UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM
& COMPUTER GRAPHICS
 COURSE OBJECTIVE
To provide an overview of how computers are being used in design, development of manufacturing
plans and manufacture

COURSE OUTCOME
Understand the applications of computer in the design and manufacturing.

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS

INTRODUCTION

• In engineering practice, CAD/CAM has been utilized in different ways by

different people.

• Some utilize it to Produce drawings and document designs.

• Others may employ it as a visual tool by generating shaded images and

animated displays.
• A third group may perform engineering analysis of some sort on geometric
models such as finite element analysis.
• A fourth group may use it to perform process planning an generate NC part
programs. In order to establish the scope and definition of CAD/CAM in an
engineering environment and identify existing and future related tools, a study of
a typical product cycle is necessary. Figure 1.1 shows a flowchart of such a cycle.

Fig. 1.1 Typical Product Cycle

• CAD tools can be defined as the intersection of three sets: geometrical modeling,
computer graphics and the design tools.

• Figure 1.2 shows such definition. As can be perceived from this figure, the
abstracted concepts of geometric modeling and computer graphics must be

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 applied innovatively to serve the design process.

• Based on implementation in a design environment, CAD tools can be defined as the

design tools (analysis codes, heuristic procedures, design practices, etc.) being
improved by computer hardware and software throughout its various phases to
achieve the design goal efficiently and competitively as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Definition of CAD tools based on their Constituents

• Designers will always require tools that provide them with fast and reliable
solutions to design situations that involve iterations and testings of more than one
alternative.

• CAD tools can vary from geometric tools, such as manipulations of graphics entities
and interference checking, on one extreme, to customized applications programs,
such as developing analysis and optimization routines, on the other extreme.

• In between these two extremes, typical tools currently available include tolerance
analysis, mass property calculations and finite element modeling and analysis.

Fig. 1.3 Definition of CAD tools based on their implementation in a design environment

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 • CAD tools, as defined above, resemble guidance to the user of CAD technology.

• The definition should not and is not intended to, represent a restriction on utilizing
it in engineering design and applications. The principal purposes of this definition
are the following:

1. To extend the utilization of current CAD/CAM systems beyond just

drafting and visualization.

2. To customize current CAD/CAM systems to meet special design and

analysis needs.

3. To influence the development of the next generation of CAD/CAM

systems to better serve the design and manufacturing processes.

Reasons for Implementing a CAD System

1. To increase in the productivity of the designer

The CAD improves the productivity of the designer to visualize the product and
its components, parts and reduces time required in synthesizing, analyzing and
documenting the design.

2. To improve the quality of design

o CAD system permits a more detailed engineering analysis and a large no.
of design alternatives can be investigated.
o The design errors are also reduced because of the greater accuracy
provided by system.
3. To improve communication in design
The use of a CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more
standardization in drawing, better documentation of design, few drawing errors.

4. To create a data base for manufacturing

In the process of creating the documentation for the product design, much of
the required data base to manufacture the product can be created.

5. Improves the efficiency of design

It improves the efficiency of design process and the wastages at the design stage
can be reduced.

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Conventional Design Process

Fig. 1.4. Conventional Design process

There are six steps involved in the conventional design process as discussed
below:

1. Recognition of need

• The first step in the designing process is to recognize necessity

of that particular design.
• The condition under which the part is going to operate and the
operation of part in that particular environment.
• The real problem is identified by knowing the history and difficulties
faced in system.

2. Definition of problem

• The design involves type of shape of part, its space requirement, the
material restrictions and the condition under which the part has to
operate.

• The basic purpose of design process has to be known before starting

the design.

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 • A problem may be design of a simple part or complex part.

• It may be problem on optimizing certain parameters.

3. Synthesis of design

• In this, it may be necessary to prepare a rough drawing of design part.

• The type of loading conditions imposed on the parts.

• The type of shapes which the part section can require and
approximate dimension at which the different forces are located has
to be provided on the sketch of part.
• The stresses to which the part is likely to be subjected must be
analyzed and relevant formulas should be prepared.
• A mathematical model of design may be prepared to synthesize the
parts of design.
4. Analysis and optimization

• The design can be analyzed for the type of loading condition as well as
the geometric shape of the part.

