. New crops like rice (Civan and Brown, 2017)and kodo millet were introduced,
alongside winter crops such as wheat and barley, after 1900 BC (Fuller, 2018). Despite these
introductions, millets and pulses remained the primary staples. Iron Age societies in South
India saw a shift towards settled farming, alongside some continued semi-nomadic pastoralism,
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with an increase in specialized crafts and labour. Across the different ecological conditions,
despite of the semi-arid Deccan Plateau and tropical wet regions of Western Ghats, paddy and
ragi (finger millets) came to be cultivated mainly as indicated through the megalithic repositors
(Arjun 2016, Arjun et al., 2019).
1.3 Early Historic Period (300 BC- 500CE)
In south India, the early historical period begins around 300 BC and continues up to 500 CE.
The Sangam literature recorded the period and later included it. So, the society is a village-
based economy based on 5 Tinas as explained in Sangam literature. Each has a different
economy: hunting, gathering, fishing, agriculture, pastoralism, and robbing based on the
natural resources in each landscape. The society prevailed on a barter system and having more
specialized labour. The food diet has changed according to each time, but the millet pulses
economy dominated, and rice also became a staple food in later periods. The Sangam literature
has some background references to traditional medicines, Siddhas, and medicinal practices. So,
early history can be interpreted as a period with well-developed medicinal knowledge and
practices. Rice became a significant crop reported at the transitional levels to the early historical
and continued in the early historical period. Still, the millet pulses economy was the primary
staple diet along with cereal grains.
2. Archaeobotanical Studies In India
Archaeobotany integrates botany and archaeology to study plant remains at archaeological

sites, providing insights into ancient cultures and economies (Fuller, 2000). This
interdisciplinary field analyses biocultural aspects and agricultural practices, revealing plant
dispersals, trade networks, and regional economies in the past. Key evidence includes seeds,
charred parenchyma fragments, wood, pollen, phytoliths, and plant impressions.
Seeds are commonly found evidence in archaeobotanical studies and preserved through
waterlogging, mineral formation, or charred remains (Fuller, 2018). Pottery impressions also
provide evidence of seeds, often in carbonized or silicified forms. Recent advancements allow
for genetic analysis of seed remains, and the floatation technique has increased sample recovery
(Fuller, 2018).
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The archaeobotanical research in India has been concentrated on analysing the origin and
development of agriculture, intensification by irrigation facilities, agricultural patterns ( Fuller,
2018), and its socio-cultural contribution, i.e. development of kingdoms, and centralized
politics of the early historic period. It has illuminated indigenous domestication hotspots,
particularly in South India, revealing crop adoption patterns and diffusion across regional and
cultural zones. Evidence from archaeobotanical data has even suggested ancient maritime trade
relations with Africa. Dorian Q Fuller's pioneering contributions since 1996 have reshaped our
understanding of India's agricultural history, reconsidering bioarchaeological evidence. Studies
by Hather John in1991 emphasized the role of roots and tubers in early diets and the origins of
agriculture in Southwest Asia and Europe. MD Kajale's extensive work includes analyses of
ancient grains and agricultural patterns during the Chalcolithic period and the 1st millennium
BC, based on Paleo-botanical remains from excavations at Veerapuram. Ravi Korisettar's
research has focused on monsoon dynamics and the evolution of prehistoric cultures. Other
notable scholars like DD Kosambi, Meher-Homji VM, MLK Murthy, and Subhash Chandran
MD have also contributed significantly to India's ecological and agricultural history through
their archaeobotanical and Paleo-botanical investigations.
Archaeobotanical research in India post-2000 has been instrumental in reconstructing past

agricultural systems, foodways, and cultural interactions by analyzing plant remains, enriching
our understanding of India's agrarian past. Studies have revealed the domestication and
cultivation of indigenous crops such as rice (Oryza sativa), millets (Pennisetum glaucum,
Setaria italica, etc.), pulses (Vigna radiata, Cicer arietinum, etc.), and other plants essential to
ancient diets and economies. For instance, Fuller and Qin (2009) highlighted the early
cultivation of millets and rice in South Asia, shedding light on their roles in subsistence
strategies.
Moreover, archaeobotanical investigations have documented the spread and adoption of