• In the first stage it will be necessary to check the design of the part for
safe stresses.

• If it is not satisfactory, then the dimensions of the part can be

recalculated.

• The part can further be optimized for acquiring minimum dimensions,

weight, volume, efficiency of the material and cost.

• The optimization depends on the definition of the problem and

importance of a parameter.

• It may be sometimes necessary to optimize the part for certain

operating parameters like efficiency, torque, etc.

5. Evaluation

• It is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications

established in the problem definition phase.

• The evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of model to

assess operating performance, quality and reliability.

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 6. Presentation

• The design of component must be presented along with necessary

drawings in an attractive format.
1.4 Conventional Design vs CAD

Fig. 1.5 Computer Aided Design

1. Geometric modeling

• Geometric modeling is concerned with the computer compatible

mathematical description of the geometry of an object.
• The mathematical description allows the image of the object to be
displayed and manipulated on a graphics terminal through signals
from the CPU of CAD system.
• The software that provides geometric modeling capabilities must be
designed for efficient use both by the computer and human
designer.
• The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object.
• The most advanced method of geometric modeling is solid modeling
in three dimensions.

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2. Engineering Analysis

• The analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat transfer

computation etc.
• The analysis of mass properties is the analysis feature of CAD system
that has probably the widest application.
• It provides properties of solid object being analyzed, such as surface
area, weight, volume, center of gravity and moment of inertia.
• The most powerful analysis feature of CAD system is the finite
element method.
3. Design Review & Analysis

• A procedure for design review is interference checking.

• This involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which there is
a risk that the components of the assembly may occupy same space.
• Most interesting evaluation features available on some CAD systems
is kinematics.
• The available kinematics packages provide the capabilities to
animate the motion of simple designed mechanisms such as hinged
components and linkages.
4. Automated Drafting

• This feature includes automatic dimensioning, generation of cross-

hatched areas, scaling of the drawing and the capability to develop
sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details.
Benefits of CAD

• Improved engineering productivity

• Reduced manpower required
• More efficient operation
• Customer modification are easier to make
• Low wastages
• Improved accuracy of design
• Better design can be evolved
• Saving of materials and machining time by optimization
• Colors can be used to customize the product

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Limitations of CAD

• The system requires large memory and speed.

• The size of the software package is large.
• It requires highly skilled personal to perform the work.
• It has huge investment.

CAD/CAM Systems Evaluation Criteria

▪ The various types of CAD/CAM systems are Mainframe-Based Systems,

Minicomputer-Based Systems, Microcomputer-Based Systems and Workstation
Based Systems.
▪ The implementation of these types by various vendors, software developers and
hardware manufacturers result in a wide variety of systems, thus making the
selection process of one rather difficult. CAD/CAM selection committees find
themselves developing long lists of guidelines to screen available choices.
▪ These lists typically begin with cost criteria and end with sample models or
benchmarks chosen to test system performance and capabilities. In between
comes other factors such as compatibility requirements with in-house existing
computers, prospective departments that plan to use the systems and credibility
of CAD/CAM systems' suppliers.
▪ In contrast to many selection guidelines that may vary sharply from one
organization to another, the technical evaluation criteria are largely the same.
They are usually based on and are limited by the existing CAD/CAM theory and
technology. These criteria can be listed as follows.
System Considerations

(i) Hardware

Each workstation is connected to a central computer, called the server, which has
enough large disk and memory to store users' files and applications programs as
well as executing these programs.

(ii) Software

Three major contributing factors are the type of operating system the software runs
under, the type of user interface (syntax) and the quality of documentation.

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(iii) Maintenance

Repair of hardware components and software updates comprise the majority of

typical maintenance contracts. The annual cost of these contracts is substantial
(about 5 to 10 percent of the initial system cost) and should be considered in
deciding on the cost of a system in addition to the initial capital investment.

(iv) Vendor Support and Service

Vendor support typically includes training, field services and technical support.
Most vendors provide training courses, sometimes on-site if necessary.