foreign crops like wheat (Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) from West Asia
during different periods (Fuller, 2010). These introductions influenced agricultural practices
and diet diversification across regions of the Indian subcontinent. Advancements in
paleoethnobotanical techniques have enabled the identification of ancient plant residues,
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providing insights into food processing methods, culinary practices, and trade networks during
prehistoric and historical periods (e.g., Weber et al., 2010)
3. Aims and Methods
In the prehistoric period, as societies sought to determine which food crops to cultivate, various
factors were likely considered, including ease of cultivation, adaptability to climate, soil and
water resources, and overall crop yield for the population. This research suggests that
prehistoric societies have also taken into account the capability of food crops to provide
essential energy and promote health. This implies a potential awareness of these crops'
nutritional values and health effects, hinting at an early understanding of using 'food as
medicine.' The hypothesis gains support from the prominence of this concept in Ayurvedic
medicinal practices, notably during the Vedic period, indicating that prehistoric communities
might have been in a proto-state of such developments.
This research adopts an innovative approach by examining the diet of prehistoric South Indian
communities as a potential indicator of their medicinal knowledge. Utilizing archaeobotanical
data from excavated sites in South India, the study identifies staple food crops to explore their
nutritional content and nutraceutical values. The research also delves into the impact of food
processing on altering nutritional content, nutraceutical effects, therapeutic properties, and
eliminating anti-nutritional factors. Emphasis is placed on understanding specific processing
methods as potential indicators of knowledge about these effects, indirectly reflecting an
awareness of nutritional content. Additionally, a minimal exploration of ethnographic traditions
provides insights into practices related to these food crops, further connecting to the overall
awareness. The interdisciplinary study combines botany, food science, pharmacology, and
ethnography to analyze archaeological evidence supporting the presence of medicinal
knowledge in the staple plant diet of prehistoric South Indian societies. The research primarily
relies on published reports on archaeobotanical samples from the Neolithic, Iron Age, and Early
historic periods at excavated sites in South India, as well as analytical reports on the nutritional
content and nutraceutical values of modern species corresponding to these ancient crops.
4. Staple Plant Diets Archaeobotanical Data of Early Agriculture in South
India
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Archaeological evidence suggests pulses, millets, and related grass varieties were staples in the
ancient Deccan region (Kosambi, 1963). However, analysis of excavated sites indicates an early
reliance on tubers and rhizomes, likely gathered from forests or cultivated domestically. Tuber
species such as wild yams, ginger, and turmeric were common in the diet, along with other
forest products like fruits, nuts, and honey (Korisettar et al., 2002).
In later periods, the dietary focus in the Deccan region shifted towards a millet and pulses-
based economy, with Neolithic farmers predominantly consuming millet-pulses cuisine. The
most prevalent pulses during this period were Horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) and
Green gram (Vigna radiata or Phaeseolus radiata), along with Black gram. (Korisettar et al.,
2002) (Kajale, 1984). During later stages of the Southern Neolithic period, new pulse varieties
like Pigeon pea( Cajanus cajan L)( Venkata Subbarai and Kajale, 1991) and Hyacinth bean
(Lablab Purpureus) were introduced ( IAR 1980-81), potentially originating from Africa
(Korisettar 2002). Additional pulse varieties like Kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), Indian pea
(Lathyrus sativa), Common pea (Pisum arvense), and Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) were also in
use (IAR, 1974-75).
Millets might have naturally been present in the grasslands, and later, focus shifted to its
cultivation and inclusion in diet ( Korisettar et al., 2002). The origin is traced to South Asia
rather than Africa, as claimed in the past.( Korisettar et al., 2002). The most dominant
archaeobotanical samples obtained are of foxtail millet (Setaria sp); Kadabekale that includes
bristly foxtail millet (Setaria verticillata); Sanganakallu (Fuller) and yellow foxtail millet(
Setaria pumila or Setaria glauca) (Korisettar et al., 2002). Brown top millet (Macrotyloma
uniflorum) identified at Sanganakallu (fuller) in large quantities suggests it was a staple food
crop of the region. Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) is another millet variety reported
from Veerapuram, Andhra Pradesh, in the megalithic layer dating to the 2nd millennium BC
(IAR 1980-81, Kajale, 1984). It was majorly in use and cultivation during Iron Age of South
India. Little millet /samai ( Panicum sumatrense ) originated probably in the peninsular region
of Northern Andhra / South Orissa / South Madhya Pradesh also present in several sites. Sawa
millet ( Echinochola colona L), a native crop of the peninsula, was also reported from several
sites ( Korisettar et al., 2002). ). There varieties such as: Finger millet/ragi (Eleusine Coracana
L), Great millet/ Indian millet/ Sorghum ( sorghum bicolor L Moench), Pearl millet (Pennisetum