Geometric Modeling Capabilities

(i) Representation Techniques

The geometric modeling module of a CAD/CAM system is its heart. The applications
module of the system is directly related to and limited by the various
representations it supports. Wireframes, surfaces and solids are the three types of
modeling available.

(ii) Coordinate Systems and Inputs

In order to provide the designer with the proper flexibility to generate geometric
models, various types of coordinate systems and coordinate inputs ought to be
provided. Coordinate inputs can take the form of cartesian (x, y, z), cylindrical (r, θ,
z) and spherical (θ, φ, z).

(iii) Modeling Entities

The fact that a system supports a representation scheme is not enough. It is

important to know the specific entities provided by the scheme. The ease to
generate, verify and edit these entities should be considered during evaluation.

(iv) Geometric Editing and Manipulation

It is essential to ensure that these geometric functions exist for the three types of
representations. Editing functions include intersection, trimming and projection and
manipulations include translation, rotation, copy, mirror, offset, scaling and
changing attributes.

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(v) Graphics Standards Support

If geometric models' databases are to be transferred from one system to another,

both systems must support exchange standards.

Design Documentation

(i) Generation of Engineering Drawings

After a geometric model is created, standard drafting practices are usually applied
to it to generate the engineering drawings or the blueprints. Various views (usually
top, front and right side) are generated in the proper drawing layout. Then
dimensions are added, hidden lines are eliminated and/or dashed, tolerances are
specified, general notes and labels are added, etc.

Applications

(i) Assemblies or Model Merging

Generating assemblies and assembly drawings from individual parts is an essential

process.

(ii) Design Applications

There are design packages available to perform applications such as mass property
calculations, tolerance analysis, finite element modeling and analysis, injection
modeling analysis and mechanism analysis and simulation.

(iii) Manufacturing Applications

The common packages available are tool path generation and verification, NC part
programming, postprocessing, computer aided process planning, group
technology, CIM applications and robot simulation.

(iv) Programming Languages Supported

It is vital to look into the various levels of programming languages a system

supports. Attention should be paid to the syntax of graphics commands when they
are used inside and outside the programming languages. If this syntax changes
significantly between the two cases, user confusion and panic should be expected.

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CAD Hardware

The hardware of CAD system consists of following:

• CPU

• Secondary memory

• Workstation

• Input unit

• Output unit

• Graphics display terminal

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of the entire system.

Functions of CPU

• To receive information from the work station and display the output on the CRT screen.

• To read the data stored in the secondary memory storage unit.

Fig. 1.6 Components of CPU

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Functions of secondary memory

• To store files related to engineering drawing

• To store programs required to give instruction to output devices like plotters.

• To store CAD software

• The secondary storage unit consists of magnetic tapes and discs.

2. Work Station

Fig. 1.7 Design Workstation

• The work station is a visible part of the CAD system which provides interaction
between the operator and the system.

• Among these advantages offered by work station are their availability, portability,
the availability to dedicate them to a single task without affecting other users and
their consistency of time response.

• A work station can be defined as a station of work with its own computing power
to support major software packages, multitasking capabilities demanded by
increased usage, complex tasks and networking potential with other computing
environments.

3. Input Devices

o A no. of input devices is available. These devices are used to input two
possible types of information: text and graphics.

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 o Text-input devices and the alphanumeric keyboards.
o There are two classes of graphics input devices: Locating devices and image
input devices.
o Locating devices, or locators, provide a position or location on the screen.
o These include light pens, mouse, digitizing tablets, joysticks, trackballs,
thumbwheels, touchscreen and touchpads.
o Locating devices typically operate by controlling the position of a cursor on
screen. Thus, they are also referred to as cursor-control devices.
I. Scanners

• Scanners comprise other class of graphics-input device.

• There are four relevant parameters to measure the performance of
graphics input devices. These are resolution, accuracy, repeatability
and linearity.
• Some may be more significant to some devices than others.
II. Keyboards

• Keyboards are typically employed to create/edit programs or to

perform word processing functions.
• CAD/CAM systems, information entered through keyboards should
be displayed back to the user on a screen for verification.
III. Digitizing Tablets

• A digitizing tablet is considered to be a locating as well as pointing

device. It is a small, low-resolution digitizing board often used in
conjunction with a graphics display.
• The tablet is a flat surface over which a stylus can be moved by the
user.
• A tablet’s typical resolution is 200 dots per inch
• The tablet operation is based on sensitizing its surface area to be
able to track the pointing element motion on the surface.
• Several sensing methods and technologies are used in tablets. The
most common sensing technology is electromagnetic, where the
pointing element generates an out of phase magnetic field sensed by
wire grid in tablet surface.

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 Fig. 1.8 Digitizer

IV. Mouse

Fig. 1.9 Mouse

• • There are two basic types of mouse available mechanical and

optical.
• The mechanical mouse has roller in order to record the mouse
motion in X and Y directions.
• In optical mouse, movements over the surface are measured by a
light beam modulation technique.
• The light source is located at the bottom and the mouse must be in
contact with the surface for screen cursor to follow its movement.

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V. Joy sticks & Trackballs

Fig. 1.10 Joy stick & Track ball

• The joystick works by pushing its stick backwards or forward or to

left or right. The extreme positions of these directions correspond to
the four corners of the screen.
• A trackball is similar in principal to a joystick but allows more precise
fingertip control. The ball rotates freely within its mount.
• Both the joystick and trackball are used to navigate the screen
display cursor. The user of a trackball can learn quickly how to adjust
to any nonlinearity in its performance.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARDWARE CONFIGURATIONS

The classification hardware configuration is as follows:

(a) Mainframe-based systems

(b) Minicomputer-based systems
(c) Microcomputer-based systems
(d) Workstation-based systems

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Mainframe-based Systems

Mainframe-based CAD/CAM systems are used in large organizations for handling

massive amounts of data and a multitude of concurrent activities of remote separate
software applications. Mainframes often host hundreds of remote workstations operating
and communicating over a vast network (sometimes covering thousands of kilometers and
crossing international boundaries).

Below Figure shows a schematic of the mainframe-based CAD system components

and details of a workstation. The computer environment is divided into:

• The user environment

• The system environment
The user environment signifies the components and the area which the user can access.
These components include primarily workstations and peripherals. The mainframe can
support as many workstations as possible to avoid degradation of the response time
between the users and the system. A typical workstation consists of input and output
devices. The input devices may include cursor control devices for graphics input and text
input devices. The cursor can be controlled via a light pen, joystick, mouse, electronic pen
with a digital tablet, thumbwheel, or trackball. Text input can be input through a keyboard,
which may have programmed function keys. Output devices consist of a graphics display
with a hardcopy printer to provide convenient raster plots of full screen contents.

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Minicomputer-based Systems

The development of VLSI (very large scale integrated) circuits has changed the basic
principles of computer architecture and has directly led to the proliferation of
minicomputers. Early versions on minis were 16-bit word, slow and limited-storage
computers.

The DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) PDP series offers a typical example. In the
late 1970s, the arrival of super 32-bit word and virtual memory operating systems, boosted
CAD/CAM applications and facilitated decentralization from mainframes. Minicomputers
have enabled the rapid growth of the CAD/CAM industry. The 32-bit minicomputer is
capable of handling complex geometric software and large quantities of data. The schematic
of minicomputer is shown in above figure.

Microcomputer-based Systems

The advent of the IBM Personal Computer (PC) provided the first significant impetus
for CAD on micros. Two main factors are responsible for the popularity and fast emergence
of micro-based CAD systems. First, the speed, size, and accuracy problems are being
reduced. Microcomputers of a 32-bit word length are available with enough memory size,
disk storage, and speed for CAD/CAM applications. Second, various application programs
have matured and cover most, if not all user needs.

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Workstation-based Systems

Graphics terminals attached to mainframes, minis, or PCs do not qualify as

workstations. These terminals may be referred to as work stations* (two words). A
workstation can be defined as a 'work station' with its own computing power to support
major software packages, multitasking capabilities demanded by increased usage and
complex tasks, and networking potential with other computing environments. The
workstation concept seems to form (he basis of the present generation of CAD/CAM
systems.