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glancum L) are of African origin and later gained importance in south India.( Korisettar et al.,
2002). Iron Age witnessed advances in irrigational technology and the introduction of new
cereals like Rice (Oryza sativa) (IAR 1987-88), Wheat( Triticum sp), and Barley (Hordeum
vulgare).
5. Nutritional Potential and Nutraceutical Benefits
During the Neolithic period, a mix of hunter-gatherer, semi-nomadic pastoralist, fishing, and
farming communities necessitated a diet rich in protein, fat, and dietary fibre. Millets provided
fibre and ash content, while pulses offered protein and fat, making a millet-pulse diet ideal for
meeting nutritional needs. In the later Iron Age, settled life expanded, introducing cereals high
in carbohydrates like glucose to support labour-intensive activities. The pharmacological
studies and phytochemical studies of the modern Paleo-crop species have identified numerous
nutraceutical and therapeutical values it possesses.
5.1 Pulses
Pulses, a staple in prehistoric diets, provide a rich source of protein, essential for balanced
nutrition even without meat, milk, or egg supplements. They contain bioactive peptides with
disease-fighting properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogenic effects
aiding in preventing conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. Additionally, pulses' high
fibre content helps modulate blood glucose, cholesterol, and gastrointestinal health, while their
anti-nutrients, like tannins and phenolic acids, contribute to reducing intestinal diseases and
coronary heart diseases (Cardador-Martinez et al., 2002). Phytic acids in horse gram are
identified to reduce common cold, asthma, bronchitis, leukoderma, and urinary stones
(McDougall and Stewart, 2005). Pulses like green gram are particularly beneficial for pregnant
women due to their folic acid content, promoting haemoglobin count, neurological
development, and lactation. The carbohydrate myoinositol in hyacinth beans helps to maintain
proper ovarian function. Steroids and alkaloids in the bean have therapeutic use in cancer
treatment, and flavonoids reduce breast cancer progression (Naeem et al. 2020; Snafi and AE,
2017).
Pigeon peas contain a significant amount of vitamin B and carotenes (Miller et al., 1956).
Pigeon pea leaves, seeds, and roots also have therapeutic properties. Pigeon pea is used by
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many Chhattisgarh sickle cell disease patients to reduce erythrocyte sickling (Verma, 2015).
Anemia was traditionally treated with the use of the pigeon pea plant (Kone et al., 2011).
According to Grover et al. (2002), the seeds are also used to treat diabetes, diarrhoea, hepatitis,
and malarial treatments. Kidney beans can be one of the best diets for celiac disease patients
since it is gluten-free with vitamins and mineral richness (Niewinski et al., 2008). Red kidney
beans contain phenolic acids that have anticancer properties (Nyau, 2014; Duranti, 2006).
Chickpeas dramatically reduce insulin resistance and guard against post-prandial
hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia (Yang et al., 2007).
Overall, the consumption of pulses in prehistoric and historic communities has been associated
with significant health benefits, including the prevention of cancer, gastrointestinal diseases,
cardiovascular diseases, and regulation of blood glucose and cholesterol levels.
5.2 Millets
Millets, particularly finger millet, are recognized as nutraceutical crops due to their high dietary
fibre and phenolic acid content, making them beneficial for diabetic patients and offering
protection against infections like leukaemia (Chandra et al., 2016). Additionally, millet's dietary
fibre helps resist ageing, metabolic diseases, and LDL cholesterol (Scalbert, 2005) while
improving gastrointestinal health (Chandra et al., 2016). Regular consumption of whole grain
finger millets and their products can provide protection against the risk of cardiovascular
illnesses, type II diabetes, gastrointestinal malignancies, and other health difficulties
(Mckeown, 2002). It is an excellent natural iron supply for plants. Foxtail millets have been
associated with reducing chicken pox, heart attacks, fevers, cholera, and gastric problems
(Satyarthi et al., 2018), while kodo millet is rich in B vitamins and minerals (Chandra et al.,
2016), with therapeutic effects on depression, anxiety, insomnia, migraine, and colon cancer
(Satyarthi et al., 2018).
Pearl millet intake can prevent pellagra, a niacin deficiency disease, and sorghum millet is
suitable for celiac disease patients, offering protection against metabolic disorders like diabetes
and hyperlipidemia, as well as possessing anti-mutagenic and anticarcinogenic properties (Rai
et al., 2008; Gopalan et al., 2003). Sorghum's high dietary fibre content helps to satisfy the
appetite, boosts satiety, and lowers the chance of developing obesity. Overall, millet provides
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numerous nutraceutical benefits, promoting a healthy lifestyle and protection against various
diseases.
5.3 Cereals
Cereals such as rice, barley, and wheat held minor importance in the prehistoric diet of South
India despite their reported presence. Barley exhibits anti-diabetic, anti-cancerous, and anti-
obesity effects, preventing cell proliferation and chronic diseases like colon cancer. Rice is rich
in B vitamins, aiding in treating deficiencies and possessing anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous,
and cholesterol-lowering properties, although its high glycaemic index value may pose risks
for diabetes (McKeown et al., 2002) Wheat consumption is associated with health benefits,
including reduced coronary heart diseases, cancerous growths, neurodegeneration, improved
immune and vascular functions, and antioxidant properties.
6. Effects of Food Processing Techniques in Nutritional Composition
The presence of archaeobotanical samples alone may not perfectly validate that the prehistoric
society was aware of the nutritional potential and nutraceutical values attributed to certain crops
in ancient diets. Research into food processing techniques and their impact serves as one
validating factor, addressing why certain crops were soaked, roasted, germinated, fermented,
etc. Understanding these practices sheds light on the awareness of these crops' nutritional
potential and effects in ancient societies.
Sprouting horse gram seeds increases the bioavailability, palatability, and digestibility of
nutrient while soaking, drying, and roasting eliminates anti-nutritional factors. Similarly,
germination enhances amino acid content and protein digestibility
In green gram sprouting increases the ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) content ( Adsule et al 1986).
In the case of black gram dehulling will reduce the Ca, Mg, Fe content so more mineral
absorption is possible by intake of seeds without dehulling and these minerals are essential for
bone formation, bodily hormone secretion, neurological system function, and blood pressure
control. Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe have the ability to heal wounds, produce energy, and promote
growth, and germination will increase the levels of the first three minerals. ( Kamani and Meera
2020). In hyacinth bean, the negative effects of the antinutritional factors can be eliminated
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through cooking. Chemical soaking, germination, and boiling of pigeon peas will reduce the
polyphenolic compounds, which cause problems by inhibiting digestive enzymes.
The experiments of foxtail millet have analyzed that the soaking time, germination time, and
provided temperature have effects on its flavonoid phenolic acid content and antioxidant
activity. It increases protein, dietary fibre, Ca, Mg, Fe, Na amounts. The alkaline cooking,
fermentation, and popping methods also improve the protein quality (Sharma and Niranjan,
2018). In finger millets, the germination improves the Fe levels, and fermentation increases the
production of metabolites, thus reducing cholesterol and improving carbohydrate digestibility
(Chethan, 2008; Manzoni et al.,1999; Venkateswaran and Vijayalakshmi, 2010).
The fermented drink is a therapeutic agent against diarrhoea (Lei et al.,2006). Puffing and
popping increase the protein content in Kodo millet (Jayabhaye, 2014) and germination
increases minerals and anti-oxidant activity also (Sharma et al., 2016). When brown top millet
is soaked and fermented, the interaction between nutrients and anti-nutritional factors is
reduced, resulting in an increase in the amount of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity
activity (Singh et al., 2021). Dehulling in the pearl millet increases the niacin content and
prevents the deficiency disease pellagra. Phytic acid and insoluble fibre content is reduced by
germination, and soluble fibre is increased. Fermentation also decreases the phytic acid levels
and enhances mineral extractability. Soaking and germinating the sorghum seeds will cause the
synthesis of vitamin C in them (Pushparaj and Urooj, 2011). GI value in sorghum can be
reduced by boiling and fermentation. Additionally, fermentation also reduces serum glucose,
LDL, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels.
In the case of cereal rice, the pregerminated brown rice has 2 times more protein and higher fat
than white rice. Parboiling of the milled rice increases the ash content, potassium, and
phosphorous and decreases Mn, Ca, and Zn levels. Germinated ones have high nutritional
content, better digestibility and absorption. Fermentation reduces the phytic acid content. For
barley boiling helps to regulate glucose levels, and fermentation enhances the anti-obesity
factors.
7. Conclusion
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The research paper investigated the dietary habits of prehistoric communities in South India
and their potential medicinal knowledge by analyzing archaeobotanical data. It explores the
transition from hunter-gatherer diets to agriculturally based diets, emphasizing the nutritional
content and nutraceutical benefits of staple crops such as pulses, millets, and cereals. Findings
reveal a shift in dietary focus towards millet-pulse cuisine during the Neolithic period, with
pulses and millets providing essential nutrients like protein, fiber, and fat. The paper highlights
the medicinal properties of these crops, including their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and
anticarcinogenic effects, as well as their role in preventing various diseases such as Alzheimer's,
Parkinson's, and cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, it discusses the impact of food processing
techniques on nutritional composition, showing how methods like sprouting, soaking, and
fermentation enhance nutrient bioavailability and eliminate antinutritional factors. Overall, the
study suggests that prehistoric South Indian societies possessed an empirical knowledge of the
medicinal benefits of their staple plant diet.
Acknowledgement
This paper is a summary based on my Post Graduation Dissertation on 'Medicinal Knowledge