The basic elements of a CAD workstation are:

• A graphics screen called the VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT (VDU)

• An ALPHA-NUMERIC DISPLAY (word and number screen)
• A workstation PROCESSOR
• An electronic COMMAND TABLET
• A MENU facility
• A CURSOR CONTROL device
• A KEYBOARD
• A PRINTER/PLOTTER device

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GRAPHICAL DISPLAYS

The graphical display enables the user to view images and to communicate with the
displayed images by adding, deleting, blanking and moving graphics entities on the display
screen. Various display technologies are now available based on the concept of converting
the computer electrical signals into visible images at high speed. The graphics display can be
divided into two types based on the scan technology used to control the electron beam
when generating graphics on the screen. These are:

• Random scan
• Raster scan
In random scan, graphics can be generated by drawing vectors or line segments on
the screen in a random order, which is controlled, by the user input and the software. The
principle of random scan is illustrated in below figure.

In raster scan, the screen is canned from left to right, top to bottom, all the time to
generate graphics. The principle of random scan is illustrated in below figure.

The graphic display technologies include:

• CRT (cathode ray tube)

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 • Liquid crystal display
• Plasma panel display
The CRT is basically an evacuated glass tube in which a beam of electrons is fired
from an electron gun onto a phosphor-coated screen, resulting in an illuminated trace being
displayed on the screen.

Various types of CRT displays are broadly categorized into:

• Direct view storage tube (DVST)

• Vector refresh
• Raster refresh
The DVST (Direct View Storage Tube) has the standard CRT electron gun and
deflection system for location of the beam onto the screen. The picture is stored as a charge
in the phosphor mesh located behind the screen surface. Once displayed, the picture
remains on the screen until it is explicitly erased. Therefore, complex pictures can be drawn
without flicker at high resolution. One cannot alter a DVST picture except by erasing the
entire screen and drawing it again. The inability to erase and edit individual areas of the
drawing is a major drawback of the DVST system. Colored pictures are not usually available
with a DVST. This can be a distinct disadvantage, particularly for three-dimensional
drawings. Animation is also difficult to achieve, a factor that effectively disallows such vital
facilities as tool-path simulation, and dynamic analysis of mechanisms.

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 In vector refresh display, the deflection system of the CRT is controlled and driven
by the vector and character generators and digital-to-analog converters. The refresh buffer
stores the display file that contains points, lines, characters, and other attributes of the picture
to be drawn. These commands are interpreted and processed by the display processor. The
electron beam accordingly excites the phosphor that glows for a short period. In order to
maintain a steady flicker-free image, the screen must be refreshed or re-drawn at least 30 or
60 times per second. Vector refresh displays are particularly noted for their bright, clear
image, and high drawing speed. The refresh operation is well-suited to fast moving animation
of the screen display in either 2D or 3D. The chief disadvantages of vector refresh displays
are their high cost, and their tendency to flicker on complex drawings if the refresh rate
becomes less than the flicker threshold of the eye. Color displays are possible, but again are
only available at high cost.

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 Raster refresh display works on the principle of a domestic television set. In raster
display, the display screen area is divided horizontally and vertically into a matrix of small
elements called picture elements (pixels). A pixel is the smallest addressable area on a screen
as shown in Figure 2.25. A n N x M resolution defines a screen with N rows and M columns.
Each row defines a scan line. A typical resolution of a raster display is 1280 X 1204. The
pixels are controlled by the electron beam as it sweeps across the screen from one side to the
other. The beam always starts its sweep from the top left-hand corner of the screen,
regardless of what has been drawn, finishes on a horizontal line to the right, moves down one
row of pixels, returns, and starts again from the left. The display is completed when the beam
has reached the bottom right of the screen. It then refreshes by commencing the whole
procedure again at the top left. Each refresh operation takes about 0.02 seconds. Images are
displayed by converting geometric in format ion into pixel values, which arc then converted
into electron beam deflection through the display processor and the deflection system.
In a color raster display, there are three electron guns, one for each of the primary
colors, red, green and blue. The electron guns are frequently arranged in a triangular
pattern corresponding to a similar triangular pattern of red, green and blue phosphor dots
on the face of the CRT. In order to ensure that the individual electron guns excite the correct
phosphor dots (e.g., the red gun excites only the red phosphor dot), a perforated metal grid
is placed between the electron guns and the face of the CRT. The perforations in the shadow
mask are arranged in the same triangular pattern as the phosphor dots.

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 The distance between perforations is called the pitch. The color guns are arranged so
that the individual beams converge and intersect at the shadow mask. Upon passing
through [he hole in the shadow mask, the red beam, for example, is prevented or masked
from intersecting either the green or blue phosphor dot; it can only intersect the red
phosphor dot. By varying the strength of the electron beam for each individual primary
color, different shades (intensities) are obtained. These primary color shades are combined
into a number of colors for each pixel.

In a liquid crystal display transmitted or blocked, depending upon the orientation of

molecules in the liquid crystal. The polarizing characteristics of certain organic compounds
are used to modify the characteristics of the incident light. The basic principles of polarized
light are shown in below figure. In figure (a) non-coherent light is passed through the first
(left) polarizer. The resulting transmitted light is polarized in the x-y plane. Since the
polarizing axis of the second polarizer is also aligned with the x-y plane, the light continues
through the second polarizer. In figure (b) the polarizing axis of the second polarizer is
rotated 90° to that of first. Consequently, the plane polarized light that passed through the
first polarizer is absorbed by the second.

Color liquid crystal displays use colored filters or phosphors with twisted
nematic technology or use guest-host (dye) technology. Guest-host liquid crystal

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displays combine dichromic-dye guest molecules with the host liquid crystal
molecules. The spectral characteristics of different guest molecules are used to
produce different colors. The application of an electric field re aligns the orientation
of both the guest and host molecules, lo allow transmission of light. A typical guest -
host transmissive liquid crystal display is shown in below figure.

The plasma display contains a gas at low pressure sandwiched between

horizontal and vertical grids of fine wires. A tower voltage will not start aglow but
will maintain a glow once it is started. Normally, the wires h ave this low voltage
between them. To see a pixel, the voltage is increased momentarily on the wires
that intersect the desired point. To extinguish a pixel, the voltage on the
corresponding wires is reduced until the glow cannot be maintained.

Plasma displays can be AC or DC or hybrid AC/DC activated. AC and DC plasma

displays are shown in below Figure. The DC-activated display consists of a dielectric
spacer plate, which contains the gas cavities sandwiched between plates containing

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the row-column conductors. The electric field is applied directly to the gas. A DC-
activated plasma display requires continuous refreshing.

In the AC-activated plasma display, a dielectric layer is placed between the

conductors and the gas. Thus, the only coupling between the gas and the
conductors is capacitive. Hence, an AC-voltage is required to dissociate the gas. AC-
activated plasma displays have bistable memory; thus, the necessity to
continuously refresh the display is eliminated. Bistable memory is obtained by using
a low AC voltage to keep alive voltage. The characteristic capacitive coupling
provides enough voltage to maintain the activity in the conducting pixels, but not
enough to activate non-conducting pixels.

A hybrid AC/DC plasma display uses DC voltage lo prime the gas and make it
more easily activated by the AC voltage. The principal advantage of the hybrid
AC/DC plasma display is reduced driver circuitry

HARDCOPY PRINTERS AND PLOTTERS

Printers and plotters are used to create check plots for offline editing and
producing final drawings and documentation on paper. Printers usually provide
hard copies of text as well as graphics.

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 Printers are classified as follows on the basis of three principal technologies used
for their operation:

• Impact dot matrix printer

• Ink jet printer
• Laser printer
Impact dot matrix printer: This is an electromechanical device, which creates images
on paper from thousands of tiny dots when thin wires create an impact on an ink ribbon.
The working principle of dot matrix printer is shown in Figure. Text characters and graphics
elements are not displayed as separate items. The complete display is built up from
reciprocating horizontal sweeps of the printing head as the paper winds around a rotating
drum. Thus, the hard copy is constructed from dots in a similar manner to a raster screen
display, with the resulting appearance being much the same. The resolutions that are
available vary but range from 60 dots per inch lo 240 dots per inch. Their cost is
comparatively low, but a major disadvantage is their noise because of the impact of the pins
on the paper. For example, the letter ‘A' is printed with 24 overlapping needles shown in
Figure.