in South India (Neolithic To Early Historic Period): An Analysis on Staple Plant Diet’s
Nutrition’ submitted to the Department of History and Archaeology, Central University of
Karnataka under the guidance of Dr Arjun R (second author). I express my sincere gratitude to
all those who have contributed to completing my research paper. I am grateful for my guide,
Dr. Arjun R's insightful feedback and revisions made in the current manuscript, which has
significantly enriched the outcome of the paper. Thanks to the University of Agricultural
Sciences, Centre for Multi-Disciplinary Development Research and Dr. M.I. Savadatti
Vidyavardhaka Samsthe (R) and Dr. Jai Prabhakar, Dharwad for accepting the paper in the
‘Indian Knowledge System (Past Present- Future)' seminar (27-28 January 2024) and for the
subsequent publication.
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Medicinal Knowledge in South India (During Neolithic to Early Historic

Article in Journal of Agricultural Sciences · December 2024

Sneha Sneha M L Arjun . R

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MEDICINAL KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH INDIA (DURING NEOLITHIC TO EARLY

1.1. Southern Neolithic Culture (3200-1200 BC)

1.2 Iron Age Culture (1200-300 BC)

1.3 Early Historic Period (300 BC- 500CE)

2. Archaeobotanical Studies In India

Archaeobotany integrates botany and archaeology to study plant remains at archaeological

Archaeobotanical research in India post-2000 has been instrumental in reconstructing past

Moreover, archaeobotanical investigations have documented the spread and adoption of

3. Aims and Methods

4. Staple Plant Diets Archaeobotanical Data of Early Agriculture in South

5. Nutritional Potential and Nutraceutical Benefits

6. Effects of Food Processing Techniques in Nutritional Composition

This paper is a summary based on my Post Graduation Dissertation on 'Medicinal Knowledge

Fuller,D.Q .(2000).Fifty years of archaeobotanical studies in India: Laying a solid foundation.

Indian Archaeological Report (IAR) 1974-75

Indian Archaeological Report (IAR) 1974-75

Indian Archaeological Report (IAR) 1980-81.

Indian Archaeological Report (IAR) 1987-88.

Venkateswaran, G., & Vijayalakshmi, G. (2010). Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)—an

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