Ink jet printer: This is a raster scan device. The basic principle is lo shoot tiny droplets of
ink onto a medium. There are two types of ink jet printers, continuous flow and drop-on-
demand. The continuous flow ink jet produces a stream of droplets by spraying ink out of
the nozzle. The stream of ink from the nozzle is broken up into droplets by ultrasonic waves.
If ink is desired on the medium, selected droplets are electrostatically charged. Deflection
plates are then used to direct the droplet onto the medium. If not, the droplet is deflected

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into a gutter, from which the ink is returned to (he reservoir. Paper and transparency film
are typical media. This system is shown in Figure.

A drop-on-demand printer fires ink at the medium only if a dot is required at a particular
location. Here, ink from a reservoir is supplied to a nozzle under pressure. The ink is fired on
demand by applying an electric voltage to a piezoelectric crystal as the head makes a pass
across the medium. When a voltage is applied, the piezoelectric crystal expands, decreasing
the volume of the ink chamber. These causes a drop of ink lo squirt out of the nozzle.
Release of the voltage causes the piezoelectric crystal lo contract, decreasing the volume of
the reservoir and sucking the link back onto the nozzle. The resolution of ink jet printers is
determined by the size of the droplet and hence by the size of the nozzle. Because of the
extremely small nozzle size required, nozzle clogging, ink contamination and air bubbles in
the ink can be significant problems.

Laser printer: This is essentially an electrostatic plain paper copier with the
difference that the drum surface is written by a laser beam. The working principle of a laser
printer is illustrated in below figure.The heart of the printer is a rotating precision drum. At
the start of each page cycle, it is charged up to about 1000 volts and coated with a
photosensitive material. Then light from a laser is scanned along the length of the drum
much like the electron beam in a CRT only instead of achieving the horizontal deflection
using a voltage, a rotating octagonal mirror is used to scan the length of the drum. The light

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beam is modulated to produce a pattern of light and dark spots. The spots where the beam
hits lose their electrical charge. After a line of dots has been painted, the drum rotates a
fraction of a degree to allow the next line to be painted. Eventually, the first line of dots
reaches the toner, a reservoir of an electroslatically sensitive black powder. The toner is
attracted to those dots that are still charged, thus forming a visual image of that line. A little
later in the transport path, the toner-coated drum is pressed against the paper, thus
transferring the black powder to the paper. The paper is then passed through heated rollers
to bind the toner to the paper permanently, fixing the image. Later in its rotation, the drum
is discharged and scraped clean of any residual toner, preparing it for being charged and
coated again for the next page.

Plotter: This is a widely accepted output device for CAD/CAM applications. A large
range (A0-A4) of plotters of varying sizes and prices are available. The accuracies achievable
are very high and the plots can be made on all types of media such as paper, tracing paper
and acetate film. There are three common types of conventional pen plotters: flatbed, drum
and pinch roller. Pens may be-of wet ink, Ballpoint or felt-tip type. The basic mechanisms
are shown in below Figure.

In a moving-arm flatbed plotter, the medium is fixed in position on the bed of the
plotter. Two-dimensional motion of the plotting head is obtained by the movement of an

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

arm suspended across the width of the plotter bed. This provides motion in one direction.
Motion in the second direction is obtained by moving the plotting head along the
suspended arm.

A moving head flatbed head plotter uses a plotting tool carriage suspended above the
bed by magnetic forces that are counter-balanced by an air bearing. This arrangement
provides nearly frictionless movement. Movement of the head in two dimensions is
controlled electromagnetically by using the Sawyer motor principle.

In the drum plotter the paper is attached to a drum that rotates back and forth, thereby
providing movement in one axis. The pen mechanism moves in the transverse direction to
provide movement along the other axis.

ROLE OF COMPUTER IN MANUFACTURING

• Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
• Rapid prototyping
• Standardization and Localization
• Conceptual modeling
• FMS (ASRS, AGV, CONVEYERS)
• CIM (Business data processing system)
• JIT, Kanban system
• Inspection
• Robots

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING