Mastering

World Religions
Macmillan Master Series

Accounting Intranets
Advanced English Language Italian
Advanced Pure Mathematics Italian 2
Arabic Java
Banking Manufacturing
Basic Management Marketing
Biology Mathematics
British Politics Mathematics for Electrical and Electronic
Business Administration Engineering
Business Communication Microsoft Office
Business Law Modern British History
C Programming Modern European History
C++ Programming Modern World History
Catering Theory Network Operating Systems
Chemistry Pascal and Delphi Programming
COBOL Programming Philosophy
Communication Photography
Economic and Social History Physics
Economics Psychology
Electrical Engineering Science
Electronic and Electrical Calculations Shakespeare
Electronics Social Welfare
English Grammar Sociology
English Language Spanish
English Literature Spanish 2
French Statistics
French 2 Study Skills
German Systems Analysis and Design
Global Information Systems Visual Basic
Human Biology World Religions
Internet

Macmillan Master Series

Series Standing Order ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8
You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order.
Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with
your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above.
Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England
Mastering

World Religions

Ray Colledge
© Ray Colledge 1999

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this

publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or

transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the
provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under
the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London W1P 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this

publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims
for damages.

The author has asserted his right to be identified as

the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.

First published 1999 by

MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS
and London
Companies and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 978-0-333-68107-7 ISBN 978-1-349-14329-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-14329-0

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from
fully managed and sustained forest sources.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99

Typeset by EXPO Holdings Malaysia

 Contents

List of Maps and Figures xiv

Acknowledgements xv

Introduction xvi

PART I JUDAISM

1 Origins and definitions 3

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The patriarchs or founding fathers 3
1.3 Moses and the Mount Sinai covenant 6
1.4 Israel 7
1.5 The Exile and Return 8
1.6 The Greeks 8
1.7 The Romans 9
1.8 From the Fall of the Temple to the twentieth century 10
1.9 The twentieth century 11
1.10 The State of Israel 12
1.11 The Jews in Britain 12

2 Jewish beliefs and scriptures 13

2.1 God 13
2.2 The Covenant 13
2.3 The Commandments 13
2.4 The Messiah 14
2.5 Preconditions for establishing the Kingdom 14
2.6 Life after death 15
2.7 Ethics 15
2.8 The importance of Scriptures to Judaism 15
2.9 The Tenakh 16
2.10 The Torah 16
2.11 The Prophets (Nevi’im) 17
2.12 The Writings (Ketuvim) 17
2.13 The Talmud 17
2.14 The Siddur 18

CONTENTS v
 2.15 Midrash 18
2.16 The Haftarah 18
2.17 Maimonides 18
2.18 The Noahide Code 19

3 Worship and the synagogue 20

3.1 The Sabbath 20
3.2 The service 20
3.3 Private worship 21
3.4 The synagogue 22
3.5 The functions of the synagogue 23

4 Festivals and pilgrimage 24

4.1 Four reasons for the importance of festivals in Judaism 24
4.2 The Jewish year 24
4.3 The Jewish New Year: Rosh Hashanah 25
4.4 The Day of Atonement: Yom Kippur 26
4.5 The Festival of Lots: Purim 26
4.6 Passover: Pesach 27
4.7 Tabernacles: Sukkot 28
4.8 The rejoicing in the Torah: Simhat Torah 29
4.9 Weeks: Shavuot 29
4.10 The Festival of Lights: Hanukkah 30
4.11 The Sabbath: Shabbat 31
4.12 Pilgrimage 32

5 Rites of passage 35
5.1 Birth, childhood and education 35
5.2 Brit Milah: the covenant of circumcision 35
5.3 Bar Mitzvah 36
5.4 Bat Mitzvah 36
5.5 Bat Chayil 36
5.6 Confirmation 38
5.7 Marriage 38
5.8 Death 40
5.9 Mourning 40

Questions 41

Judaism: a glossary 43

PART II CHRISTIANITY

6 Origins and definitions 53

6.1 Introduction 53
6.2 How we know about Jesus 53
6.3 Jesus and the Old Testament 54
6.4 How the New Testament endorses the Old Testament 54
6.5 The life of Jesus 54
6.6 The birth of the Church 57
6.7 The spreading of Christianity 58

vi CONTENTS
7 Christian beliefs 60
7.1 The Trinity 60
7.2 God the Father 60
7.3 God the Son 60
7.4 God the Holy Spirit 61
7.5 The communion of saints and the forgiveness of sins 61
7.6 Heaven 61
7.7 Purgatory 61
7.8 Hell 62
7.9 The Last Judgement 62
7.10 Creeds 62

8 The Christian Bible 66

8.1 Some general points 66
8.2 The New Testament 66
8.3 The Gospels 66
8.4 Why the Gospels were written 67
8.5 Mark’s Gospel 67
8.6 Matthew’s Gospel 68
8.7 Luke’s Gospel 69
8.8 John’s Gospel 70
8.9 The main differences between John and the synoptic Gospels 70
8.10 The Acts of the Apostles 71
8.11 Paul’s Letters 71
8.12 The other Letters 72
8.13 The teaching of the Letters 72

9 Festivals and pilgrimage 74

9.1 The Church Year or Christian Calendar 74
9.2 Advent 74
9.3 Christmas 75
9.4 The Feast of the Holy Innocents 75
9.5 Epiphany 76
9.6 Shrove Tuesday 76
9.7 Lent 76
9.8 Ash Wednesday 77
9.9 Mothering Sunday 77
9.10 Holy Week 77
9.11 Palm Sunday 77
9.12 Spy Wednesday 78
9.13 Maundy Thursday 78
9.14 Good Friday 78
9.15 Holy Saturday 78
9.16 Easter Day 79
9.17 Ascension 79
9.18 Pentecost 79
9.19 Trinity Sunday 80
9.20 Corpus Christ 80
9.21 The Sacred Heart of Jesus 80
9.22 The Transfiguration (6 August) 80
9.23 Feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary 80

CONTENTS vii
 9.24 Saints’ days 81
9.25 St Michael and All Angels 81
9.26 Pilgrimage 81

10 The denominations of the Christian Church 83

10.1 Introduction 83
10.2 The Roman Catholic tradition 83
10.3 The Orthodox tradition 84
10.4 Protestantism 85
10.5 The Church of England or Anglican Church 85
10.6 The Nonconformist or Free Churches 86
10.7 The World Church 88

11 Places of worship 90
11.1 Introduction 90
11.2 Anglican Churches 90
11.3 Roman Catholic Churches 92
11.4 Eastern Orthodox Churches 92
11.5 Nonconformist or Free Churches 93

12 The family and rites of passage 94

12.1 Introduction 94
12.2 Baptism 94
12.3 Confirmation 97
12.4 Confession/Penance/Reconciliation 97
12.5 Communion 97
12.6 Marriage/matrimony 98
12.7 Family 101
12.8 Death and burial 101

Questions 102

Christianity: a glossary 104

PART III ISLAM

13 Origins and definitions 115

13.1 Introduction 115
13.2 Historical Background 116
13.3 The Prophet Muhammad 116
13.4 Muslims in the UK 116

14 Scriptures 119
14.1 The Qur’an 119
14.2 The Hadith 120
14.3 The Sunna 121

15 Islamic beliefs and the Five Pillars of Islam 122

15.1 Allah 122
15.2 Angels 122
15.3 Satan 122

viii CONTENTS
 15.4 The Day of Judgement 123
15.5 Serious sin 123
15.6 The Five Pillars of Islam 124
15.7 The Shahadah 124
15.8 The Salat 124
15.9 Zakat 127
15.10 Saum 127
15.11 Hajj 127

16 The mosque 128

16.1 The buildings 128
16.2 The minaret 129
16.3 The Oiblah wall 129
16.4 The pulpit 129

17 Festivals and food 130

17.1 Introduction 130
17.2 The annual fast: Ramadan 130
17.3 The Festival of Breaking the Fast: Eid-ul-Fitr 131
17.4 The Day of Arafat 132
17.5 The Festival of Sacrifice: Eid-ul-Adha 134
17.6 The New Year festival 134
17.7 Muhammad’s birthday: Maulid an Nabi 135
17.8 The festival of the Prophet’s night journey and Ascension: Al-isra 135
17.9 The Night of Forgiveness: Lailat-ul-Bara’t 135
17.10 Food 136

18 The family and rites of passage 137

18.1 The family 137
18.2 Birth 137
18.3 Aqiqah 137
18.4 Circumcision 138
18.5 The Bismillah ceremony 138
18.6 Aqd Nikah (Marriage) 138
18.7 Death 139
18.8 Burial 139

Questions 141

Islam: a glossary 143

PART IV HINDUISM

19 Hinduism: origins and definitions 155

19.1 Introduction 155
19.2 An evolving religious tradition, not a separate religion 156
19.3 Hinduism in the UK 156

20 Hindu beliefs 158

20.1 Three purposes in Hinduism 158
20.2 Samsara, Heaven and Hell 159

CONTENTS ix
 20.3 The doctrine of Atman Brahman 159
20.4 Dharma 159
20.5 Transmigration and karma 160
20.6 The characteristics of samsara 161
20.7 The three margs, or paths to salvation 161
20.8 Bhakti 162
20.9 The role of the guru in Hinduism 162
20.10 The four stages of life 163
20.11 Caste 164
20.12 Pollution 164
20.13 Aspects of village religion 165

21 The Hindu gods and goddesses, holy rivers 167

21.1 Shiva (Siva) 167
21.2 Vishnu 168
21.3 Krishna 169
21.4 Hanuman 169
21.5 Ganesha 169
21.6 Rama 171
21.7 Hari Hara 171
21.8 Durga 171
21.9 Ganga 172
21.10 Kali 172
21.11 Lakshmi 172
21.12 Holy rivers 172

22 The scriptures and literature 173

22.1 The Rig Veda 173
22.2 The Bhagavad Gita 174
22.3 The Ramayana 175
22.4 The authority of Sruti 175
22.5 The Puranas 175

23 Ritual, worship and pilgrimage 177

23.1 Individual ritual 177
23.2 Priestly ritual and public worship 178
23.3 Worship in the temple 179
23.4 Havan: the offering of fire 180
23.5 Arti: the worship of light 180
23.6 Personal worship 181
23.7 Animal sacrifice 181
23.8 Pilgrimage 181

24 Festivals and fairs 185

24.1 Divali 185
24.2 Holi 186
24.3 Navarati/Durga Puja/Dassehra 186
24.4 Raksha Bandhan/Shravani Purnima/Salono/Rakhi Purnima 187
24.5 Vasanta Panchami/Shri Panchami/Saraswati Puja 187
24.6 The Khumba Mela festival 188
24.7 Fairs 188

x CONTENTS
25 The family and rites of passage 189
25.1 Initiation (Upanayana) 189
25.2 Marriage 189
25.3 Death, burial and cremation 192
25.4 Suttee (or Sati) 192
25.5 Girls at puberty 192
25.6 Pregnancy and childhood 193

Questions 194

Hinduism: a glossary 196

PART V BUDDHISM

26 Buddhism: origins 209

26.1 Introduction 209
26.2 Historical background 209
26.3 The early life of the Buddha 209
26.4 Mahayama’s dream 210
26.5 The judgement of the brahmans 210
26.6 The Buddha’s first jhana under the jambu tree 210
26.7 Gautama’s transformation 211
26.8 The Great Renunciation or Retirement 211
26.9 The Great Enlightenment and the struggle with Mara 211
26.10 The death of Buddha 212
26.11 Buddha and doctrine 213

27 The spread of Buddhism 214

27.1 The spread of Buddhism in India 214
27.2 The internal influence 214
27.3 The establishment of Councils 215
27.4 The conversion of Ashoka 216
27.5 The Three Baskets, or Tripitaka 216
27.6 The Expansion of Buddhism outside India 217
27.7 Buddhism in the West 220

28 Buddhist teachings 223

28.1 The Truth 223
28.2 The Benares Sermon 223
28.3 The Four Noble Truths 225
28.4 The Eightfold Path which ends suffering 226
28.5 The self 227
28.6 Karma 228
28.7 General behaviour 229

29 The three jewels or refuges 230

29.1 The first refuge: the Buddha 230
29.2 The second refuge: the teaching, life’s quest and personal
achievement 230
29.3 Discipleship 231
29.4 The third refuge: the order (sangha) 231

CONTENTS xi
30 Worship, pilgrimage and festivals 236
30.1 Pagodas and stupas 236
30.2 Worship at home 236
30.3 Temples 236
30.4 Pilgrimage 237
30.5 Festivals 237

31 Rites of passage and the family 240

31.1 Birth 240
31.2 Marriage 240
31.3 Death 240
31.4 Family 241

Questions 242

Buddhism: a glossary 244

PART VI SIKHISM

32 Origins: the Khalsa 255

32.1 Introduction 255
32.2 The Khalsa 255
32.3 The five Ks 256
32.4 Community and brotherhood 256

33 Sikh gurus 259

33.1 Introduction 259
33.2 The ten gurus 259
33.3 Guru Nanak (1469–1539) 261
33.4 The other nine gurus 261
33.5 The importance of the gurus to Sikhism 262

34 Life and the path to God: Sikh beliefs 264

34.1 Introduction 264
34.2 God 264
34.3 The three Hs 265
34.4 The five virtues 265
34.5 The five cardinal vices 265
34.6 Grace 265
34.7 The five stages 266

35 Sikh scriptures 267

35.1 Some basic beliefs 267
35.2 The Adi Granth (or Guru Granth Sahib) 267
35.3 The Dasam Granth 268
35.4 Mohan Pothi 268

36 The gurdwara and worship 270

36.1 The gurdwara 270
36.2 The appearance of the gurdwara 270
36.3 Inside the gurdwara 270

xii CONTENTS
 36.4 The function of the gurdwara 273
36.5 Sikh worship 273
36.6 Worship at home 273
36.7 Worship at the gurdwara 274
36.8 Private devotion 274
36.9 Sikh worship in the UK 275

37 Sikh festivals and pilgrimage 276

37.1 Introduction 276
37.2 Baisakhi mela 276
37.3 Divali 277
37.4 Hola Mohalla 278
37.5 Minor festivals 278
37.6 Gurpurbs 278
37.7 Pilgrimage in Sikhism 279

38 Rites of passage 280

38.1 Introduction 280
38.2 Birth and naming 280
38.3 Initiation into the Khalsa 280
38.4 Marriage 281
38.5 Death 281

Questions 282

Sikhism: a glossary 284

General questions 289

General glossary 291

Appendix 296

Index 298

CONTENTS xiii
 List of Maps and Figures

Maps
1.1 The Bible lands 5
1.2 The Exodus from Egypt 7
1.3 Routes of the Israelites entering the Promised Land 8
1.4 The Twelve Tribes of Israel 9
1.5 The Kingdom of David 10
1.6 The Kingdom of Solomon 11

Figures
4.1 Praying at the Western Wall 33
5.1 Bat Mitzvah 37
5.2 A Jewish wedding 39
11.1 A traditional medieval-style church 91
12.1 Anglican baptism 95
12.2 Communion 98
12.3 A wedding in Westminster Cathedral 100
13.1 The Regent’s Park Mosque 117
15.1 Worshipping at the Regent’s Park Mosque 125
16.1 Diagram of a mosque 128
17.1 The act of Tawaf 133
21.1 Ganesha 170
23.1 Places of Hindu pilgrimage 182
23.2 Hindu pilgrims 183
25.1 A Hindu wedding 190
27.1 A shrine in a Buddhist Vihara 221
28.1 The Buddha in the teaching position 224
29.1 The London Peace Pagoda 232
32.1 A Sikh member of Khalsa 257
33.1 The ten Gurus 260
35.1 Reading Guru Granth Sahib Gurdwara 269
36.1 Serving Langar food at a Sikh Gurdwara 271
36.2 The Sikh emblem 272

xiv LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES

 Acknowledgements

The author and publishers wish to acknowledge with thanks permission from the
following to reproduce illustrative material: Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency,
for Figures 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 12.1, 12.3, 13.1, 15.1, 21.1, 23.2, 25.1, 27.1, 28.1, 29.1,
32.1, 35.1, 36.1; ICOREC Circa Photo Library, for Figure 12.2; Hulton Library,
for Figure 17.1; Allen & Unwin for Figure 33.1, from K. Singh, The Sikhs (1995).
The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to use
copyright material: Edexcel Foundation, London Examinations, Midland Examining
Group, Northern Examinations and Assessment Board, and the Southern Examining
Group, for specimen and past examination questions.
Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright-holders, but if any have been
inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrange-
ment at the first opportunity.
The Southern Examining Group wish it to be known that any answers or hints on
answers are the sole responsibility of the author and have not been provided or
apporved by SEG.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xv
 Introduction

This book provides a comprehensive treatment to the subject of major World

Religions. It is aimed primarily at those studying for the GCSE examination, but will
also provide an excellent introduction for A Level, higher education and for the general
reader who is fascinated by this subject. It will also be suitable for general and liberal
studies courses and for those whose studies require them to understand the beliefs of
the newer communities in out multicultural society.
The text covers the six religions currently precribed by the examination boards –
Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism. It conveys clear infor-
mation about every significant aspect of these religions.
At the time of writing, the number of students on religious studies courses is rising.
Added to this, increasing numbers of people are looking for inpiration and guidance in
today’s secular and materialistic world. This book will help those engaged in such a
quest.

Ray Colledge

xvi INTRODUCTION
PART I

Judaism
 1 Origins and definitions

1.1 Introduction
The history of the Jewish people goes back some 4000 years. At that time a number of
tribes called the Israelites lived in Israel; the ‘Children of Israel’. They were also
known as the Hebrews and spoke a language of the same name, in which their
scriptures came to be written. Today’s Jews are their direct descendants. 30 per cent
of the 15 million Jews today live in the USA. 25 per cent live in Israel. The Jewish
population of Britain numbers around 385 000. Jews believe that they are the
chosen people of God, with a special role to play in His purpose. Anyone with a
Jewish mother is automatically a part of their faith. Secular Jews do not practise the
faith but they remain Jewish. An important aspect of Jewishness is sharing: festivals,
food laws and rituals and so on. Most Jews are born so; few people convert to
Judaism.

1.2 The patriarchs or founding fathers

Judaism originates with Abraham, his son Isaac, Isaac’s son Jacob, and Jacob’s son
Joseph. These are the patriarchs or founding fathers of the Jews.

Abraham
Abram (as he was called at this time) was the son of Terah, and lived in his native land
of Chaldea. Then, in response to a call from God, he left the city of Ur with his father,
family and household to travel 300 miles north to Haran, where he lived for 15 years.
Terah died there, and Abram now received a second call from God. He migrated to the
land of Canaan where he received the great promise from God that ‘I will make of thee
a great nation’ (Genesis 12:2, 3, 7). It was during this trek south that Abram’s follow-
ers became known as Hebrews or ‘they who crossed the river’. Then they journeyed to
the Negev, a semi-desert between Hebron and the wider desert. Famine then drove
them into Egypt, but when disease broke out, the pharaoh blamed Abram and his
followers and forced them to leave the country. Then Abram’s followers quarrelled
with Lot’s followers over water supplies, so they parted company. This was because the
flocks had become too large for them all to stay together, the land being unable to
sustain such numbers.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 3

Isaac
Abram’s wife Sarai had borne him no children but she had an Egyptian maid-
servant named Hagar. She wanted Hagar to have a child by Abram; she bore him a
son called Ishmael, whose descendants today are the Bedouin desert-dwellers. God
now made a covenant with Abram, whose name was changed to Abraham (which
means ‘father of a multitude’ – Abram meant ‘exalted father’). Sarai’s name was
changed to Sarah (princess). The physical sign of the covenant was to be circum-
cision. They were also promised a son of their own. This son was Isaac (which means
‘laughter’).
Sarah, fearing for her son’s inheritance, persuaded Abraham to send Hagar
and Ishmael away. It is from Isaac that the Jews are descended. God told Abraham
to sacrifice Isaac so he prepared to do it. However when God saw that he was
obedient, he sent an angel to tell him that he did not have to. God now promised to
make his descendants ‘as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the
seashore’.

Jacob
Isaac married Rebekah and their twin sons were called Esau and Jacob. Esau was the
first-born and so would succeed Isaac as the head of the family, and inherit a double
share of the estate. Esau became a hunter, Jacob stayed among the tents. Esau was the
favourite of Isaac; but Rebeka loved Jacob. One day Esau came into the camp so
hungry that Jacob was able to persuade him to sell his birthright for a meal of stew.
When Isaac was old, Jacob deceived him into giving him Esau’s rightful blessing as the
eldest son. Esau wanted to kill Jacob, so Rebeka told him to stay with her brother
Laban in Haran for safety. This episode spoilt the relationship between Isaac and
Rebeka, and the latter never again saw her favourite son.
While on the way to Haran, Jacob had a dream in which he saw a stairway from
earth to heaven on which angels were ascending and descending. God stood at the top
and repeated the promise made to Abraham and Isaac. In the morning Jacob took the
stone he had placed under his head and set it up as a pillar and poured oil on it. He
named the place Bethel, meaning ‘house of God’.
Jacob’s communion with God went a step further. One night there was a strange
episode in which he wrestled with a man during the night. The man told him that his
name would no longer be Jacob, but Israel, which means ‘wrestler with God’. Jacob
called the place Peniel, which means ‘the face of God’. He said it was because he had
seen God face-to-face and was spared. It was after this that there was reconciliation
between Esau and Jacob.

Joseph
Joseph was the elder of the two sons of Jacob by Rachel. He was his father’s favourite
son, and this made the others jealous, especially because of the gift of the special robe,
now often called the coat of many colours, from his father. They were also angry about
his dreams. They sold him to the Ishmaelites, who took him to Egypt (Map 1.1). In
Egypt he became the pharaoh’s vizier because he was able to interpret pharaoh’s
dreams. He predicted seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. This
famine caused Joseph’s family to enter Egypt to find food and led to a reconciliation
between Joseph and his brothers.

4 JUDAISM
 Map 1.1 The Bible lands

BLACK SEA
H I G H L
A
Smyrna N L. Van
Ephesus D CASPIAN
S SEA
HITTITES
L. Urmiah
Haran AS
SY Nineveh
M

n
ES RI
ARAM OP A

ano in
MEDITERRANEAN CYPRUS

R. T
M

OT

Lebian Pla
en
SEA Pla AM
E

t
igris
in IA

M ic
Pho
of E

R
D

.
sdr Eu
ael
on Damascus ph
IA

rat
Mt Carmel + Sea of Galilee es
Samaria AMMON BA Babylon
Jerusalem BY
GOS Dead Sea LONIA
HEN MOAB
CH
SU M E R
Memphis EDOM AL
Ezion-geber D E Ur
P

ARABIAN A
E

SINAI MIDIAN DESERT

R

E G Y P T
S

E
R
IA

S
IA
N
G

RED

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS

U

SEA
L
F

5
 Summary
The patriarchal narratives in Genesis divide into four blocks:
● Abraham (12–25:18)

● Isaac (26)

● Jacob (25:19–33; 27–35)

● Joseph (37; 39–50)

1.3 Moses and the Mount Sinai covenant

Moses
Moses was born in Egypt during a time when the Jews had become slaves of the
pharaohs. When the pharaoh ordered the death of all young Hebrew boys, Moses’
mother hid him in the reeds on the banks of the Nile. Moses was found and brought
up in the court as the son of the pharaoh’s daughter. He killed an Egyptian he found
whipping a slave and was made an outlaw, having to flee into the Sinai Desert. He
lived with the nomads, who taught him how to survive in the desert. It was here that he
experienced the presence of God, who told him to return to Egypt to free the Hebrews.
Although pharaoh gave in and let them go, he changed his mind a few days later and
sent an army after them. The army perished when it tried to follow the Hebrews
through the parting of the Red Sea.
This period is important because during it the Jews became a nation and their
faith and religion were formed. The festivals associated with the Exodus are:
● Passover
● Pentecost
● Tabernacles (Booths) and
● the Day of Atonement.
So by ‘the Exodus’ we mean the Hebrews’ passage to freedom from slavery in Egypt.

The Mount Sinai Covenant

The Hebrews became the people of the Covenant at Mt Sinai. A priesthood was set up
to sustain it by worship. The giving of the Torah is associated with this time. It was
here that God gave the Ten Commandments (the decalogue) to Moses. The Israelites
doubted God and so were made to wander through the desert for 40 years (Map 1.2).
The doubting generation died during this time and the new generation was led by
Joshua into Canaan.
During the 40 years God gave the Israelites many laws. The Torah gives 613
mitzvot known as ‘Taryag’. Taryag is a word formed from the initials of the words ‘six
hundred and thirteen’. There are 248 positive commandments and 365 things Jews
are not allowed to do. As there are 365 days in a year, the Jews can remember God
with the whole self every day.
Moses saw the Promised Land but was not allowed to enter it. His death before he
could enter puts his life in place in Jewish tradition. He was nothing more than a man
who was a great servant of God; The Hebrew nation was greater than any man or
woman including Moses. The same applies to the Torah, in which the details of the
Covenant are recorded.

6 JUDAISM
 Map 1.2 The Exodus from Egypt

Bethel
Jericho
Jerusalem +
Mt Nebo

Sea
Gaza Bethlehem
Hebron Dibon

Dead
M EDIT ERRANEAN CANAAN
Beer-sheba MOAB

nes
P h il is ti
Pelusium Way of

R.
D
LAN

of
Kadesh-barnea Bozrah
OF N

Eg
SHE

yp
WILDERNESS OF SHUR

r
GO

Sei
f Zin
Way o Mt Hor + Petra
f Shur
Succoth

ss o
Possib R o ut

unt
Bitter

OM
Mo
erne
Lakes WILDERNESS OF
le

ED
PARAN

Wild
EGYPT
e

Ezion-geber
GU

Elath
Marah
LF
OF

Elim
BAH
SU

Hazeroth
EZ

AQA

Dophkah
W
ild

Rephidim
F
er

F O

Mt Sinai
ne
ss

+
GUL
of

Wilderness of
Si

Sinai
n

1.4 Israel
God renewed the covenant with Joshua, Moses’ successor, to lead the Jews into the
Promised Land (Maps 1.3 and 1.4). It took almost 200 years to bring the land under
their control. King David brought the whole area under his rule (Map 1.5). He made
Jerusalem the capital and religious centre. His son Solomon built the first temple and
it was to become the hub of the nation’s religion (Map 1.6).
It was during Solomon’s time that the empire built by David began to break up; in
fact it became two kingdoms on his death in 930 BCE. The northern of the two king-
doms, Samaria was internally divided and under attack from outside, finally being con-
quered by Assyria in 721 BCE. Judah to the south remained independent for another
200 years.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 7

 Map 1.3 The routes of the Israelites entering the Promised Land

Damascus

SEA
Tyre

N
EA
OTHER
AN

3R
TRIBES
RR

DG
Sea
TE

ROUP
of
Galilee
DI

of
Pl dra
ME

Es
ai e
Megiddo n lo
n OT HER

R. Jordan
TRI BES
MANASSEH

EPHRAIM Jabbok
R. P AMMON
BENJAMIN
OU
GR
2ND

Jerusalem
Sea

Hebron
Dead

Dibon
Gaza
JUDAH R. A
rnon

Beer-sheba
( SIM EON) MOAB
UP

ED O M
RO
G

NEGEV
NEGEB
T
1S

1.5 The Exile and Return

In 586 BCE the Babylonians captured Jerusalem and destroyed it completely. They
looted and destroyed the temple and deported the whole population to slavery in Susa.
This period covered 50 years, but the Jewish religion survived. Cyrus’s Persia
became the dominant power in the area and allowed exiles to go home. The Jews were
freed in 539 BCE and the first group reached home in 536 BCE. By 516 BCE the
Temple had been rebuilt and was followed by the rest of Jerusalem.

1.6 The Greeks

The expansion of Alexander the Great’s empire brought the Jews under the control of
the Ptolemies and then the Seleucids, rulers of Egypt and Syria. They attempted to

8 JUDAISM
 Map 1.4 The Twelve Tribes of Israel

Tyre
DAN

TALI
R

NAPH
HE
A
SE

AS

UN
UL
N
EA

EB
AN

Z
ISSACHAR

H
RR

SE
Megiddo

AS
TE

AN
R. Jordan
MANASSEH
DI

M
ME

R. Jabbok
Joppa IM
RA GAD
EPH Bethel

DAN BENJAMIN
Jerusalem
Bethlehem
ea

REUBEN
Dead S

Gaza
Dibon
Hebron
JUDAH R. Arnon
SIMEON
MOA B
Beer-sheba

R.
Zer
ed

force Greek laws and customs on to the Jews. The last straw was the move to introduce
Greek religion with an altar to the Greek gods in the Temple. A struggle began which
was to last three years. In the end the Temple was restored to God’s worship. Jews still
celebrate this episode in the Hanukkah festival.
It was at this time that the Diaspora or dispersion of the Jews began, with many
of them leaving to settle elsewhere.

1.7 The Romans

Roman rule of Israel began in 63 BCE. In 66 CE the Zealots led a major revolt against
Rome. This led, in 68 CE, to the destruction of the Temple. Total defeat for the Jews
meant that they lost their land and were destined to wander the Earth until the state of
Israel was founded in 1948.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 9

 Map 1.5 The Kingdom of David

R
.E
Hamath

up
hr
at
es
MEDITERRANEAN Damascus
SEA Tyre

Jerusalem

Ezion-geber
EGYPT

RED
R.

SEA
Ni
le

1.8 From the Fall of the Temple to the

twentieth century
Two things ensured the survival of the Jews:
● the Torah
● the synagogue.
The rabbis played a crucial role in that they taught the Law and the practices of the
faith. Schools of rabbis came into being and it was through them that the Talmud, the
major source to Jewish law, came to be composed in its two forms:
● Babylonian
● Palestinian.
Judaism was revised in the Middle Ages to produce a reasoned religion that was com-
patible with knowledge and understanding.
● Maimonides (1135–1204) wrote the 13 Principles of Judaism and the ‘Guide For
The Perplexed’.
● Jewish medieval mysticism took shape in the Kabbalah; a spiritual movement inter-
ested in the promise of a messiah.
● It was followed by a number of messianic movements, some of which are still
thriving.
The nineteenth century saw the rise of the liberal and reform movements. It was felt by
some Jews that their religion should be reformed to give it an up-to-date appeal.

10 JUDAISM
 Map 1.6 The Kingdom of Solomon

Hamath

R
.E
up
hr
at
es
MEDITERRANEAN
Damascus
SEA Tyre

Jerusalem

Ezion-geber
EGYPT

RED
R.

SEA
Ni
le

Traditional practices were modified and the language of the people was used in
worship. David Friedlander (1756–1834) led the movement. The first Jewish reform
‘temple’ was set up by Israel Jacobson. The first reform synagogue was set up in
England in 1840. During the nineteenth century the movement spread to America. It
was at this time that science began to challenge many of the old beliefs, and many Jews
decided to face this challenge. Changes were made to:
● views in the Tenakh and Talmud
● the halakhah or legal system of Judaism
● traditional ceremonial rituals
● the language of services
● regulations governing the synagogue
● dress and dietary laws.

1.9 The twentieth century

Without a doubt, the outstanding events of the twentieth century for the Jews have
been the Holocaust of the Second World War and the founding of the state of Israel in
1948. During the war nearly six million Jews were slaughtered by the Nazis. This was
roughly half the Jewish population of Europe. This gave impetus to the demand for the
return to the Jewish homeland in Palestine.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 11

1.10 The State of Israel
The foundation of the modern state of Israel (14 May 1948) was seen as the fulfilment
of the promise of God in the Torah. Many have connected it with the promise of a
messiah. Extremists said that the state should only have been set up by the messiah.
The Zionists, for example, oppose it. Others think that the Diaspora is God’s Will.
Yet another group think that it should not have become an independent state. Most
Jews, though, regard it as their historical, cultural, spiritual and geographical home.
Most Jews are pleased to have a country where they are safe from anti-Semitism.

1.11 The Jews in Britain

Edward I expelled the Jews from England in 1290 but Cromwell allowed them to come
back in 1656.
Jews number about half a million today. Many fled to Britain from the pogroms
(official persecution) of the Russian Tsars in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, and from the Nazis in the 1930s.
The first synagogue was set up in the city of London in 1701. The best-known
synagogue is the London United Synagogue.
British Jews are led by the Chief Rabbi of the United congregation. The Board of
Deputies was founded in 1760 as the representative body of British Jews.
There are special colleges for training rabbis plus many Jewish schools. The Jews
co-operate with other religious groups; for example, in 1942 the Council of Christians
and Jews was formed. They are also very active in public life in fields such as politics,
medicine, science and the arts.

12 JUDAISM
 2 Jewish beliefs and scriptures

2.1 God
The existence of God requires no proof as far as the Jews are concerned. Genesis 1.1
says: ‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth’. The created universe
and the history of the Jews as God’s chosen people are enough to show that God exists.
The Shema prayer is said morning and evening by Jews. It is important because it
contains the most basic belief about God: there is only one God.
Other beliefs include the following:
● There is no limit to His power
● He created the whole of nature, which is controlled by Him; He can be seen and
experienced in the whole of nature
● He has no rivals
● All human activity is controlled by God
● To submit to this gives the whole of life unity
● He is not remote from us, for all His power
● God is SHEHINAH, meaning He is present everywhere.

2.2 The Covenant

Abraham’s family was ‘chosen’ by God. God entered into a sort of contract or agree-
ment which is called a covenant, with the descendants of this family. A covenant has
two sides and in this case it said that:
● Israel must always remember God, keeping His laws and serving Him always and
● God will be faithful to Israel, continuing to be their God and treating its people as
His own.

2.3 The Commandments

The commandments or law (mitzvot) were received by Moses from God on Mount
Sinai (or Mount Horeb) during the journey from Egypt to the Promised Land. There
are 613 commandments: 248 are positive beginning with ‘Thou shalt … ’, the other
365 are negative mitzvot beginning ‘Thou shalt not …’.

JEWISH BELIEFS AND SCRIPTURES 13

The Ten Commandments are the guidelines for moral living.

The Ten Commandments

(1) You shall have no other God but me.
(2) Do not make graven (carved) images (for worship).
(3) Do not misuse my name.
(4) Keep the Sabbath day holy.
(5) Respect your father and mother.
(6) Do not murder.
(7) Do not commit adultery.
(8) Do not steal.
(9) Do not give false evidence.
(10) Do not covet your neighbour’s house, his wife or anything else of his.

2.4 The Messiah

The Messiah is the anticipated deliverer and king of the Jews. ‘Messiah’ means the
‘anointed one’. Biblical psalms depict the Messiah as follows:
(1) He will be called God’s son.
(2) He will bring the blessings that God wants for His people.
(3) He will set up God’s kingdom on earth.
(4) The kingdom will be based on the principles of law and justice.
(5) He will scatter Israel’s enemies.
(6) He will rule the world for all time.
In the eighth century BCE the Prophets, beginning with Isaiah, predicted the birth of a
Messiah. There were actually two prophets called Isaiah. The first said that the sins of the
fathers would be visited on the next generation, but a Messiah would deliver them. The
second said that God is forgiving and introduced the idea that someone could suffer to
atone for the sins of others. A servant of God would spread His Covenant to all peoples.
Later it was believed that a Messiah would rule the people just before the end.
Some Jews hoped he would be a military leader, though they were not clear whether he
would be human or more than human: there is no Jewish tradition that says the
Messiah will be divine.
The rabbis have always discouraged speculation on when the Messiah will appear.
Orthodox Jews are still waiting for the Messiah, God’s anointed one. Reform Jews see it a
different way, in that they look to a time when the people of the world will pull together
to establish God’s kingdom on earth, when there is peace, love and righteousness for all.

2.5 Preconditions for establishing the Kingdom

● the return of all Jews to the Holy Land
● the ending of war, injustice and immorality
● a world society underpinned by truth and justice
● a universal religion worshipping the one true God.
Jews agree on these criteria irrespective of whether they think the Messiah is one person
or the whole of humankind.

14 JUDAISM
2.6 Life after death
It is believed that a person survives death and has an after-life. In Biblical times it was
believed that the soul entered sheol (hell), where the good and the bad lived as
shadows. Later it was believed that there were two places called heaven and hell; the
dead entered one of these for reward or punishment. A body is needed for the survival
of the soul and so the soul is thought to survive in union with the body. This led to the
belief that the good and the bad take part in a general resurrection.
Belief in an after-life is logical because the eternal God created each person as a
living soul, so it is reasonable to assume it will spend eternity with Him. Faith and god-
liness will bring reward from God in the next life.

2.7 Ethics
There are three requirements set out in the ‘Ethics of the Fathers’ (Pirke Aboth): law,
worship and kindness.

Laws
● The Law (Torah) is the foundation of right living.
● It teaches religion and morals.
● Torah means ‘instruction’ as well as ‘Law’; it instructs the Jews on the question of
what the Lord requires of them.

Worship
● This is the response of the whole person, both body and spirit to God.
● It comes from the question: ‘What does the Lord require?’
● It is more than spiritual, in that it includes moral action.
● It sanctifies God’s name not just in worship but in work and other aspect of day-to-
day life.

Kindness
● Kindness stems from the Law and includes respecting the elderly, helping the weak,
being hospitable, caring for servants.
● The shema requires that a Jew should ‘love thy neighbour as thyself’.
● This sort of love is to be acted on, not just felt.
● It is a social duty, not a private one.

2.8 The importance of scriptures to Judaism

Judaism is a religion of revelation. Jews believe that God revealed himself to them at
Mt Sinai where he gave them the Ten Commandments and the whole of the
Pentateuch (Torah in Hebrew) through Moses. So the Torah is Divine and is God’s

JEWISH BELIEFS AND SCRIPTURES 15

only and final revelation, containing all that he wants his people to know. It is believed
that there was an oral Torah as well as the written one, providing explanations of the
latter. Historical events were to create a need for more scriptural development.
In 586 BCE the Kingdom of Judah was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, and the
Temple destroyed. The Jewish people were taken to Babylon in captivity. Until then,
life in Judah had been based on Jerusalem and revolved around the Temple. In exile,
the Jews started to meet in small rooms to study, pray and socialise. Such rooms
became the model for the synagogue that later replaced the Temple. Prayer and study
took the place of sacrifices.
Until this time there was no need for a written record of Jewish traditions, but the
exile meant there was a danger of loss of identity, so scribes began to write down
stories and traditions.
Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BCE and allowed the Jews to go home.
The Temple was rebuilt but there was a change of emphasis in Jewish life. Scribes now
concentrated on understanding and applying the texts to life.
In 66CE the Romans, who had been ruling Judah since 63 BCE, put down a
Jewish revolt against them. The Temple and much of Jerusalem were destroyed. A
further revolt in 135 CE failed and this time the Romans banned the Jews from return-
ing to Jerusalem, so they had to settle elsewhere. The scriptures they took with them
were to provide a focus for the survival of the Jewish race and religion.

2.9 The Tenakh

The Tenakh is the Hebrew name for the Jewish Bible. The Greek name is Septuagint,
from the Greek word for 70, because it was translated by 70 people in 270 BCE. It is
the same as the Old Testament of the Christian Bible but the books are in a different
order. It is divided into three sections:
(1) Torah (the Law)
(2) Nevi’im (the Prophets)
(3) Ketuvim (the Writings).
The letters TNK which start each of these words form the basis of the word ‘Tenakh’.
The Torah is the most sacred.
There are 39 books altogether. For centuries these scriptures were spoken, but
eventually they were written down and in 90 CE they were put together as the Jewish
Bible. Jews regard their Bible as a dialogue between God and His chosen people.

2.10 The Torah

This is the first five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
These five books are sometimes known as the Pentateuch (from the Greek for ‘five
books’). They are traditionally known as the Five Books of Moses.
Torah means ‘law’, and it is this law that the Jews try to live their lives by. The
literal meaning is ‘teaching’. It is written by hand, a task that takes a scribe a year to
complete.
The Torah is divided into 54 weekly parts (sidrot, plural of sidra). This is because
54 is the maximum number of shabatot (plural of shabbat) in a year. Orthodox
synagogues read all of the sidra each week, and so read all the sidrot in a year.

16 JUDAISM
Progressive synagogues take three years to do this. Public readings in the synagogue are
given from the Sefer Torah on:
● shabbat mornings and afternoons
● festival mornings
● Monday and Thursday mornings.
The person reading follows the words with a silver pointer called a yad. Reading from
it is the most important part of Jewish worship because it is the revelation of God.

2.11 The Prophets (Nevi’im)

This comprises eight volumes, divided into the Former Prophets and The Latter
Prophets.
● The Former Prophets contain the historical books: Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings.
● The Latter Prophets contain Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel.
God spoke to mankind through the Prophets. Readings from the Prophets accompany
those from the Torah. The Prophets are the moral and spiritual conscience of Judaism;
they inspire and interpret religion for the people.

2.12 The Writings (Ketuvim)

These are seen as having less value than the Torah and the Prophets. However, they
contain the psalms, which are used in regular synagogue worship. The psalms deal
with all aspects of human behaviour. Some of the books, especially Ecclesiastes, are
very important to Jewish understanding, in that it teaches that wealth is not important
because it cannot last, and that life is finite and beyond human understanding. Also,
Job teaches that human suffering is a mystery without answer.
Ketuvim readings are used on festival days. There are 11 books: Psalms, Proverbs,
Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra and
Nehemiah (in one book), and Chronicles. Five of these are known as ‘the five scrolls’
and are read at special times:
● Pesach (Passover) – The Song of Songs
● Shavuot (Pentecost) – Ruth
● The fast day of the month of Ab, when the fall of the Temple is remembered –
Lamentations
● Sukkot – Ecclesiastes
● Purim – Esther.

2.13 The Talmud

This is the most important book after the Bible. Talmud means ‘teaching’, and it can
be used for reference on social and religious laws. It is made up of the Mishnah, the

JEWISH BELIEFS AND SCRIPTURES 17

oral law as it was written down, and the Gemara, a collection of commentaries on
these laws. There are 6000 pages and three million words.
The Mishnah was completed around 200 CE. It advises on many subjects such as
holy days, temple service, hygiene and farming. There are six orders covering six topics
in the Mishnah. The orders are the Shisha Sedarim (Shas); each having several divisions
called masekhtot.
The Talmud also contains the Halakhah, which gives instruction on legal matters,
and the Hagadah, which deals with moral issues.

2.14 The Siddur

This is the Jewish prayer book. It is an order for prayer for use in the synagogue. The
Siddur was compiled in the eighth century CE by Rabbi Amran of Susa. It brings
together spiritual experiences from the time of Abraham onwards.
Although many prayer books have appeared since, they all have the same format:
● morning, afternoon and evening prayer
● the hallel psalms (nos 113–118)
● prayers for the new moon
● the Kaddish
● the Amidah
● prayers for holy days.

2.15 Midrash
‘Midrash’ means ‘to search out, expound’. It is the teaching and commentaries of the
rabbis on scripture. It has parables, myths and puns, plus stories to explain stories. It
examines the inner meaning of the Tenakh.
Halakhic Midrash deals with the Law, Aggadic Midrash with the narrative of the
scriptures.

2.16 The Haftarah

This selection was compiled by the rabbis. A passage from it is chosen to match that
from the Torah. Unlike the Torah, which must be read from a scroll, the Haftarah can
be read from a printed book. The reading is chanted using a different intonation from
that used for the sidrah or parchah (portion) of the Torah that has been appointed.

2.17 Maimonides
Maimonides was a twelfth-century Talmudist (expert on the Talmud). He is chiefly
remembered for compiling the 13 principles of faith.

18 JUDAISM
 The Thirteen Principles
(1) All creation past, present and future is the work of God.
(2) God is one.
(3) God does not have a physical body.
(4) God is first and last.
(5) Only God should be prayed to.
(6) The words of the prophets are true.
(7) Moses is the greatest prophet.
(8) God gave Moses the Torah.
(9) The Torah is unchangeable.
(10) God knows all things.
(11) God will reward those who keep the Commandments; He will punish those
who do not.
(12) The Messiah will come one day.
(13) The dead will be resurrected.

2.18 The Noahide Code

These are the seven commandments or sheva mitzvot given to Noah after the Flood.

(1) Worship no god but God.

(2) Do not blaspheme.
(3) Do not murder.
(4) Do not steal.
(5) Do not commit sexual sin.
(6) Do not be cruel to animals.
(7) Man must live in harmony by the rule of law.

Every synagogue has an Ark to house the Biblical scrolls. Tradition demands that every
Torah scroll is handwritten and perfect in every detail. It cannot be used if there is a
mistake in copying. It is still sacred, though, and cannot be destroyed; instead it must
be put in a genizah or burial place to rot naturally.

JEWISH BELIEFS AND SCRIPTURES 19

 3 Worship and the synagogue

3.1 The Sabbath

Sabbath services begin on Friday evening. The Sabbath runs from sunset on Friday to
sunset on Saturday. Jews like to go to a service at the synagogue and then welcome the
sabbath with a ceremony at home.
At sunset the mother lights the candles and says a prayer. The father blesses bread
(challah) which represents manna. He also says the kiddush or blessing over a cup of
wine as well as saying verses about the Sabbath and creation.
The main act of worship for Orthodox and Reform Jews starts at 10 a.m. on
Saturday; Liberal Jews have a service on Friday. Services last about two hours.
When the family arrive at an Orthodox synagogue the father sits in the main body
of the synagogue downstairs. The wife sits upstairs in the balcony and children under
13 decide which parent to sit with. Men without a hat put on a skull cap (yamulkah).
Those with a hat can choose whether to replace it with a yamulkah. Men take their
prayer shawl (tallit or tallith) and daily prayer book from the little cupboard in the
pew. A prayer is said before and after putting on the tallit. In Reformed and Liberal
synagogues men and women sit together.

3.2 The service

This has a number of sections:

The Psalms
● Psalms are read (19, 33, 34, 90, 91, 92, 135, 136).
● Psalm 92 is known as a song for the Sabbath Day.
● 1 Chronicles 16: 8–36 is read.
Any man can lead the reading in this part of the service. The congregation reads the
passage aloud from the prayer book.

The Shema
The cantor or chazan sings a section which tells of God’s acts of redemption, the
escape from Egypt in particular. God is thanked for being loving, faithful and merciful.

20 JUDAISM
The Amidah
Amidah means ‘standing’. It has 19 benedictions which form the central core of
Jewish worship. It is a prayer which the congregation offers silently while standing
facing the Ark (the same direction as Jerusalem). Note that no rabbi or priest says it for
them, Judaism says they are responsible themselves.

The Scrolls
Next the scrolls, the Sefer Torah, are taken out of the Ark for reading. This happens on
Monday, Thursday and Saturday mornings. The elders organise these readings. Two
members of the congregation are invited to take the scrolls out of the Ark and put
them on the reading desk. The rest of the congregation touch the scrolls with their
tallits, which they then kiss. The scrolls are held up on the bimah (reading dais) in
their covers for all to see while blessings are offered.

The Readings
● The crown and cover of the Torah scroll is taken off. A number of men read it one at
a time. Then the scroll is covered again.
● There is a reading from the Haftarah scroll. The cantor or chazan usually does the
reading because he is trained to read unpunctuated Hebrew (he may also intone it).
● Readers hold the Torah pointer to follow the words.
● In Britain, the cantor prays for the Queen, in English, when the readings are finished
(all other prayers and readings are in Hebrew). Then he prays in Hebrew for the
Queen, the nation and Israel.
● The scrolls are returned to the Ark while blessings and praises are offered.
● At this point the rabbi may preach a sermon.
● The cantor now says the Amidah, the Kaddish and the Aleinu (the Adoration).
● Lastly, either the cantor or a child will chant the Hymn of Glory, with the congrega-
tion speaking the alternate lines.

The Kaddish
This act of santification comes near the end, and is to praise God and secure His
blessing. This prayer was written in Aramaic (Aramaic, the language Jesus spoke
was the everyday language of his time) long before the fall of the Temple.

3.3 Private worship

Laying the Tefillin
The tefillin are a pair of black leather boxes (phylacteries) containing the words of
the Shema. A Jewish man fastens them by leather thongs to the forehead (to remind
him to think of his faith) and the biceps of the right arm, left arm if left-handed (to
remind him to act on his faith). The boxes are fixed to the body to obey the command
in Deuteronomy 6.

WORSHIP AND THE SYNAGOGUE 21

 Every morning before he puts on the Tefillin he must cover his head with the small
skull cap (yamulkah), and cover his shoulders with the tassled, blue and white prayer
shawl (tallit) made of silk or wool.
Prayers are said morning, noon and evening.

Prayers
Prayers can be spontaneous or taken from the prayer book. There are no rules about
women’s prayer; Jewish women say this is because God can trust women, but men are
lazy and need rules!!
The Mezuzah is a container holding verses of the Shema and which is attached to
the door post. People touch it as they pass through the door to remind themselves that
Jewish values can be shared, and to symbolise God’s presence and love which is with
those inside and which gives them guidance.

3.4 The synagogue

Origins and definitions
The original meaning of synagogue was ‘gathering’ (from Greek). Most towns with a
Jewish population had one by the time the Romans destroyed Jerusalem (70 CE). It is
a kehilla (community of people). It is called three things in Hebrew:
● Bet t’filah (house of prayer)
● Bet hamidrash (house of study)
● Bet ha Knesset (house of assembly) as a casual meeting place for the Jewish community.
There was a rule that said if there were ten adult males there could be a synagogue.

Inside the synagogue

● There are no statues or pictures, because the commandments do not allow ‘graven
images’.
● Modern buildings are rectangular. There are seats on three sides facing inwards. The
remaining side is the most important and the focal point.
● The fourth side has a double door, hidden by a curtain and recessed into the wall,
behind which is a cupboard containing the Torah scrolls in Hebrew. This cupboard
is the Ark (aron hakodesh) and is always in the wall nearest Jerusalem. The cup-
board doors may be decorated with the Magen David (Star of David).
● Two plaques with the 10 Commandments written in Hebrew can be found either
side of the Ark, or above it. They represent the two tablets of stone mentioned in the
Book of Exodus (31:18).
● To one side of the Ark is a candelabrum with seven branches. This candelabrum or
menorah is one of the symbols of Judaism, reminding Jews of the one that stood in
the Temple in Jerusalem.
● Similarly, the lamp of the perpetual flame (ner tamid) hangs from the roof in front
of the Ark to remember the light that continually burned in the Temple and is a
mark of respect for the holiness of the scrolls.
● The bimah (a raised platform with railings) stands almost in the centre of the build-
ing. Worship is conducted by the cantor from the bimah and Torah readings are per-
formed from here.

22 JUDAISM
● Between the bimah and the Ark are seats for the elders, who are elected to organise
worship and govern the affairs of the synagogue.
● The pulpit stands between the Ark and the congregation. However, the space in
front of the Ark is open so that the congregation can see clearly when the scrolls are
taken out.

3.5 The functions of the synagogue

It has always been a community centre, as its names show. It is a place of education so
that the scriptures, which are a concise guide for correct living, can be read, for the
teaching of Hebrew and Jewish culture. There are also women’s groups, youth clubs
and so forth. They can be used as bakeries for unleavened bread at Passover time.
Older synagogues have a mikreh which is a large bath or pool from the time when
Jews who had no such amenity could take a ritual bath. The bet din is a house of law
or court to license butchers to sell kosher meat.

WORSHIP AND THE SYNAGOGUE 23

 4 Festivals and pilgrimage

Festivals are central to Judaism because they fulfil the mitzvot or regulations of that
faith. In fact the Jewish year is regulated by a cycle of festivals which are celebrated as
an integral part of the Jewish religion.

4.1 Four reasons for the importance of festivals

in Judaism
● They link the past with the present
Festivals are an act of remembrance of some important event in the history of the
Jews. They link past and present and look to the future.
● They emphasise the central beliefs of the faith
Because all festivals are religious occasions, they deepen the experience of the faith,
especially with their focus on the Torah and other religious teachings.
● They are communal acts
They strengthen the unity and identity of the Jewish community by the practice
of families and communities celebrating the festivals together in the home or
synagogue.
● They are a pattern of celebrations
There is a sense of coherence in Judaism because each festival links with every other
in intention and purpose.

4.2 The Jewish year

Judaism uses a lunar calendar for religious purposes. This has 12 months totalling 354
days. The year begins with the seventh month, known as Tishri.

Hebrew Months
Nisan Mar./Apr.
Iyar Apr./May
Sivan May/Jun.
Tammuz Jun./Jul.

24 JUDAISM
 Av Jul./Aug.
Eunl Aug./Sept.
Tishri Sept./Oct.
Cheshvan Oct./Nov.
Kislev Nov./Dec.
Tevet Dec./Jan.
Shevat Jan./Feb.
Adar Feb./Mar.
In leap years there are 2 months of Adar (1 and 2).
The First month is Nisan but the New Year falls on the first day of 7th month
or Tishri. The Jewish era begins in 300 BCE, so 2000 CE will be 5700. It’s not
known why this is the starting point, but it’s possible that it’s the minimum
amount of human history recorded by the Jews.

4.3 The Jewish New Year: Rosh Hashanah

This festival has three themes:
● Creation – the anniversary of the world’s creation

● Judgement – casting off sins for the start of a new year

● Renewal – the renewal of the bond between God and Israel.

This is a time of reflection on God’s mercy and judgement, when Jews examine their
lives and achievements. The traditional greeting is ‘May you be inscribed in the Book
of Life for a good year’ or more simply ‘Good Year!’
There is a special morning service based on the Rosh Hashanah prayer book. This
will include reading Genesis 21 and 22 about Isaac. This is to emphasise the import-
ance of faith and the acceptance of God’s power when it comes to human endeavours.
The additional service is divided into three parts, corresponding to the three themes
and the three other names for Rosh Hashanah:
● Malkhuyot – the exaltation of God as King
● Zikhronot – Remembrance
● Shfarot – Blowing the Horn

Home rituals
These include:
● eating apples dipped in honey (for a sweet year)
● baking bread of the special shabbat dough in the shape of a crown (to recall divine
sovereignty), or in the shape of a ladder (to link heaven and earth)
● eating pomegranates, which have many seeds (in the hope of fertility and that God
may multiply the credit of goodness).
The afternoon ritual is the tashlikh ceremony, which involves saying prayers at a
source of water, which should be running water if possible. Pockets are emptied into
the water to shed sins symbolically. An instrument called a shofar (usually a ram’s
horn) is blown.

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 25

4.4 The Day of Atonement: Yom Kippur
Atonement means reconciliation between God and humanity (At-one-ment). This day
of repentance takes place 10 days into the New Year. On the eve of Yom Kippur Jews
ask forgiveness of each other for any wrongs or pain they may be guilty of, and it is gra-
cious to forgive. Also, sins are confessed directly to God because Jews cannot have a
mediator or intercessor, as no one can come between a person and God, and no person
can take the part of God. There is a collective formal confession, though, because it
saves personal embarrassment, and because everyone accepts responsibility for every-
one else’s sins. In fact there are six major conditions of sinning; they are in three pairs:
(1) compulsion and free will
(2) secretly and publicly
(3) unwittingly and knowingly.
Above all, this is a day of fasting and general abstention.
There are four reasons for fasting on Yom Kippur:
(1) to show sincerity in seeking forgiveness
(2) it requires a self-discipline which will help to improve the person
(3) the person can concentrate on improving the spirit by ignoring the body for a day
(4) to make a person more compassionate towards the needy.
There is a festive meal before the fast and special candles are lit. Food is sent to the
poor, and the High Holy Day Appeal collects money for charity.
At the synagogue the Ark is covered in white and some people wear a long white
smock called a kittel. A prayer (Kol Nidrei) is sung in memory of those Jews who have
suffered persecution. The evening service is called Kol Nidrei because it is so closely
bound up with this prayer. The account of the ritual of the temple in Jerusalem is read,
telling how the high priest sacrificed on the Day of Atonement.
Yom Kippur is the only day of the year with five services. The closing service called
Neilah summarises the day, being the time when the Temple gates were literally closed
for the night. It closes the gates of mercy; a shutting, but not a shutting out, so that the
mercy of God cannot now be lost. The service ends with the first line of the Shema:
‘Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God. The Lord is One’.
Then comes the triumphant shout of Elijah:
‘The Lord – he is God!’
Then the blowing of the shofar after sunset brings the fast to an end.

4.5 The Festival of Lots: Purim

This festival commemorates the victory of Esther over the wicked Haman. It takes
place on the fourteenth day of Adar (February/March). This has led to the expression
‘When Adar approaches, joy increases’. There is also a popular greeting ‘Be happy; it’s
Adar’.
Jews fast the day before Purim to commemorate Esther’s three-day abstention at
the palace. After this, eating and drinking become characteristic of Purim because the
word mishteh (a feast) occurs 20 times in the book of Esther; note that this is as many
times as it appears in the rest of the Bible put together. There is a festive meal which
starts at midday, and candles are lit and gifts exchanged.

26 JUDAISM
 The main celebration is the reading of the Book of Esther at the service, morning
and evening, which is held at the synagogue. When the name of Haman is mentioned,
the people try to drown it out with rattles, cap pistols and alarm clocks, or by just
booing and hissing. Some even write his name on the soles of their shoes and stamp up
and down! There is also a Shpeel, which is a satirical or farcical play, in which students
can mock their teachers and elect a ‘Purim rabbi’ for the day.

4.6 Passover: Pesach

The Feast of the Passover is held from the fifteenth or sixteenth to the twenty-first or
twenty-second days of the month of Nisan (March/April). The first and last days are
for rest, and no work may be done. A number of points should be noted as vital to
understanding this festival:
● God’s connection with the Exodus and the importance of freedom in Judaism.
● Enslavement in Egypt and the act of redemption are not seen as isolated incidents, or
just the birth of Israel; the theme of God’s liberation in humanity is one that occurs
again and again in Jewish life and thought.
● Tyrants and oppressors of any age are seen as ‘pharaoh’, and Godless regimes as
‘Egypt’.
● When it is recalled how the angel of death passed over (pesach) the Jewish first-born,
there is an awareness not just of God’s saving work but of the violation of human
rights today.
All ordinary food (harmetz) is eaten or removed so that the special passover ritual and
meal (seder) can be prepared. Dishes and cutlery must be ritually prepared too; there
may even be special sets of cutlery, crockery and cooking utensils kept only for this
occasion. The family gathers and guests are invited. The fare offered includes three
vital components in the seder:
● The pesah (bone)
● Maror (bitter herbs)
● Matzah (unleavened bread)
The seder plate has the following items:
● Zeroa – which is a piece of lamb shankbone to commemorate the ancient Temple
sacrifice, and the use of lamb’s blood in saving the Israelites in Egypt (the lamb is not
eaten).
● Beytza – a roasted egg (again not eaten) to symbolise other sacrifices.
● Karpas – a spring vegetable, usually parsley, dipped in salt water representing the
Israelites tears and sweat.
● Maror – bitter herbs and plants, such as radish, chives and chicory. Many regard
lettuce as the best because it is sweet at first, and bitter later; just like the experience
of the Israelites in Egypt.
On the first night of Pesach, every man and woman must drink at least four glasses of
wine, each one representing a phrase of redemption:
(1) ‘I shall liberate you from bondage’.
(2) ‘I shall bring you to the land’.
(3) ‘I shall deliver you from Egypt’.
(4) ‘I shall take you to me as a people’.

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 27

There is a fifth term: ‘I shall redeem you from servitude’, so there arose the custom of
the fifth glass of wine filled between the third and fourth glasses but never drunk. This
is the ‘cup of Elijah’, and at this point the door is opened to welcome the prophet who
is expected before the arrival of the Messiah. Between drinking the four glasses the
youngest person present asks four traditional questions:

(1) Why is this night different from other nights?

(2) Why do we eat unleavened bread?
(3) Why must we eat bitter herbs?
(4) Why must we dip vegetables into salt water and bitter herbs into sauce?
There are two possible answers:

(1) ‘We were slaves’.

(2) ‘Our ancestors worshipped idols’.

Alternatively, an ancient text may be quoted. Essentially the Passover is a celebration

of freedom and deliverance from slavery.
● Bitter herbs remind the Jews of slavery.
● Unleavened bread reminds them of the flight from Egypt.
● The egg and salt remind them of the new life after suffering.

The four glasses of wine stand for the four stages on the journey, which are:

(1) the release from slavery

(2) the entry into the promised land
(3) becoming God’s people
(4) being redeemed.
Moses is not mentioned. This is to stress that God intervened directly in the history of
Israel. The credit must not go to a human being, even if he is the greatest Jewish
prophet. Today also, there are prayers for universal peace and brotherhood, such as
this one on the Holocaust.

. . . We remember with reverence and love the six millions of our people who
perished at the hands of a tyrant more wicked than the Pharaoh who enslaved our
fathers in Egypt . . . they slew the blameless and pure, men and women and little
ones, with vapours of poison and burned them with fire. But we abstain from
dwelling on the deeds of the evil ones lest we defame the image of God in which
man was created . . .

4.7 Tabernacles: Sukkot

This seven-day festival known as the ‘Season of Our Rejoicing’ is celebrated from the
fifteenth to the twenty-second day of the month of Tishri. Joy on Sukkot is mentioned
three times in the Torah. The first and last days are set aside for rest, so no work may
be done, and there are compulsory religious services. The festival falls five days after
Yom Kippur and stresses the union of the body and soul intended by Torah and the
Jewish tradition for the worship of God and community life.

28 JUDAISM
 On the first day, there is a service in the synagogue which includes a procession of
waving lulav branches to the four points of the compass to symbolise God’s universal
blessing. Lulav branches are the four plants, citron, palm, myrtle and willow. They
symbolize the final harvest. A sukkah (booth, hut, tabernacle) is built to recall the
sukkot (plural) lived in by the Jews on their journey from Egypt to the Promised Land.
These should be lived in for seven days. These booths symbolise God’s provision and
care, because the outside of each person’s life is weak and fleeting, like the sukkah, but
inside one is strong and everlasting. This is an autumn festival and the sukkah can be
shaken by the wind, symbolising the vulnerability of human nature and the precarious-
ness of human existence.
Another command for Sukkot is picking four plants: citron, palm, myrtle and
willow, representing the heart, the spine, the eye and the lip respectively. All of these
should be united in the worship of God: a sincere heart, dignified posture, inspiration
of the eye and honest words.
On the last day of the festival, known as the Great Hosanna or Hoshana Raba, a
willow branch is struck on a hard surface until the leaves fall off. This is because
willows grow near water and the prayers at this time are for rain. The secret of under-
standing Sukkot is revealed in the prayer offered on the first day of the festival.

May it be Your will, O my God and God of my fathers, that You cause Your
divine presence to live among us, and may you spread a covering of peace over us.

4.8 The rejoicing in the Torah: Simhat Torah

This falls immediately after Sukkot, and there is a special service during which the
Torah scrolls are taken out of the Ark by the cantor and paraded seven times around
the synagogue in a procession led by the cantor. This is the custom of circuits and has
been known since ancient times, for example by Joshua at Jericho.
This is a popular event which is well attended, especially by children. When a
circuit is complete, the scrolls are handed on so that someone else can take a turn.
Psalms and songs are sung, especially the refrain in Hebrew meaning ‘Please Lord,
save us. Please Lord, make us succeed’. The procession passes under the wedding
canopy, which this may well be formed by holding up a prayer shawl (tallit). It may also
be held over the ‘bridegrooms’ as they read the Torah passages.
Since 1967 this festival has been celebrated by huge crowds at the Wailing Wall in
Jerusalem because it is the last remains of the Temple. It is also the festival with most
meaning for the Jews of what used to be the USSR where they celebrated it as an act of
defiance and solidarity.

4.9 Weeks: Shavuot

The Festival of Weeks is a harvest festival, and is held on the sixth day of the month
Sivan (May/June), seven weeks after the Passover. This has more names than any other
festival; these are:
● The Festival of the Harvest
● Day of the First Ripe Fruits

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 29

● The Season of the Giving of Our Torah
● Conclusion
● Conclusion of Passover
● The Festival of Weeks.
The home and the synagogue are decorated and summer fruits are eaten. The readings
from the Torah are:
(1) Exodus 19 and 20 (ten commandments)
(2) Ezekiel 1 (about visions of God)
(3) Habakkuk 3 (God’s power in revelation)
(4) Ruth (the most well known of Shavuot readings)
(5) Leviticus 23 (about leaving grain for the gleaners).
There is also a link with David, the great-grandson of Ruth, who was born and died on
Shavuot. Thus psalms are read on the second night. There is great emphasis on the
education of children. At one time, young children would be first taken to Hebrew classes
with sweets on their writing slate, or literally with ‘honey on the tongue’. Today, Jewish
teenagers who have finished formal lessons as children are honoured collectively by:
● leading the services in the synagogue
● processing with the Torah
● reading the passages for the day
● initiating a discussion session
● hosting a special celebratory meal for family and friends.
At one time an offering was made of the first fruits to God, and each night between
Passover and the Feast of Weeks, a measure (omar) of barley was brought into the
Temple in Jerusalem. In Israel this festival is closely connected to the land and future
prosperity and production.

4.10 The Festival of Lights: Hanukkah

Hanukkah lasts eight days from the twenty-fifth day of Kislev (December) to the
second day of Tevet. Immediately after sunset a Hanukkah lamp is lit in the presence of
the whole family, and placed in the window or open door. This is an eight-branched
lamp, usually called a menorah. One lamp is lit each night of the festival while these
words are said:
‘These lights are holy and we are not permitted to make use of them, but only to see
them in order to thank your name for the wonders, the victories and the marvellous
deeds.’
Hanukkah celebrates the victory of the Jews over the Seleucid tyrant, Antiochus
Epiphanes (Antiochus IV), who occupied Jerusalem in about 170 BCE. He wanted
all his subjects to conform and obey him without question. In the case of the Jews,
he tried to stop Judaism and wanted them to worship Greek idols and eat pork. The
last straw for the Jews was when he set up a statue of the Greek god Zeus in the
Temple.
In 168 BCE the Jews began a struggle for freedom, led by Mattathias, who formed
a guerrilla force with his sons and a number of other Jews. When Mattathias died after
a year, his son Judas took over as leader. From Judah’s nickname Maccabeus (which
means ‘hammerer’) his family came to be known as the Maccabees.

30 JUDAISM
 When Judas and his followers occupied the Temple in 164 BCE, he ordered the
rededication of the Temple to God. This began on the twenty-fifth day of Kislev in
164 BCE and lasted for eight days. A jar of oil, untouched by their enemies and with
the seal unbroken, contained enough oil for the perpetual lamp in the Temple for
only one day; but it burned for eight days until more was obtained. This symbolised
the light of Jewish faith, which seemed doomed, but which survived.
Judas decreed that the rededication should be celebrated by future generations.

Celebrating Hanukkah
In the synagogue the service has a reading from the Book of Zechariah (4:6) about
God’s Holy Spirit.
This is a special time for children and some of them will receive a present on each
of the eight days. We can read in Anne Frank’s diary how she managed to find gifts
even while in hiding from the Nazis.
There are family gatherings and typical foods are those fried in oil; doughnuts in
Israel, latkes (potato pancakes) elsewhere. The celebrations include card games and
other forms of gambling.
The bottom line in this festival is that people have a right to be unique, individu-
ally and collectively; God will work with anyone who takes a positive stand to uphold
those values which oppression tries to crush.

4.11 The Sabbath: Shabbat

● The Hebrew name ‘shabbat’ means ‘day of rest’. It is the most important day in the
Jewish calendar.
● It starts on Friday, the eve of the seventh day, at sunset, and celebrates God’s com-
pletion of creation and His rest afterwards.
● It begins in the home by the lighting of Sabbath candles. At the same time there is
the recital of kiddush (sanctification), the benedictions over wine and bread, and
over the Sabbath day.
● Parents bless their children, husbands praise their wives. There must be no work
done. The Torah should be studied.
● The sabbath ends with the ceremony of havdalah (division) in which a candle is
doused with wine, and with the smelling of sweet spices as a symbol of the beauty of
the Sabbath as it ends for another week.

This is a day of joy and is prepared for with gladness. There is an evening service
called the Kabbalet Shabbat, which celebrates the climax of creation when God had
completed His work. When the mother has prepared the sabbath meal the father will
say: ‘A woman of worth is more precious than rubies. For her children rise up and call
her happy’. There is the ritual washing of hands and special loaves (hallot) are broken
and handed round. These are plait-shaped to symbolise the unity of God, His people
and the Torah. Salt is sprinkled over these loaves to symbolise the dignity of human
labour. Between courses, songs (zemirot) are sung and thanks given for the joys of the
Sabbath.
After attending the morning service in the synagogue the family will eat a midday
meal which has been prepared in advance. A cup of wine is drunk at the end of the

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 31

day to carry the joys of the Sabbath into the other days. There is also the singing of
a song about the coming of the messiah, when the joy of the Sabbath will be enjoyed
universally.

Work on the Sabbath

Jews must
● ‘Observe the Sabbath day and keep it holy’ (Deuteronomy 5:8)
● ‘Remember to keep the Sabbath day holy’ (Exodus 20:8)
There are only two specific prohibitions in the Bible. They are:
● Exodus 16:29 – about not travelling outside the town where you live or are staying
● Exodus 35:3 – about lighting fires.
Both of these are hard work in terms of effort and are activities which are concerned
with the material world and the attempt to control it.
The rabbis have classified 39 types of activities from which Jews should refrain on
Shabbat. These are grouped under five headings.

(1) producing food (includes not just cooking, but ploughing too)
(2) making cloth (sewing, weaving and even sheep-shearing)
(3) writing (producing writing materials as well as writing)
(4) building (includes demolishing; lighting and putting out fires)
(5) carrying in a public place.

4.12 Pilgrimage
This is not an obligation as in some religions but it is only natural that Jerusalem,
especially the Wailing Wall, should attract Jews from all over the world.

The Wailing Wall

This is also known as the Western Wall and is the remains of the temple built by
Herod the Great on the site of Solomon’s temple. The Jews grieve for the destruction
of the Temple by the Romans in 70 CE. They pray in front of the Wall and kiss the
stones, and they also put written prayers into the cracks between the stones (Figure
4.1). The hope is that the Temple will be built again one day. Many will remember
the days before the capture of the old city in 1967 when Jews could not visit this holy
place.

Yad Vashem
The Holocaust of the Second World War has given rise to the pilgrimage to Yad
Vashem (‘eternal memorial’), which is a bare room lit by a candle with the names of the
concentration camps on the floor. This is in memory of those slaughtered in Hitler’s
‘Final Solution’. Also remembered are the ‘righteous Gentiles’ who helped Jews to
escape.

32 JUDAISM
Figure 4.1 Praying at the Western Wall in Jerusalem
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 33

Masada
This was a fortress defended by the Zealots against the Romans who finally captured
it in 73 CE after a three-year siege. The Zealots were a Jewish sect that resisted
Roman rule in Palestine. Pilgrims commit themselves to maintaining the faith and
heritage of those who died there. This may take the form of support for Zionism, the
protection of Israel. It is summed up in the slogan to be found on the stamps and
medals issued in 1973 to mark the two-thousandth anniversary of Masada: ‘Masada
shall not fall again’.

34 JUDAISM
 5 Rites of passage

5.1 Birth, childhood and education

● Biblical Law states that the first-born male child is to be devoted to God (Numbers
3:11–13).
● The child was symbolically redeemed from the priest (kohen) in the pidyan haben
ceremony (redemption of the first-born son).
● Every new life is God’s gift and receives a joyous welcome into the family.
● Baby boys are circumcised on the eighth day after birth.
● Education starts at the age of five years, when children are sent to the cheder
(‘room’), a special class to learn Hebrew and Jewish religious history and principles.

5.2 Brit Milah: The covenant of circumcision

The Book of Genesis says that the decision to circumcise all Hebrew males was taken
after God spoke to Abraham telling him that it was a sign of the covenant between God
and the Jews. Tradition holds that the father is responsible for circumcision. Special
circumcisers (mohels) are trained to do it.
● It takes place in the home.
● The baby is carried into the gathering by his grandmother because tradition says that
his mother cannot attend.
● The child is handed to his godfather (sandek).
● He then passes him to his father who sits him in ‘Elijah’s chair’. It is called Elijah’s
chair because the prophet is believed to be present during the ceremony.
● The godfather now holds the baby on his knees while the mohel carries out the opera-
tion using a knife.
● The skin is secured to stop it growing again.
● During the operation, the mohel blesses the baby; then the father offers a blessing.
● Those present say a special response.
● The child is named and a drop of wine is put on his lips.
● His father drinks the rest of the glass and a celebration follows.
The baby is now religiously pure and is welcomed as a member of God’s chosen people;
his circumcision is the sign that will always remind him of it. It is the ‘sign’ in his flesh.
● It must be emphasised that he is a Jew because he has a Jewish mother, not
because he is circumcised.

RITES OF PASSAGE 35
5.3 Bar Mitzvah
‘Bar mitzvah’ means ‘son of the commandment’. Jewish boys are considered to be
adults at the age of 13 years and one day, and so they become bar mitzvah. Education
begins at an early age to make them aware of the commandments (mitzvot), which set
out responsibilities.

Three reasons for Bar mitzvah

(1) The boy receives full privileges and takes on the responsibilities of an adult. He
can wear:
● the tallit (prayer shawl)
● the tefillin (leather boxes containing biblical texts).
(2) He can read from the Torah in the synagogue.
(3) It is a chance to renew his Jewish commitment, because unless he had a serious
dedication to God and Jewry, he would not undertake the rite.

The ceremony
This takes place on the first shabbat after a boy’s thirteenth birthday. The main steps
are as follows.
(1) For the first time, the boy is called to read from the Sefer Torah in Hebrew. He
follows the words with a silver finger pointer (yad). This means that he has come
of age, for only adult males are allowed this privilege in the Orthodox community.
(2) He receives his father’s blessing.
(3) The father thanks God that his son is old enough to be responsible for his own
sins and that he no longer has any responsibility for them.
(4) The sendah meal is eaten after the ceremony to show the value of the command-
ment that he has embraced.
(5) The boy gives a sermon (derasha) during the meal. He thanks everyone for the
gifts they have brought, and his parents for everything they have done for him.
Then he sets out his religious hopes for the years to come.

5.4 Bat Mitzvah

● This means ‘daughter of the commandment’.
● This ceremony has been developed by the Reformed synagogues to acknowledge
the importance of women in Jewish life. Orthodox Judaism does not have such a
ceremony.
● The ceremony is held on the shabbat.
● Girls taking part have reached the age of 12.
● They read from the Talmud during the ceremony (Figure 5.1).

5.5 Bat Chayil

This means ‘daughter of valour’ (or ‘excellence’). It is a status introduced by some
Orthodox synagogues in recent years. Girls are not allowed to read from the Torah but
they can read from the Prophets or the Writings.

36 JUDAISM
 Figure 5.1 Bat Mitzvah: girls reading the scrolls
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

37
5.6 Confirmation
This dates from the early nineteenth century when some Progressive synagogues in
Germany, France and Italy brought in a confirmation service to replace bar mitzvah. It
involved the following changes:
● before the service, boys and girls learned Judaism together (traditional synagogues
taught them separately);
● boys and girls were confirmed together;
● the ceremony took place at the age of 16;
● technically, this ceremony could be held at any time of the year, but gradually it
came to be part of the celebrations of Shavuot.

5.7 Marriage
Before the ceremony
The groom reads from the Torah or the prophets in the synagogue on the shabbat
before the wedding. When his reading is finished, there are cries of ‘Mazel tov’ (‘good
luck’) from those present.
Tradition demands that the bride and groom fast in the hours before the wedding.
The purpose of the fast is to secure the forgiveness of God for any sins so that they can
start their married life with a clean slate.
Before the wedding ceremony, the ketubah, or marriage contract is signed in the
presence of two male witnesses. The contract spells out what will happen to the bride if
her husband divorces her, or in case he dies before she does.

The ceremony
This traditionally has two parts.
● The betrothal (erusin) is a pre-wedding commitment binding a man and a woman
together before they can live together.
● The canopy (huppah or chuppah) is a symbol of the groom’s reception of his bride
into his home.
Modern Jewish weddings combine these two parts.
During the ceremony the groom stands under the chuppah facing Jerusalem
(Figure 5.2). The rabbi and the cantor stand opposite him. The bride is taken to join
the groom by her mother and future mother-in-law.

The five steps of the ritual

(1) The cantor sings for the couple, calling God’s blessing on them.
(2) Two glasses of wine are poured to symbolise the common future of the couple.
(3) The groom offers his bride a plain gold ring with the words:
‘Behold you are sanctified to me with this ring, according to the law of Moses
and Israel.’
She takes the ring to show that she is willingly entering into marriage.

38 JUDAISM
Figure 5.2 A Jewish wedding: a couple under the Chuppah, St John’s Wood, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

RITES OF PASSAGE 39
(4) The ketubah is read to the bride before it is given to her. Then the cantor sings
the seven benedictions of wedlock.
(5) Lastly, the bridegroom breaks a wine glass under his feet as the guests shout
‘Mazel tov’; this being the traditional way to lament the destruction of the
Temple nearly 2000 years ago.

5.8 Death
After death the eyes and mouth of the corpse are closed by a near relative. Then the
body is washed and wrapped in a shroud. Men can be wrapped in their tallit (prayer
shawl). Burial normally takes place within 24 hours. At the brief funeral service,
mourners accompany the body to the graveside where psalms are sung and the Kaddish
prayer is said. Then the mourners fill the grave with earth.

5.9 Mourning
There are four main stages to mourning.
(1) Between the time of death and the funeral the mourner (called an ‘onan’) is freed
of all other obligations.
(2) There is a week of mourning (shiva) following the funeral during which the
mourners stay home, sitting on the floor or small stools to receive visitors.
(3) Then there is a further period of 23 days during which mourners gradually take
up their responsibilities again.
(4) Lastly, there is a less intense period of mourning which lasts for 11 months after
the death. Once the earth has settled on the grave a headstone or some other
form of memorial can be set up at a special ceremony.

40 JUDAISM
 Questions

1. (a) What is meant by:

(i) Yahrzeit [2]
(ii) Kaddish? [2]
(b) Give a brief description of a Jewish funeral. [4]
(c) Explain the Jewish beliefs about death and dying. [7]
(d) ‘People should live their lives well and not worry about what
happens when they die.’
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show
that you have thought about different points of view. You must refer to
Judaism in your answer. [5]

2. (a) What are the origins of:

(i) Orthodox Jews,
(ii) Progressive Jews? [8]
(b) How might being either an Orthodox or a Progressive Jew affect
the life of a believer? [7]
(c) ‘It is a good idea to have different groups within a religion.’ [5]

3. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or

sentence. Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) What is Kashrut? (1 mark)
(b) What is a covenant? (1 mark)
(c) Who received the Ten Commandments from God on Mount Sinai? (1 mark)
(d) Write out the first sentence of the Shema. (2 marks)
(e) Explain the meaning and importance of Shabbat for Jews. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)
(SEG Paper 1480/1, Section A, 1998 Short Course Specimen Questions)

4. (a) (i) When does the Sabbath begin and end? (2 marks)
(ii) How may Jews ‘keep the Sabbath’? (6 marks)

QUESTIONS 41
 (b) Explain the importance of Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitvah (or Bat Chayil) for
the Jewish community. (8 marks)
(c) ‘Religions should treat both sexes equally.’ Do you agree? Give reasons
for your answer showing you have considered another point of view. (4 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(London (1479) Specimen Papers for 1st examination May/June 1999)

5. (a) Name the three parts of the Tenakh. [3]

(b) What do Jews believe about the Messiah? [5]
(c) Explain why Jews believe that the Torah is so important. [7]
(d) ‘It is important for religions to have a statement of belief like the Shema.’
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show that you have
thought about different points of view. [5]
(MEG, Summer 1998, Sample Paper)

42 QUESTIONS
 Judaism: A glossary

Afikomen
‘Dessert’: half a matzah hidden for children to find during the Seder
Aggadah
Part of the Jewish oral law; it deals with Biblical interpretations, theology and ethics
Aleynu (Aleinu)
The closing prayer at each service
Amidah
‘Standing’: a prayer said standing at all services; a series of 18 Benedictions, forming the core of
Jewish worship
Aron hakodesh
‘Holy ark’ containing Torah scrolls
Ashkenazim
Jews from central and Eastern Europe
Atonement
The purpose of the ritual of Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16): it refers to recon-
ciliation between God and humanity (at-one-ment), the relationship, broken by sin, being restored
Bar Mitzvah
‘Son of Commandment’: initiation for 13-year-old boys marking the attainment of religious
maturity
Bat Mitzvah
‘Daughter of Commandment’: initiation ceremony for 12-year-old girls
Bet Din
A Jewish court of three rabbis ruling on Jewish law
Bet t’filah
House of prayer
Bet hamidrash
House of study
Beytza
Roasted egg which is part of the seder plate and symbolises sacrifice
Bet ha Knesset
‘House of Assembly’: synagogue
Bimah
A desk or platform for reading the Torah and leading services
Brit(also berit)
Covenant
Brit milah
The ‘Covenant of Cutting’ (circumcision)
Challah
Yeast-leavened white bread made with egg, eaten on the Sabbath and ceremonial occasions

GLOSSARY 43
Hanukkah
The Feast of Dedication; also the Feast of Lights
Chazan
The leader of reading, singing and chanting in services. Also Hazan or Cantor
Cheder
A class in which Jewish children are taught Hebrew and Jewish religious history and principles
Circumcision
The rite of Brit Milah, involving the cutting off of the foreskin of boys on the eighth day
after birth by a qualified mohel
Covenant
An agreement between God and men; for example, with Abraham
Day of Atonement
See Yom Kippur
Decalogue
The Ten Commandments given by God to Moses on Mt Sinai
Derasha
Sermon during Bar Mitzvah ceremony
Deuteronomy
Fifth book in the Bible, and part of the Torah
Diaspora
The dispersion of the Jews throughout the world, particularly after the fall of Jerusalem
in 70 CE, it is often referred to by the Hebrew word Galut
Election
The belief that the Jews were selected by God for a special divine purpose
Erusin
Betrothal for marriage
Essenes
Jewish mystics and devotees of the Torah from the second century BCE to the second century
CE. They often separated themselves in communities as at Qumran near the Dead Sea
Exodus
Second book in the Bible telling the story of the Hebrew’s passage to freedom from slavery
in Egypt
Gehenna
In Jewish apocryphal literature the equivalent of hell
Gemara (also Gemarah)
Commentary on Mishnah, included in the Talmud
Genesis
First book in the Bible, part of the Torah
Genizah
Storage place for disused scrolls
Haftarah
‘Completion’: a passage from the prophets read in the synagogue on the Sabbath
Hagadah
‘Telling’: the book used at the Seder ritual on the eve of the Passover to recount the liberation of
the Jews from slavery. Also Haggadah
Hallot
Plait-shaped loaves shared on Sabbath
Halakhah
The legal system of Judaism
Harmetz
Ordinary food
Hallel
Chant of praise used in the Passover and some other holidays. Psalms 113–18
Hanukiah (also Chanukiah)
Eight-branched candelabrum used at the festival of Hanukkah
Hasidism (Chasidism)
A mystic pious movement dating from the eighteenth century

44 JUDAISM
Hasidim
A movement of the second century BCE which opposed the Hellenizing of Jewish life;
the Essenes and Pharisees were offshoots of this movement. Also: an eighteenth-century
movement which favoured the power of simple, joyful piety rather than the intellectual
requirements of talmudic learning
Haskalah
From a Jewish word meaning ‘Enlightenment’; applied to an eighteenth-century movement
which resulted in a new emphasis on education and a resurgence of the study of Hebrew and the
Jewish scriptures in a modern context
Havdalah
‘Distinction’: a service held in the home at the end of the Sabbath; it can also be held in the syna-
gogue
Hebrew
A Semitic language in which the Jewish scriptures are written, also used by Jews for prayer and
study
Holocaust
The extermination by the Nazis of millions of Jews during the Second World War
Hoshanah Raba
The Great Hosanna. It’s the last day of the festival of Sukkot
Huppah (or Chuppah)
Four-posted canopy used for wedding ceremony
Israel
‘One who struggles with God’; this was the new name for Jacob. It refers to the world-wide com-
munity of Jews, and the land and state of Israel
Kabbalet Shabbat
Evening service celebrating climax of creation when God had completed his work
Kabbalah (or Cabala)
(Lit: ‘that which is handed down’) Jewish mysticism
Kaddish
‘To make “holy”’: a prayer of sanctification used in mourning ceremonies and in the synagogue
service
Karpas
Spring vegetable usually parsley eaten at the Passover. It’s dipped in salt and water to represent
the sweat and tears of the Israelites
Kosher (Kasher)
Those categories of food that Jews are allowed to eat, it includes the preparation of such food
according to the dietary laws
Kashrut
Jewish dietary laws
Kehilla
A community of people (referring to the synagogue)
Ketubah
The marriage document received by a Jewish bride from her husband, and signed by both, it sets
out the duties which the bridegroom is to perform for her
Ketuvim
‘Writings’: the third section of the scriptures
Kibbutz
A voluntary, collective community These are found in Israel, and are mainly agricultural; there
is no private wealth, the community being responsible for the needs of the members and their
families. It began in 1909 in Deganyah, and there are now over 200 such communities with
around 100 000 members
Kiddush
‘Holy’: a prayer of sanctification at the start of the Sabbath
Kittel
Long white smock worn in the synagogue
Kohen
Priests in the temple; the word survives in the surname Cohen

GLOSSARY 45
Kol nidrei
Prayer said for persecuted Jews
Leviticus
Third book in the Bible, part of the Torah
Maccabees
A Jewish noble family which led the revolt against the attempt by Antiochus IV Epiphanes to
crush the Jewish faith in 168 BCE; under Judah Maccabaeus the Jews restored the Temple in 164
BCE
Machzor
The prayer book for festivals
Magen David
‘Shield of David’ (usually called the Star of David): a hexagram made up of two interwoven equi-
lateral triangles
Masekhtot
Divisions of the Shisha Sedarim
Maror
Bitter herbs; one of 3 components of the seder
Matzah
Unleavened bread (plural matzot) used in the Passover Festival to commemorate the Exodus
from Egypt
Memra
Aramaic term for ‘word’, it is used in the Jewish Targums to avoid any possibility of suggesting
that God acted directly or in human form
Menorah
Seven-branched candelabrum, originally there was a golden one in the Temple in Jerusalem; it
now refers to the candelabrum used in the Feast of chanukkah
Mezuzah
A small metal container holding sections of the Torah; these are fastened to the right doorpost of
the house and of rooms in Jewish homes
Midrash
(‘to search out, expound’): the teaching and commentaries of the rabbis on scripture; Halakhic
Midrash deals with the Law and Aggadic Midrash deals with the narrative of scripture
Mikveh
A ritual bath for spiritual cleansing
Minyan
Quorum of ten men needed for a service; progressive communities include women but do not
always need a minyan
Mishnah
The authoritative collection of oral law in Hebrew. It is the basis of the Palestinian and
Babylonian Talmuds and dates from around 200 CE
Mishteh
A feast
Mitzvah (Plural: Mitzvot)
Literally means ‘commandment’; also means obligation or duty required by God of the Jews
Mohel
Someone who performs circumcision
Moses
The leader and lawgiver at the time of Exodus
Nephesh
Hebrew ‘soul’, but also indicating emotions or physical appetites, this word occurs over
700 times in the Bible
Ner tamid
Eternal light above the Ark
Nevi’im (Nebi’im)
‘Prophets’, the second section of the scriptures
Numbers
The fourth book of the Bible, and part of the Torah

46 JUDAISM
Omar
Ameasure, e.g. of grain
Onan
Mourner
Parev (Also Pareve)
‘Neutral’: food which is neither milk nor meat – for example, plants, eggs, fish
Pentateuch
First books of the Bible. Also called the Torah
Pesah
Bone; one of the 3 components of the seder
Pesach
Passover: festival commemorating the Exodus from Egypt
Pharisees
Aramaic: ‘separated ones’, the successors of the Hasidim, they were the founders of Rabbinic
Judaism. They stressed the oral tradition and strictly observed the Torah
Phylacteries
see Tephilin
Pidyan naben
Redemption of the First-born son ceremony. The first rite of passage
Pirke Aboth ‘Ethics of the Fathers’: Law worship and kindness
Pogrom
Organised massacre, or exile, particularly in Russia and Romania in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries
Priest
A person called by God for the delivery of a special message, particularly those who have given
their names to books of the Bible
Purim
The festival celebrated on Adar 14 with the reading of the book of Esther to commemorate her
success in preventing the massacre of Jews by Haman
Rabbi (Also Rebbe – Hasidic)
Lit: ‘My master’, an authorised Jewish teacher
Rosh Hashanah
Literally ‘Head of the Year’: Jewish New Year autumn festival
Sadducees
Conservative Jewish priests, important in the first centuries BCE and CE, they recognized only
the written Law, and denied resurrection and the after life. They died out after the
destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE
Sanctification
In the Jewish Bible this means purity and separateness. The Israelites were told to sanctify the
Lord of Hosts (Isaiah 8:13), to recognize his sovereign claims, and to sanctify themselves
(Leviticus 11:44)
Sanhedrin
The highest Jewish tribunal, it had 71 members which met in Jerusalem. The term derives from
the 70 elders who advised Moses. It ceased to exist around 425 CE
Satan
Hebrew: ‘the accuser’
Seder
Lit: ‘order’: the ritual followed at the Passover supper
Sefer Torah
Torah scroll kept in the synagogue Ark
Sefiroth
In Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah), these are the ten attributes of God which link the celestial to the
earthly world.
Sendah
Meal eaten after Bar Mitzvah ceremony
Sephardim
Jews from the western Mediterranean, especially Spain, Portugal and North Africa

GLOSSARY 47
Septuagint
The Greek version of the Jewish Bible
Shabbat (Plural: Shabatot)
Day of rest, the seventh day when God rested after the six days of creation (Exodus 20:11), it
also celebrates Israel’s delivery from slavery in Egypt (Deuteronomy 5:15)
Shavuot
The Feast of Weeks, celebrated 50 days after the Passover. This marks the start of the wheat
harvest, and remembers the giving of the Law to Moses on Mt Sinai
Shechita
Ritual killing of animals according to the rules for Kosher food by an authorized slaughterer
Shekhina
A term used in the Targums to signify God. It stands for the radiance, glory or presence
of God
Shema
(Lit: ‘Hear!’) (Deuteronomy 6:4) ‘Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One’. This is
said twice a day as an affirmation of belief in the doctrines of Election and Monotheism
Sheol
Old Testament place of the dead, equivalent to the Greek Hades; later it became the place where
the wicked are punished after death
Shishah Sedarim
The 6 orders in the Mishnah (part of the Talmud or ‘teaching’)
Shiva/Shivah
Seven days ‘sitting’ by the bereaved in their homes
Shofar
Ram’s horn blown in the synagogue at the festival of Rosh Hashanah, and at the end of Yom
Kippur; it remembers Abraham’s sacrifice of the ram instead of Isaac
Shulchan Aruch
Lit: ‘The set table’, refers to the book compiled by Joseph Caro (1488–1575 CE), an
authoritative code of Jewish law
Siddur
‘Order’ or ‘arrangement’: the prayer book for daily use, and for the Sabbath and occasional
use
Simhat Torah
Lit: ‘Rejoicing in the Torah’, it is a day at the end of the festival of Sukkoth that marks the
start of the annual cycle of readings from the Torah
Soul
Hebrew thought saw human beings as bodies vitalized by the soul
Spirit
The Spirit of God is seen as the agent of Creation (Genesis 1), of Prophecy (Ezekiel 37),
and of special powers in humankind (Numbers 11)
Sukkah (Plural: Sukkot)
‘Tabernacle’ or ‘Booth’: temporary shelter used for meals and sleeping during the Feast of
Tabernacles
Sukkot(h)
Feast of Tabernacles celebrated in the Autumn, Tishri 15–21
Synagogue
Meeting place for worship
Tallit(h)
Prayer shawl, white and blue in colour, worn by males at morning services and at all services
on the day of Atonement
Talmud
The major source of Jewish Law, it contains the Mishnah (oral law), and the Gemara
(rabbinic commentaries on the Mishnah)
Targum
Aramaic interpretative translation of parts of the Hebrew Bible
Tashlikh ceremony
Afternoon ritual in which prayers are said at a source of water (running if possible)

48 JUDAISM
Taryag
A word formed from the initials of the words six hundred and thirteen. It refers to
the 613 mitzvot (laws) given by the Torah
Temple
Built by Solomon around 950 BCE, it was destroyed in 586 BCE. The second temple was
dedicated in 516 BCE. Herod began a rebuilding in 19 BCE. This, the last temple, was
destroyed in 70 CE
Tenakh
The Jewish Bible with three sections: Torah, Nevi’im and Ketuvim
Tefillin (also T’filin, Tephilin)
Phylacteries (two small cubic boxes of leather, fastened by straps to the forehead and arm for
morning prayers on weekdays. They contain four Biblical texts written on parchment.
Jewish men wear them
Tobit
The central figure in a book of the same name in Jewish Apocryphal writings
Torah
Hebrew ‘Law’, which applies particularly to the Law of Moses (the first five books of the Bible);
in a general sense it can be translated as ‘teaching’
Tractate
A section of the Mishnah
Trefa
Non-kosher food
Tzizit
Fringes on the corners of the tallit and on the undergarment worn by Orthodox Jewish men and
boys
Yad
The hand-shaped pointer used in Torah reading
Yad vashem
‘Eternal memorial’ to the Holocaust. A bare room lit by a candle with names of concentration
camps on the floor
Yadrzeit
‘Year time’: the anniversary of a death
Yahweh
The name of the Israelite God
Yamulkah
Skull cap worn during prayers and Torah study, which some Orthodox men wear continually
(Sometimes also Capel and Kippah)
Yeshiva
College for Talmudic and Rabbinic studies
Yiddish
Mixed dialect of German, Slavonic (for example, Polish) and Hebrew
Yom Kippur
The Day of Atonement: A fast observed on Tishri 10, bringing to an end the ten days of penitence
which start with Rosh Hashanah
Zaddikim
Lit: ‘righteous ones’, the leaders of the eighteenth-century Hasidim movement
Zeroa
Piece of lamb which is part of the seder plate to commemorate the Temple sacrifice
Zionists
Those who sought to set up a Jewish state in Palestine (Israel) and who support its continued
existence
Zohar
The major work of Jewish mysticism, it was written by Moses de León in the thirteenth century,
and is in the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch
Zemirot
Songs sung between the courses of the Sabbath meal

GLOSSARY 49
PART II

Christianity
 6 Origins and definitions

6.1 Introduction
A Christian is a person who believes in Jesus Christ and follows him as Lord and
Saviour. He was given the name Jesus to denote the object of his mission – to ‘save’.
For Christians it is important to live life as closely as possible to his teachings as set out
in the New Testament.
The prophets had been silent for centuries until John the Baptist proclaimed
Christ’s ministry. John is seen as the Elijah figure that Malachi spoke of in chapter 4:5–6.
Jewish tradition had long taught that one day God would send a Messiah, meaning a
deliverer and King of the Jews. He would be from King David’s family, an anointed
deliverer (note that Messiah originally meant ‘anointed’). It would be his purpose to
restore the fortunes of Israel. So the name Christ means anointed or Messiah.
There had been many before Jesus who were called ‘anointed’: for example,
Moses’ brother Aaron, King David, and even Cyrus the king of Persia, who was non-
Jewish. However, by the time Jesus appeared, ‘Messiah’ had come to mean someone
sent by God to drive out the Romans who had made Israel a part of their empire. Prior
to Jesus and for 50 years after his ministry, there were a number of ‘Messiahs’ who
were unsuccessful.
Jesus stands out as special because he was a spiritual Messiah sent to restore the
faith of Israel and lead the spread of God’s covenant to the rest of the world. Most Jews
rejected him, so he told his disciples to take his message to the Gentiles (non-Jews). So
Christians believe that those individuals of whatever race who accept Jesus as the
Messiah are the ‘New Israel’; the new ‘Chosen People’ of God’s Covenant.

6.2 How we know about Jesus

There is a reference in the writings of the Roman historian Tacitus, who was explaining
the name of the ‘Christians’ put to death by Nero, and the standard history of the Jews
written by Josephus towards the end of the first century CE also refers to Jesus.
However, almost all we know comes from the four Gospels in the New Testament.
Christians believe that:
● Jesus was the revelation of God Himself
● he shows Christians what God is like
● he is the culmination of centuries of God’s revelation recorded in scriptures that go
back hundreds of years before His time.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 53

Christians look for the authority of Christ and are thus led to the authority of the Bible
– the two are inseparable:
● Jesus revealed God to people in a way that the Old Testament could never have done
in that people saw him, touched him, spoke to him and so forth. Obviously people
today were not there, so they have to turn to the New Testament to find the revela-
tion of Christ.
● He intended this, because one of his important aims was to select and train disciples
to preserve and pass on his teaching. The New Testament contains the record of
what they taught.

6.3 Jesus and the Old Testament

Jesus explained that he had not come to abolish the law and the prophets but to fulfil
them. He said that ‘till heaven and earth pass away, not an iota, not a dot, will pass
from the law until all is accomplished’ (Matthew 5:17–18). He also explained that
‘Everything written about me in the law of Moses and the prophets and the psalms
must be fulfilled.’
● He believed it is the word of God.
● He believed its statements.
● He obeyed its commands.
● He said he came to fulfil the pattern of redemption it set down.
Jesus uses the Old Testament in a wide variety of episodes:
● to settle arguments with opponents
● in his battle with Satan
● teaching the disciples
● his ethical rules are drawn from the law of Moses
● when he was on the cross
● after the resurrection when ‘beginning with Moses and all the prophets, he
interpreted to them in all the scriptures the things concerning Himself’ (Luke 24:27).

6.4 How the New Testament endorses the Old

Testament
● It quotes and alludes to the Old Testament to show God’s character and purpose.
● The writer of Hebrews says that God spoke through the prophets.
● Paul told Timothy that all scripture is inspired by God.
● The New Testament makes no distinction between what God says and what scrip-
ture says.

6.5 The life of Jesus

His Birth
Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Palestine, which was part of the Roman Empire. His
parents, Joseph and Mary, had to return to Bethlehem because the Romans were
holding a census which required everyone to go back to their home town. An angel

54 CHRISTIANITY
appeared to Mary to tell her that she would give birth to a son called Jesus, who was
the long-expected Messiah.

His ministry
The work of Jesus is known as his ministry. It began after He was baptised by John the
Baptist in the River Jordan. This ministry began when he was 30 and lasted for three
years. He chose 12 disciples to share his life and work and to continue to spread the
Gospel after the Ascension (when he was taken up to Heaven). His work included
healing the sick, restoring the sight of the blind, casting out demons, feeding the
hungry, and preaching.

What Jesus taught

He travelled around Israel teaching about the coming of the Kingdom of God. To get
into the Kingdom, a person must believe in the word of God. Earthly position, for
example having a religious office, carries no weight. The Kingdom is open to tax
collectors, prostitutes, the poor; anyone, as long as they have faith.
Jesus taught much of his message in parables. These are earthly stories with reli-
gious meanings. They can be found in the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke.
Examples include the good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37) and the sheep and the goats
(Matthew 25:31–46)

The Last Supper

This was at the time of the Passover meal, and Jesus had arranged to borrow a
room for this meal with the disciples. Judas Iscariot had gone to the chief priests,
who wanted to arrest Jesus, and offered to betray him for 30 pieces of silver. At
the supper, Jesus announced that he knew, and added: ‘The Son of Man is going the
way appointed for him in the scriptures … ’. This means that the Old Testament had
foretold his birth and death. He had come to die to atone (pay for) the sins of those
who believed in him. During the supper he took bread and gave it to the disciples with
the words: ‘Take this and eat; this is my body.’ Then he took a cup of wine and they
all drank from it. He said: ‘This is my blood, the blood of the covenant, shed for
many … ’.
He was teaching them that they were God’s chosen people in a new way. It was
not because they were Jews but because they loved Jesus. This was the beginning of the
Christian ritual of Holy Communion. It is important because Christians believe that he
is with them during communion, and that it acts as a bond between them, and with
him.

The Crucifixion
The Jewish religious leaders did not like Jesus and they plotted to get rid of him. He
was arrested and taken to Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Palestine. Against his
better judgement, Pilate tried Jesus and had him crucified. This was on what is now
called Good Friday. This particular period of time (a week) is known as Holy Week or
Passiontide (see section 9.10). The crucifixion is vital to Christians, who believe that
Jesus died on the cross to cleanse the sins of humankind. This is known as the
Atonement. In the spiritual sense, Christians ‘die to sin’ and are reborn in the love of
Christ; their spiritual life is resurrected because of Jesus’ sacrifice.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 55

The Burial
Joseph of Arimathea asked Pilate for Jesus’ body. It was taken from the cross and
wrapped in a shroud. Then it was buried in a tomb in a rock. The traditional site of the
burial is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem outside the city wall. Some
think that Jesus was buried in the garden tomb.

The Resurrection
This was on what is now called Easter Sunday. The Gospel writers tell the story as
follows.

Matthew
● Two women looked for the tomb.
● There was an earthquake.
● The stone at the entrance to the tomb was rolled away by an angel.
● The women were told by the angel that Jesus had been raised from the dead.

Mark
● Three women brought spices to anoint the body.
● They wondered how to roll away the stone.
● They found the stone already rolled away.
● When they entered the tomb they were alarmed.
● They were told by a man in white that Jesus was resurrected.

Luke
● Three women took spices to the tomb.
● They went into the tomb.
● The body was gone.
● Two men in dazzling garments told them about Jesus’s resurrection.

John
● Mary Magdalene (one of the followers of Jesus) went to the tomb and found
the stone rolled away.
● She told two disciples, who went back to the tomb with her.
● They found the wrappings from his body.
● The disciples went away, but Mary went back into the tomb and saw two
angels. Then Jesus appeared to her.

Summary of points of agreement in the Synoptics

(1) The women went to the tomb.
(2) They found that it was empty.
(3) They were told about Jesus’ resurrection.

Jesus’s appearances after the Resurrection

(1) Matthew In Chapter 28 (from verse 9) he appears first to the two women
named Mary and then to the disciples.

56 CHRISTIANITY
(2) Mark In Chapter 16 (from verse 9) he appears first to Mary Magdalene and
then to the others.
(3) Luke In Chapter 24 (from verse 13) he appears to two of his followers on the
way to Emmaus, and at Emmaus, and then later to Simon and then to all of
them at Jerusalem.
(4) John In Chapter 20 (from verse 14) he appears first to Mary Magdalene and
then to the disciples. The whole of Chapter 21 is about his appearances after the
Resurrection.
(5) The Acts of The Apostles In Chapter 1 he appears to his followers and then
ascends into heaven. In Chapter 9 Saul, while on the road to Damascus, finds a
light from heaven shining around him. He falls to the ground and heard a voice
say ‘Saul, why do you persecute me?’. When Saul asks who it is, Jesus identifies
himself.
(6) 1 Corinthians 15.

The importance of the Resurrection

For Christians, the Resurrection is the greatest miracle and the ultimate sign of God’s
action in Jesus. It is the act of God that fulfils the scriptures, and which gives authority
for believing in the living Christ. It means that God will act again in history through
Christ’s return (this is known as ‘the second coming’) and that this will happen at the
end of the world. He will carry out final judgement and bring God’s eternal reign in
peace and justice. Paul relates that he was told that Jesus appeared to Cephas, the
Twelve and to ‘over 500 of our brothers at once … ’ Then he appeared to James and
afterwards all the apostles. In the end he appeared even to me (verses 5–8)

The Ascension
After his post-resurrection appearances, Jesus went up to Heaven. This can be found in
Mark 16:19; Luke 24:51 and Acts 1:9–11.

6.6 The birth of the Church

Pentecost
This is the Jewish harvest festival 50 days after the feast of the Passover. The Jews
went from all over the Roman Empire to Jerusalem to celebrate the giving of the Torah
to Moses on Mt Sinai.
The Acts of the Apostles say that the disciples were in the upstairs room
where they celebrated the Passover meal with Jesus before his death just a few weeks
before. They heard the sound of a powerful rushing wind, and little flames of
fire appeared and came down on the head of each disciple. This was the Holy Spirit
giving them the gift of tongues so that they could spread the Gospel to people of every
race.
Peter went out and spoke to the crowd and by the end of the day 3000 people
had come forward for baptism. This was the founding of the Christian Church. Peter
and the others stopped calling themselves disciples (followers) and became instead
‘apostles’ (or those sent out to do the work). There were twelve of them.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 57

6.7 The spreading of Christianity
Jesus had said that Peter was to be the rock on which the Church would be built, and
Peter did lead the Church at first. He went on preaching tours, but he was not keen on
Gentiles or non-Jews being welcomed as equal partners into the Church. Then Paul, a
man who had ruthlessly persecuted Christians before he became one himself, became
the dominant figure. Paul made three missionary journeys and wrote letters to the early
Christian communities to advise and guide them.
Christians were often persecuted at this time and especially during the reign of
Nero. Christians worshipped in each other’s homes, or in synagogues in the early years.
Churches were not specially built for centuries. The real turning point came when the
Roman Emperor Constantine became a convert and made Christianity the official
religion of the Empire, which at that time covered the entire Mediterranean region and
what are today France and Britain.

The Early Church in the British Isles

Christianity was probably first brought to the British Isles by Roman soldiers, mer-
chants and traders. St Alban, who was beheaded at Verulamium in the third century
CE, is the first Christian soldier known to us.
St Patrick, who was an escaped slave from Ireland, arrived in England 200
hundred years later. He trained to be a priest before returning to Ireland in 431.
Patrick’s work was to make Ireland an important source of Christian missionaries.
A good example was Columba, who sailed with 12 companions to the Island of
Iona, off the west coast of Scotland. It was from here that Christianity was spread
across western Scotland and the English kingdom of Northumbria.
One of the Iona monks, Aidan, founded the monastery at Lindisfarne, off the coast
of Northumbria, in 635.
St Augustine was sent by the Pope Gregory 1 in 597 to convert the English, but
found that there was already an established Christian community. He converted the
King of Kent, Ethelbert, who gave him land on which the first cathedral was built at
Canterbury. Augustine was the first archbishop of Canterbury.

The Great Schism

This was when the Church split into East and West in 1054. There is more about this
in Chapter 14.

The Inquisition
This began in 1233 when Pope Gregory IX ordered the trial and torture of anyone
suspected of heresy. It was the job of the Inquisition to do this. Punishment for the
guilty ranged from fines and prison to burning at the stake. Heresy means the denial or
dissenting from Christian doctrine by someone who is a Christian.

The Reformation
The Reformers, led by Luther and Calvin in the sixteenth century, wanted changes in
the Roman Catholic Church. This was rejected, so new Protestant Churches were set
up (see Chapter 14).

58 CHRISTIANITY
The Reformation in England
Henry VIII made himself head of the Church in England (see Chapter 14).

The twentieth century

Important developments have been:
(1) the World Council of Churches set up in 1948
(2) the Second Vatican Council 1962 to 1965.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 59

 7 Christian beliefs

7.1 The Trinity

Christians believe that God shows Himself to humankind in three ways – as
● Father
● Son (Jesus Christ) and
● Holy Spirit.
This is known as the Trinity. It does not mean that there are three Gods: Christianity
allows that there is only one God.
The Father sent the Son, Jesus, to Earth, and after the Ascension, the Holy Spirit
has continued to work for God in human affairs.

7.2 God the Father

● Everything in existence has been created by God.
● God as Father cares for the whole of His creation, especially humankind, which He
has made responsible for looking after it.
● God is directly involved in the affairs of the world. In other words, He did not create
it with the intent of leaving it to its own devices.
● God loves unconditionally.

7.3 God the Son

● God lived on Earth as Jesus.
● Jesus was the promised Messiah, who would die on the Cross to save humankind
from sin, as prophesied in the Old Testament.
● He was fully human and so could feel all the emotions that human beings can.
● He was conceived of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary.
● After His death on the Cross he rose from the dead three days later as a sign that
man can die to sin and live again in eternal life with God.
● God made Him the judge of all people.
● He will return one day in the Last Judgement and set up God’s Kingdom on
Earth.

60 CHRISTIANITY
7.4 God the Holy Spirit
● Jesus promised the disciples that he would always be with them, so when he
ascended into Heaven, his Spirit was sent as their guide.
● This happened on the Day of Pentecost.
● The Spirit lives in Christians to bring guidance, strength, courage and inspiration.

7.5 The communion of saints and the

forgiveness of sins
The communion of saints is made up of all the saints who, having died and gone to
Heaven, are in a position to intercede on behalf of others. Sins are forgiven if people
repent and try to change their ways. A saint is someone whose life on earth was except-
ionally holy, and is given this status by the Pope. Protestantism does not believe in
intercession.

7.6 Heaven
Christians believe that this is where Jesus is ‘sitting at the right hand of God’. This is
where the righteous will go as their reward when they die.

Some Biblical references to heaven

● Jesus calls it his ‘Father’s house’ (John 14:2)
● ‘the heavenly Jerusalem’ (Galatians 4:26; Hebrews 12:22; Revelation 3:12)
● the ‘Kingdom of Heaven’ (Matthew 25:1; James 2:5)
● the ‘eternal kingdom’ (2 Peter 1:11)
● the ‘eternal inheritance’ (1 Peter 1:4; Hebrews 9:15)
● the ‘better country’ (Hebrews 11:14, 16)
● the blessed ‘reign with Christ’ (2 Timothy 2:11)
● Those who go to heaven have ‘life everlasting’ and ‘an eternal weight of glory’
(2 Corinthians 4:17)

7.7 Purgatory
Roman Catholics believe that all baptized souls who have died without repentance for
venial sins (those sins which though serious do not destroy the relationship with God);
or who have not paid their punishment for sins from which the guilt has been removed,
go to purgatory. It is a place for those in receipt of Grace, and who are therefore saved,
but who are not yet fit to enter heaven. Protestantism rejects the doctrine of purgatory
for the following reasons:
● it is without scriptural foundation
● it retains the idea of punishment after forgiveness
● it implies that the Satisfaction of Christ (his death on the Cross to atone for the sins
of the world) is insufficient
● it spoils the Gospels’ promise of a complete forgiveness of sins.

CHRISTIAN BELIEFS 61
7.8 Hell
In traditional Christian theology this is the place regarded as the state of utter and irrevo-
cable damnation for the soul after death. There are three words for it in the Bible.
(1) Sheol This appears 65 times in the Old Testament. It is the place of disembodied
spirits who are the ‘congregation of the dead’. It is the abode of the wicked.
(2) Hades This is a Greek word found in the New Testament. It is a prison (1 Peter
3:19), with gates and bars and locks (Matthew 16:18; Revelation 1:18). The
righteous and the wicked are separated. The blessed dead are in that part of
Hades called paradise (Luke 23:43).
(3) Gehenna This is the place of the lost (Matthew 23:33). Jesus warns of an
‘unquenchable fire of “Gehenna’’ ’ (Mark 9:43–8).

7.9 The Last Judgement

This is the sentence that will be passed on our actions at the last day. The judge is
Jesus Christ as mediator; all judgement is committed to him. Those to be judged are:
(1) the whole race of Adam (that is, all humans) without a single exception
(2) the fallen angels.

7.10 Creeds
A creed is:
● a formal statement of religious belief
● a confession of faith and
● an authoritative statement of certain articles considered essential to a religion.
By the end of the second century CE a summary of Christian beliefs had formed; it was
called the ‘Rule of Faith’ and had two purposes:
(1) to preserve true teaching or doctrine
(2) to combat false teaching or heresy.
When the Emperor Constantine became a Christian, the Church was able to expand
across the Roman Empire. The Empire had two capitals: Latin-speaking Rome in the
West, and Greek-speaking Constantinople in the East. This led to disagreements about
belief. From the discussions that followed, two important doctrines or teachings
emerged;
● the doctrine of the Trinity – This is belief in God in three persons: Father, Son and
Holy Spirit.
● the doctrine of the Person of Christ – This is also known as Christology. It involves
the study of Christ’s person, qualities and deeds.

Arius and the Arian Heresy

In 318 CE a priest called Arius, whose parish was Alexandria in Egypt, said that:
● only the Father is God
● Jesus is less than God, because he was created by him.

62 CHRISTIANITY
This became known as the Arian Heresy and led to the meeting of a council of bishops in
325 CE at Nicea. It was decided that Father and Son were ‘consubstantial’, which means
both of one substance. By the time this and other decisions had been fully considered it
was 381 CE, the official statement being made at the Council of Constantinople.
A later council at Chalcedon in 451 CE summarised the original Nicea decisions
and has come down to us as the Nicene Creed. The words vary according to which
service book is used.
The Nicene Creed established that Jesus is fully God.

The Nicene Creed

I believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all
things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son
of God, begotten of His Father before all worlds, God of God, begotten not
made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made;
who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate
by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man, and was crucified also
for us under Pontius Pilate. He suffered and was buried, and the third day he
rose again according to the scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on
the right hand of the Father. And he shall come again with glory to judge both the
quick (living) and the dead: whose kingdom shall have no end. And I believe in
the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father and
the Son, who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified,
who spake by the prophets. And I believe one holy catholic and apostolic Church.
I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins. And I look for the resurrec-
tion of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

The wording and English style is more modern in the latest service books.

The Athanasian Creed

This appeared in the middle of the fourth century but was rather too long to come into
general use. Its opening words are a useful summary of why creeds are important:
Whosoever will be saved: before all things it is necessary that he hold the Catholic
Faith. Which Faith except everyone do keep whole and undefiled; without doubt he
shall perish everlastingly.
Athanasius, who produced this creed, was the Bishop of Alexandria. He defended the
Council of Nicea and attacked the growth of Arianism, preventing an East–West split.
This was despite the fact that he was banished five times by leaders who were in favour
of Arianism.
Athanasius was convinced that if Jesus were less than God, then he could not be
the saviour of humankind. It was largely due to his determination that the agreement of
Nicea was confirmed.

The Apostles’ Creed

This creed gets its name because it preserves the teaching of the first apostles. The
original was a third-century question-and-answer baptism creed. The straight state-
ment form dates from around 400 CE.

CHRISTIAN BELIEFS 63
 The Apostles’ Creed
I believe in God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth:
And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord, Who was conceived by the Holy
Ghost, Born of the virgin Mary, Suffered under Pontius Pilate, Was crucified,
dead, and buried, He descended into hell; The third day he rose again from the
dead, He ascended into heaven, And sitteth on the right hand of God the Father
Almighty; From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Ghost; The holy Catholic Church; The Communion
of Saints; The Forgiveness of sins; The Resurrection of the body; And the life
everlasting. Amen.

The Council of Ephesus (431 CE)

This looked into a number of beliefs:

Sabellius
Sabellius was a third-century teacher who said that God could not be Father, Son and
Spirit at the same time. He could only be one of these at any given moment. This
heresy was dealt with in the Nicene Creed.

Apollinarius
Apollinarius was the Bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He said that:
● Jesus could not have a human soul because of the corrupt nature of humanity;
● instead he had only his divine nature ‘enfleshed in a human body’.

Nestorius
Nestorius was a theologian and deacon of Antioch who became Bishop of
Constantinople in 428 CE. He believed that:
● Jesus was both God and man;
● these two natures were separate;
● God could never be a new-born baby, so the two natures must have remained sepa-
rate when he became human in Jesus;
● Mary was the mother of the human Jesus, but not the ‘bearer of God’.
Having looked into these beliefs, the Council of Ephesus decided to reaffirm the creed
as it was. Nestorius was declared to be a heretic. Even so, he had a large following and
his ideas continued. Nestorian ideas were challenged by Eutyches, a monk from
Constantinople. Another council was called to debate the issues. It met at Chalcedon
in 451 CE.

The Council of Chalcedon (451 CE)

400 bishops decided on the wording for the earlier creeds of 325 and 381 (Nicene
Creed), plus a new confession which confirmed belief in the union of Jesus’s two
natures in one person.

64 CHRISTIANITY
Summary of Councils
(1) The Council of Nicea (325 CE) – dealt with the Arian Heresy: the ideas of
Arius that only the Father was God.
(2) The Council of Constantinople (381 CE) – confirmed the Nicea decisions and
tackled further heresy.
(3) The Council of Ephesus (431 CE) – dealt with Nestorius’ ideas that Jesus
was God and man but with separate natures; credal statements were
confirmed.
(4) The Council of Chalcedon (451 CE) – said that Jesus was God and man with
two natures which exist without separation. The wording of earlier creeds
was finalized.

CHRISTIAN BELIEFS 65
 8 The Christian Bible

8.1 Some general points

● The Bible is the first and primary source of authority in Christianity.
● It is a library of history, letters, psalms, poetry and biography.
● The Christian Bible contains the Jewish scripture. Christians call this the Old
Testament. It contains 39 books of Jewish scripture. The Old Testament is the root
from which Christianity grew.
● The New Testament was added to this. It is the story of the life and teaching of
Jesus and the growth of the early Christian Church.

8.2 The New Testament

The New Testament contains the following:
● the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John
● the Acts of The Apostles
● the 13 letters of St Paul
● eight other letters by early Christian leaders
● the Book of the Revelation of John the Divine.

8.3 The Gospels

For Christians, these are the most important part of the Bible. The word ‘Gospel’
comes from the Old English words for ‘good news’, which is a translation of the Greek
‘evangelion’. This is why the Gospel writers are called evangelists; they are spreading
the ‘good news’ about the Messiah.
The Gospels are written documents about the life of Jesus. Each gospel writer
selected information and organised it to show Jesus in a particular way. The gospels of
Matthew, Mark and Luke are similar, and so are known as the Synoptic Gospels (the
name comes from ‘synopsis’, which means a summary or presenting an account from
the same point of view).
The Synoptic Gospels were long thought to be based on Mark’s Gospel, which
was written around 60 CE. However, many scholars are no longer convinced that
Mark was written first: a piece of manuscript held in the Bodleian Library has caused a

66 CHRISTIANITY
stir, because it includes a fragment of Matthew’s gospel and has been dated because of
its style as having been written around 40 CE.

8.4 Why the Gospels were written

The Gospels were written by Christians for Christians and for non-Christians:
Matthew wanted to convince his fellow Jews that Jesus really was their Messiah. They
were written for a theological reason, in that they have information in the form of
history and background plus interpretation. The information was handed on orally at
first, and the preaching of the Apostles was added to it. The Gospels concentrate
mostly on that period of the life of Jesus known as the ministry; that is, the three years
leading up to the crucifixion, when he was preaching and performing miracles.
There are five main reasons why the Gospels were written:

(1) To win converts to Christianity

In the early days there was an oral tradition based on the testimony of the many wit-
nesses to the life of Christ. As long as they lived it was easy to correct any misunder-
standings or inaccuracies. Gradually, of course, that generation would die out. Then,
in 64 CE, the Emperor began the first major persecution of Christians, in which Peter,
Paul and many other important Christians were killed. Clearly, the oral tradition had
to be recorded before it was lost or before it became so distorted as to be useless.

(2) To teach new converts and train new leaders

As the old leaders died or were killed, a new generation would have to take over the
leadership. Paul’s Letters reveal that Christian communities could lapse into their pre-
Christian/un-Christian practice, leading to disagreement and strife. The written
Gospels would show the way forward.

(3) To clarify doctrine

There was a need to correct any misconceptions about points of doctrine. The Gospels
could be used to instruct interested Gentiles.

(4) To meet the need for readings during worship

(5) To deal with the hostility of the Jews
It was hoped that a written account would help to win over Jews who so far had been
unconverted.

8.5 Mark’s Gospel

This was probably written between 60 and 70 CE in Rome, where the author heard it
direct from St Peter. This would account for its vividness. It is the shortest Gospel and is
ascribed to John Mark. It is thought that he wrote for a non-Jewish readership because:
● he takes the trouble to explain Jewish customs.
● words are translated from Aramaic.
● the emphasis on the suffering of Jesus and the possibility that his disciples may have
to suffer too.

THE CHRISTIAN BIBLE 67

Mark displays five major themes in his writings:
● miracles
● parables
● conflict
● discipleship
● the arrest, trial and death of Jesus.
Mark shows the kind of Messiah that Jesus was. He explains the authority of his teach-
ing and actions, and he reveals that something special happened through his ministry.
He shows God at work through Jesus, emphasising the wonderful things done by him
and the places he went to.

8.6 Matthew’s Gospel

This was probably written around 10 years after Mark’s Gospel. Matthew, who was an
ex-tax collector and one of the apostles, wrote for his fellow Jews. He shows Jesus as
the long-expected Messiah, and sets out to show how he fulfilled the Old Testament
prophecies concerning the Messiah. So this Gospel more than any other is the link
between the Old and New Testaments. The Jews expected a political leader to free
them from the Romans, so Matthew emphasises that Jesus said that his was the
Kingdom of Heaven.
Matthew collects Jesus’ teaching in five sections which alternate with sections of
the narrative. Jesus is portrayed as a second Moses, giving God’s new law, just as
Moses had given the old law. The old Israel is succeeded by the New Israel, which is
the Church. There is a lot of teaching about the Kingdom of Heaven (God).

Episodes found only in Matthew

Parables
● The wheat and the tares 13:24–30
● Hidden treasure 13:44
● The pearl 13:45, 46
● The net 13:47–50
● The hard-hearted servant 18:23–35
● The vineyard workers 20:1–16
● The two sons 21:28–32
● The marriage of the king’s son 22:1–14
● The wise and foolish virgins 25:1–13
● The talents 25:14–30
● The sheep and goats 25:31–46

Miracles
● The two blind men
● The possessed dumb man
● The coin in the fish’s mouth

Incidents
● Joseph’s dream
● The visit of the wise men

68 CHRISTIANITY
 ● The escape to Egypt
● Herod’s massacre
● Pilate’s wife’s dream
● The death of Judas
● The saints resurrected in Jerusalem
● The bribing of the guard
● The great commission

8.7 Luke’s Gospel

This is the fullest life story of Jesus, and was written around 85 CE. It is the first part of
a two-part history of Christian beginnings: the second part is the Acts of the Apostles.
Both parts are dedicated to the Roman, Theophilus.
Luke’s Gospel shows the Gospel message as there for all people: sinners, the poor,
and outcasts. As a biographer, Luke shows us Jesus the man, the Saviour whose
coming is a world event.
The Gospel does not tell us the author’s name, but the evidence suggests that it is
Luke the doctor, Paul’s companion on his missionary journey. He writes for non-Jews
but is equally familiar with Greek and Jewish backgrounds. Archaeology also shows
him to be an accurate historian. Luke’s Gospel is put together from reliable first-hand
sources. Luke knew Mark and worked with him – Mark’s Gospel is one of his sources.
Luke gives stories concerning women more emphasis in his account than Matthew and
Mark did.

Luke’s guidelines for those who would follow Jesus

(1) Be willing to ‘take up his cross’ day after day (9:23–7).
(2) Be the servant of all (9:46–8).
(3) Accept the possibility of homelessness: ‘the Son of Man has nowhere to lay
His head’ (9:58).
(4) Put even family considerations second; as when Jesus told a man who
wanted to bury his father to ‘Leave the dead to bury their dead’ (9:59–60).
(5) Do not be distracted by your family: a man wanted to say goodbye to his
family and might have been persuaded to change his mind. Jesus said, ‘No-
one who sets his hand to the plough and then keeps on looking back to fit
for the Kingdom of God’ (9:61–2).
(6) Make known the message of God and He will judge those who reject it
(10:1–24).
(7) To get eternal life ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all
your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neigh-
bour as yourself’ (10:25–8).
(8) Be like the Good Samaritan (10:29–37).
(9) Do not be distracted from the Word of the Lord by everyday routine; this is
shown in the story of Mary listening to Jesus while Martha rushed around
the home doing her work (10:38–42).
(10) Be willing to give all if necessary (14:25–33).
(11) Forgive up to seven times seven (17:1–4)

THE CHRISTIAN BIBLE 69

 (12) Sell everything to give to the poor ‘and you will have riches in Heaven’
(18:18–30).
(13) Give as willingly as Zacchaeus did (19:1–10).

8.8 John’s Gospel

This was the last Gospel to be written, probably around 90 CE. It is very different from
the others: it assumes that readers already know the facts of Jesus’s life. It adds to the
other accounts.
The emphasis is on interpreting and showing the meaning of what took place. John
selects signs from Jesus’s many miracles to show who he was. There are no parables in
John. Most recorded events occur in and around Jerusalem. The main theme of this
Gospel is Jesus as Messiah and Son of God.
John may have been Jesus’ cousin (his mother Salome being the sister of Mary), or
he may have been the brother of James, who with Peter made up the inner circle of
three who were the leaders of the disciples. These were the three who were allowed to
see the transfigured Christ. Jesus committed His mother to John’s care as they stood at
the foot of the Cross.

8.9 The main differences between John and the

synoptic gospels
(1) The setting of Jesus’s ministry
● John has Jerusalem rather than Galilee as the focus of the ministry.
● He records the early ministry in Judaea which preceded that of Galilee.
● The earlier Gospels only cover the last week of Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem.
● John recounts a three-year ministry, not a one-year ministry.
● His style and language differ greatly from the synoptics.

(2) John makes notable omissions from the story

He does not include:
● the birth narratives
● the temptation
● the transfiguration
● the mission of the twelve
● the institution of the Last Supper
● the prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane.
Also:
● Parables in the earlier Gospels are largely missing from John.

(3) The dating of Jesus’ death

The Synoptics identify the Last Supper with the Passover meal, whereas John puts it
before the Passover. So, the Crucifixion took place before the Passover meal, not after it.

70 CHRISTIANITY
(4) The character of the Gospel is different
Jesus’s teaching and the miracles are linked
● The miracles are ‘signs’ through which the glory of Christ is seen and faith deepened.
● These signs are often the occasion of Jesus’ teaching: for example, after the feeding
of the 5000, he gives his teaching on the Bread of Life.

New concepts
● John brings in new concepts such as ‘life’, ‘light’, ‘truth’, and ‘rebirth’.
● He uses contrasts such as truth and falsehood and light and darkness.
● There are important phrases used by Jesus to describe himself: ‘light of the world’,
‘the good shepherd’, ‘I am the way, the truth, and the life’.

John’s Gospel is more than history

● It reveals salvation from God.
● Jesus is the way to the Father because he has come from him.
● He announces that he is the revelation of God.

8.10 The Acts of the Apostles

This covers the 30 or so years from the birth of the Church at Pentecost to the end of
Paul’s imprisonment in Rome. It tells the story of the spread of Christianity westward
through the Roman Empire. The ‘Acts’ described are mainly the work of saints Peter
and Paul.
The book was probably written by Paul’s ‘dear friend Luke, the doctor’. He wrote
the third Gospel, and Acts is its sequel. Luke is the only non-Jewish New Testament
writer. He was present at many of the events he describes. This can be seen from the
way he changes from ‘they’ to ‘we’ in Acts 16: 10; 20: 5 and 27: 1. He was with Paul at
Philippi and went with him to Jerusalem. They spent two years together in Caesarea
and went to Rome, sharing the experience of the shipwreck.
Acts was written at the end of Paul’s two-year imprisonment in Rome in the early
to mid-sixties. It was written to give the Roman, Theophilus, the facts about
Christianity.

8.11 Paul’s Letters

There are 13 letters, which make up a third of the length of the New Testament. They
tell us what the apostles taught. They are a mixture of religious teaching and instruc-
tions on life and behaviour. The letters also tell us about the problems of the early
Church and Paul’s advice on how to solve them.
There are four groups:
(1) 1 and 2 Thessalonians are concerned about the return of Christ.
(2) Romans, Galatians and 1 and 2 Corinthians emphasise the gospel preached by
Paul.

THE CHRISTIAN BIBLE 71

(3) The ‘captivity letters’, which contain some of his best teaching. In all of them he
mentions that he is a prisoner. They are Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians and
Philemon.
(4) The ‘Pastoral Letters’, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, deal with Church leadership
and organisation.

8.12 The other Letters

These are:
● an anonymous letter (Hebrews)
● one by James
● two by Peter
● three by John
● one by Jude.
These letters are often grouped under the title of ‘General Epistles’ (the word ‘epistle’
comes from a Greek word meaning something sent, a message). Except for Hebrews,
which stands alone, they are addressed to a readership which is more general than
Paul’s. 2 and 3 John are for a specific person or Church.

8.13 The teaching of the Letters

God
● God is the pattern for Christian behaviour because he is a holy God who expects
holiness.
● God is Father.
● He is the Creator and author of the new creation.
● The sending of Christ into this world has brought about the cosmic reconciliation
of the world to God.

Jesus Christ
The letters reflect the fact that the early Christians explained their view of Christ in dif-
ferent ways.
● The title ‘Jesus Christ’ is used when showing Jesus as the Jewish Messiah. The use of
‘Lord Jesus Christ’ is used to acknowledge his sovereignty.
● Paul’s letters show the nature of Christ:
— he existed before the world was made;
— he became poor for our sakes (2 Corinthians 8:9);
— although equal with God, he humbled himself to be a man (Philippians 2:5–11);
— he is the exact ‘image’ of God (Colossians 1:15).
● Hebrews 1 says that he is fully God.
● Hebrews 2 says that he is a man as well; this allows him to be the high priest of his
people before God.
● Peter and John continue this theme.

72 CHRISTIANITY
● Through the Son the Father delivers salvation.
● Jesus Christ is the supreme expression of God’s love.

The salvation of man

For Paul, the only answer to this corrupt and evil world is the new age ushered in by
Jesus. The main theme of the Letters is the salvation, eternal life and the new creation.
The old pagan ways cannot exist side by side with life in Christ because he demands a
new morality by God’s law. This must be lived in Church life and Christian commu-
nity, and out in the wider world.

THE CHRISTIAN BIBLE 73

 9 Festivals and pilgrimage

9.1 The Church Year or Christian Calendar

The Church Year revolves around events in the life of Jesus.
In each week, Sunday is observed as a holy day. Other festivals and celebrations can
be observed; saints’ days and harvest festival are good examples. The observance of the
Christian Year is simply a matter of either Church regulation or custom. It is not a matter
of divine revelation – indeed, some sects regard festivals as sinful or at best irrelevant.
In the year there are three cycles:
(1) the Christmas Cycle, centred on Jesus’ birth
(2) the Easter Cycle, based on his death and resurrection
(3) The cycle of saints’ days commemorating notable followers of Jesus.

The Christmas cycle starts with Advent.

9.2 Advent
Advent starts on the fourth Sunday before Christmas Day.
● The Christian Year begins with the First Sunday in Advent.
● Advent means the drawing near or coming of Christ.
● Christians remember Jesus’ promise that he will come again in glory to judge the
world.
● In many churches an Advent candle is lit. Another candle is lit on each following
Sunday. The candles are a symbol to light the way for the Christ child. European
Reformed Churches have the custom of the ‘Advent Crown’, which has four candles,
one to be lit on each of the four Sundays.
● Children have Advent calendars to mark the days till Christmas.
● There are special hymns and readings in church. Sermons relate to the Advent theme.
● Christians examine their lives in preparation for the second coming of Christ, who
warned that he would return unexpectedly ‘like a thief in the night’.
● Some may fast during Advent.
Advent probably began in Gaul in the sixth century CE. Its length used to vary; one
calendar began it six Sundays before Christmas.

74 CHRISTIANITY
 The present practice of four Sundays dates from the time of Pope Gregory, who
died in 604 CE. The Old Testament readings of Advent foretell the coming of the
Messiah. The hymns and carols such as ‘O Come, O Come Emmanuel’, and ‘On
Jordan’s Bank’ reflect the message of the season.

9.3 Christmas
This is on 25 December in most Churches and is the most celebrated Christian fest-
ival. Some Churches, for example the Armenian Church, celebrate on 7 January.
● Churches are decorated with symbols of the story of the birth of Jesus (the crib and
holy family, the star of Bethlehem, wise men, shepherds and angels).
● Special services are held (Christmas Eve and Christmas Day).
● Carols are sung and nativity plays performed.
● Lessons in church focus on the birth of Jesus and its meaning.
● Presents, cards and greetings are exchanged, and families and friends gather for
merry-making.
● Homes and public places are decorated.
● The Christmas message is ‘Peace on Earth and good will to all men’.
Christmas is widely celebrated in the secular as well as the religious fashion. The name
derives from ‘Christ’s Mass’ (Eucharist or communion).
The Romans had a festival of the sun on 25 December and Saturnalia on
17 December, and the Anglo-Saxons had a winter festival at about this time, when the
god Woden was celebrated. They and the other Germanic peoples have given us the yule
log, mistletoe, and holly. Mistletoe was also important in Celtic pre-Christian religion.
These were times for feasting and enjoyment. Many customs derive from the mid-
winter solstice (21/22 December). The Christmas tree may derive from the Tree of
Paradise in mystery plays and is also associated with the evergreen of Germanic
custom. The custom of bringing trees indoors and decorating them was probably
brought to Britain from Germany by Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria.
Festivities continue because Christians believe that the birth of Jesus is the gift of
the only son of God to mankind to save sinners.
Carols are a mixture of religious and secular music. At one time they were songs
for dancing, hence the jauntiness of some of them.
The idea of Father Christmas or Santa Claus derives from the medieval feast day
of St Nicholas of Myra, held on 6 December. In legend he dealt out rewards or punish-
ments to children. This is perpetuated in the much-loved Christmas myth of Father
Christmas bringing presents on a flying sledge pulled by reindeer.
The Christmas Day feast of roast turkey used to be a goose and before that swan
was eaten in wealthy households. Britain has the custom of a Christmas pudding with
coins hidden in it.

9.4 The Feast of the Holy Innocents

This festival is celebrated on 28 December and is in remembrance of the slaughter of
all the boys in Bethlehem under the age of two because of Herod’s fear that the birth of
Jesus had produced a rival who would replace him. Its purpose is to remind Christians
that the innocent suffer for the sins of men. It also show that there is much unfairness

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 75

in the distribution of pain and happiness in this life, and that Christians have to trust
God to make sense of it all.

9.5 Epiphany
This occurs on 6 January. ‘Epiphany’ means ‘manifestation’ (seen/obvious/apparent).
In the fourth century CE it appeared in the Eastern Churches to commemorate three
‘manifestations’:
● Jesus’ birth
● his baptism
● his first miracle at Cana.
Earlier than this it had meant the manifestation of Jesus as the Son of God at his
baptism. When 25 December was adopted as the date to celebrate his birth, Epiphany
came to commemorate the adoration of the magi or the ‘manifestation of Christ to the
Gentiles’. The twelve days of Christmas are the interval between Christmas and
Epiphany. Celebrations may have processions centred around the magi or kings who
brought gold, frankincense and myrrh to the Christ child. The visit from these
Gentiles is seen as a sign that from his birth Jesus was Saviour and the Light of the
World.

The Easter cycle

This celebrates the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. He was crucified
during the Feast of the Passover, on the day before the Jewish sabbath. The
crucifixion is remembered on a Friday (Good Friday) and the resurrection on a
Sunday (Easter Sunday) – the actual days of the week when these events
happened. The first followers of Christ were Jews, so they added this new festival
to the old one which takes place at the full moon of the first month of Spring.
This is the reason why Easter does not have a fixed date. There is a period of
preparation called Lent, which lasts for 40 days.

9.6 Shrove Tuesday

This occurs in February or March, and is the day before Lent begins.
● The name comes from the Middle English ‘shriven’, which comes from the practice
of going to confession for absolution and penance before the start of Lent.
● The custom of eating pancakes arose because of the need to get rid of the fat in the
home before the fast of Lent. The French name for Shrove Tuesday is Mardi gras,
which means ‘Fat Tuesday’. Mardi Gras, the New Orleans carnival, gets its name
from this.

9.7 Lent
● ‘Lent’ is an Old English word for the season of Spring.
● This is the season of penitence and preparation for Easter.

76 CHRISTIANITY
● It lasts for 40 days, starting on Ash Wednesday, which may occur in February or
March. The Eastern Orthodox Church calls it the ‘Great Fast’.
● It was originally a period of instruction for baptism candidates; the baptism took
place at Easter.
● Traditionally Christians give up meat and rich food, although now, other things may
be substituted instead.

9.8 Ash Wednesday

Ash Wednesday is the Wednesday in the seventh week before Easter, so it may be
celebrated in February or March.
● It gets its name from the custom of a priest making the sign of the Cross with ash on
the foreheads of Christians during the Ash Wednesday service.
● Palm Crosses from the previous year may be burnt to provide this ash.
● This is a sign of penitence and a sign that Christians are no more than ashes before
God, and are dependent on his grace.
● At one time people wore sackcloth as a sign of penance.

9.9 Mothering Sunday

● This is the fourth Sunday of Lent.
● It was once called ‘Refreshment Sunday’ because Christians would visit the ‘mother’
church (possibly a cathedral) for spiritual refreshment.
● The Lenten fast is suspended and, traditionally, simnel cakes are eaten.
● Modern practice has added the title ‘Mothers’ Day’.

9.10 Holy Week

This is the last week of Lent. It remembers Jesus’ Passion – that is, his suffering
and Crucifixion – so it is also known as Passiontide. Christians follow Jesus’ progress
from his entry into Jerusalem until his burial. A narrative of this is read each day in
church and is taken from all four Gospels until they are read in full. This can be read
by a narrator with others speaking the words of Jesus or others who were there, and
there will be special choir presentations. These are the most important events in
Christianity.

9.11 Palm Sunday

This is the celebration of Jesus riding into Jerusalem. It marks the start of Holy Week.
● Anglicans and Catholics sometimes also call it ‘Passion Sunday’.
● Palm crosses are given out to remember that the crowd waved palm branches as Jesus
entered the city.
● There are special readings and hymns in church.

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 77

9.12 Spy Wednesday
This remembers the betrayal of Christ by Judas Iscariot.

9.13 Maundy Thursday

This festival commemorates the celebration of the Last Supper by Jesus and His
disciples.
● Maundy means ‘command’ or ‘commandment’ (from the Latin ‘mandatum’)
remembering the command of Jesus to do ‘this in rememberance of me’. This
includes taking communion and feet washing.
● He also commanded that they love one another, so Christians give gifts of charity.
The most famous symbol of this in Britain is the distribution of Maundy money by
the Queen.
● Altars are stripped of their decoration.

9.14 Good Friday

This remembers Jesus’ crucifixion.
● It is called ‘Good’ or ‘God’s’ because Christians believe that out of Jesus’ death came
the redemption of mankind and the conquest of sin.
● Services may last up to three hours, ending at three o’clock, the time when Jesus died
on the Cross.
● There are no decorations in church.
● There may be processions to remember the ‘stations of the Cross’ which are all the
stages leading up to the crucifixion.
● Catholic churches have a service of ‘Venerating the Cross’ where the priest and con-
gregation bow and kiss the Cross.
● Traditionally, hot cross buns are eaten to break the Lenten fast.
● Some churches have the Mass of the Presanctified, so called because there is no con-
secration of bread and wine. Instead, communion is given from the reserved sacra-
ment, which is consecrated bread kept from a previous Mass. It will have been kept
on a special altar surrounded by flowers and watched over all through the Thursday
night by devoted Christians who are responding to Jesus’ plea to the disciples in the
Garden of Gethsemane: ‘Could you not watch with me one hour?’.
● An example of local customs springing up is the ‘procession of the penitents’ in
Seville. Those involved are hooded so that they cannot be recognised and so cannot
have personal applause. This keeps the focus on Christ.
● Some other places have pilgrimages, during which a replica of the Cross is carried.

9.15 Holy Saturday

Ceremonies do not take place until the late evening.
In Romanian Orthodox churches, Christians remember that Jesus was in his tomb
at this time by putting an icon of the dead Jesus flat on a table. Sometimes it will be a

78 CHRISTIANITY
coffin. They then pass under the table from one side to the other to show the wish to
die with Jesus and rise again through his death to a new life free from sin.
Roman Catholic and some Anglican churches also keep a vigil. Before midnight the
people leave the church and the lights are put out. Then, at midnight, the Paschal
candle is lit and carried into the dark building, whose opening doors are symbolic of the
rolling away of the stone at the entrance of Jesus’ tomb. The candle is the light of the
Resurrection overcoming the darkness of death. Then, the Paschal candle is passed from
person to person to symbolise that Jesus, Light of the world, has risen from the dead.

9.16 Easter Day

Easter Day celebrates the Resurrection. It is the most important festival in the
Christian calendar, and is celebrated in March or April.
● Easter is observed on the first Sunday following the first new moon after the vernal
equinox (21 March).
● The celebration of Easter lasts for 50 days, until Pentecost.
● Easter gets its name from the Old English ‘easter’ or ‘eostre’, meaning a festival of
spring. Churches are decorated with flowers to symbolise Spring and new life.
● Traditionally, eggs are eaten as a symbol of new life. This is the origin of the custom
of giving chocolate eggs.
● Some churches have a service at sunrise to celebrate the Resurrection.
● Roman Catholics have the Easter Duty, by which they must receive the sacraments
of reconciliation and Eucharist.
● The Orthodox Churches begin Easter at midnight on Holy Saturday, when a light is
passed round in the form of candles and lamps in the darkened church. The body of
Jesus is looked for in an empty tomb with the cry of ‘Christ is risen!’ and the
response ‘He is risen indeed!’ This custom has been adopted by some of the African
Churches.

9.17 Ascension
Ascension always falls on a Thursday on the fortieth day after Easter. This is usually in
May, but may be on 30 April or in the first few days in June in some years. It celebrates
the return of Jesus to his Father after spending the 40 days following the resurrection
appearing to His followers. They were told to wait in Jerusalem for the Holy Spirit’s
power to come to them (Pentecost).

9.18 Pentecost
This is celebrated on the seventh Sunday after Easter, which will occur in May or June.
It celebrates the gift of the Holy Spirit to Jesus’ disciples and the start of the Church
and its mission.
● It became a popular time for the baptism of converts, who wore white robes to
symbolise new life. These robes gave the festival the name of White Sunday or
Whitsunday.
● Pentecost derives from the Greek ‘pentecoste’ (fiftieth day).

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 79

● Popular customs connected with Pentecost still exist in a number of places. For
instance, in the North of England, the Whit Walk and Derbyshire has the translation
of Well Dressing (when the well is decorated with flowers), although these are
probably pre-Christian in origin.
● There are processions and Sunday services have hymns on the theme of the Holy
Spirit.
● Clergy wear red vestments to symbolise the flames of fire in which the Spirit
descended to the disciples.

9.19 Trinity Sunday

This is the Sunday after Pentecost, so it occurs in May or June. It is the culminating
Sunday of the Christian year. It celebrates the glory of God as Father, Son and
Holy Spirit and is one of the days set aside for the ordination of priests in the
Western Church. The Orthodox Church celebrates the Festival of All Saints on this
Sunday.

9.20 Corpus Christi

This is a Latin name which means ‘the body of Christ’. It is the Thursday after Trinity
Sunday and is kept by the Roman Catholic Church as a day of thanksgiving for Holy
Communion. The principal celebration revolves around processions in which the con-
secrated bread is carried through the town in a monstrance, which is a silver vessel with
a small glass container in its centre so that the host (bread) can be seen. Some Anglican
churches also celebrate this festival.

9.21 The Sacred Heart of Jesus

This is on the Friday of the third week after Pentecost, falling in June or July. It is a
feast of the Roman Catholic Church. The symbol of Jesus’s heart is used to show his
love for mankind. Pictures of Jesus with a superimposed heart are widespread in
Catholic homes and schools.

9.22 The Transfiguration (6 August)

This remembers the time when the resurrected Christ was seen transfigured (changed
in appearance) and talking to Moses and Elijah.

9.23 Feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary

There are six of these:
(1) the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary (8 September)
(2) the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (8 December)

80 CHRISTIANITY
(3) the Annunciation of the Lord (25 March)
(4) the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary (31 May)
(5) the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (15 August)
(6) the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God (1 January).

9.24 Saints’ Days

The origin of these commemorations lies in the days of persecution faced by Christians
before Constantine became Roman emperor. At first there were simple memorials to
the martyrs. These churches were built over the tombs of martyrs and the anniversary
of martyrdom was kept as a special day.

Some of the principal saints’ days

● St Joseph of Nazareth (19 March)
● The Birth of John the Baptist (24 June)
● St Peter and St Paul (29 June)
● All Saints (1 November) (Originally All Martyrs)
● The Conversion of St Paul (25 January)
● St Barnabas (11 June)
● St Stephen (26 December) – he was the first martyr
● St Mary Magdalene (22 July)

The four evangelists have their own days, as do the 12 apostles.

9.25 St Michael and All Angels

This is on 29 September. Catholics celebrate saints Michael, Gabriel and Raphael in
their calendar. The Orthodox Church celebrates angels on 8 November.

9.26 Pilgrimage
This is not compulsory in Christianity and many Christians never even contemplate
pilgrimage. However, many do go to holy places and return spiritually refreshed and
with their faith strengthened. Christianity often uses the imagery of pilgrimage to
describe life’s journey; the inner pilgrimage of the soul in the quest to find and to know
God.
From the earliest times people have undertaken pilgrimages to the places associ-
ated with Jesus and the saints. Pilgrimages were very popular in the Middle Ages and
people would make a vow to go on a pilgrimage if their prayers were answered or to
make amends for some misdeed they had committed.
Apart from the obvious attraction of the Holy Land or Israel as it is today, there
were hundreds of minor places that attracted pilgrims because of miracles or healings
that had happened there.

FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 81

 Some of the best-known places to visit
● the Holy Land – especially Bethlehem, Jerusalem and Nazareth
● Rome – especially St Peter’s Church
● Canterbury and the tomb of Thomas à Becket
● Lourdes, where St Bernadette had visions of the Virgin Mary; this site is noted
for its spring which is associated with healing by its holy water
● Walsingham in Norfolk
● Lindisfarne and Iona, which have been monastic sites since the early days of
Christianity in Britain
● the tomb of St Cuthbert in Durham
● Downpatrick in Ireland, the traditional site of St Patrick’s tomb
● St David’s in Wales, the site of St David’s tomb
● Santiago de Compostela in Spain, for the tomb of St James

82 CHRISTIANITY
10 The denominations of the
Christian Church

10.1 Introduction
The Church in Rome became important because it had begun in the capital of the
Roman Empire. By the third century CE there were 40 000 Christians there, and it
had become wealthy, owning much property.

The Great Schism

The five main churches of the Empire were Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem and
Constantinople, and the leaders of these churches were called patriarchs. Problems
arose because they disagreed about matters of faith and the government of the Church.
This led to meeting of the first world-wide or ecumenical council at Nicaea in
325 CE. The differences were not settled, but the Nicene creed was produced. Further
councils were called to settle outstanding issues, but the row came to a head when the
patriarch of Constantinople condemned the filioque clause of the Nicene Creed, which
means literally ‘and the Son’.
Simply, the Church in the West says that ‘the spirit proceeds from the Father
(God) and the Son (Jesus)’. The Eastern Church claims that ‘The Spirit proceeds from
the Father’ and did not want the filioque clause (the ‘and the Son’ part).
So in 1054 the Church split between East and West.

10.2 The Roman Catholic tradition

● Roughly six out of ten Christians are Roman Catholics.
● Their leader is the Pope, or Bishop of Rome.
● St Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. Jesus gave him the ‘keys of the Kingdom of
God’. Most Catholic beliefs go back to Peter.
● These beliefs have been handed on to each new Pope by the ‘laying on of hands’.
This is called the Apostolic Succession.
● The Pope has the power to proclaim new doctrines when he speaks ‘ex cathedra’
(literally ‘from the throne’).
● He is regarded as infallible because Catholics believe that he is speaking with God’s
authority.

CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS 83
● There is a hierarchy with authority vested in the bishops. Countries are divided
into dioceses, each being headed by a bishop. The figurehead in each country is a
cardinal.
● There is a strict code of law called canon law. It covers all Church matters, and there
are canon lawyers to interpret it.
● Priests cannot marry.

The Second Vatican Council

The First Council took place in 1870 and involved all the cardinals and bishops of the
Church. Pope John XXIII called the Second (1962–5) and the following were
decided.
(1) The importance of prayer, worship and sacraments in the life of the Church can
never be replaced. (Note that there are seven sacraments in Catholicism:
baptism, the Mass [holy communion], confirmation, marriage, penance, ordina-
tion as a priest, and anointing the sick with oil.)
(2) The Mass should be said in the language of the congregation (the vernacular)
instead of Latin, and there should be new prayers and music.
(3) Worshippers should be encouraged to play a part in services.
(4) Cardinals, bishops, priests and ordinary members of the Church (the laity)
should have a part in running the Church.
(5) New links should be established with other Christian denominations, non-
Christian religions and those with no religion at all.
(6) There should be a rethink on issues such as abortion, birth control, and euthana-
sia (there was no change here).

10.3 The Orthodox tradition

The main facts
● In 1054 the Eastern Orthodox Church split from Rome because the pope’s represent-
ative went to Constantinople and excommunicated the patriarch (the leader of the
Church there), who promptly excommunicated the Pope in revenge.
● The two areas had grown apart, especially on matters of authority. The Pope
regarded himself as supreme, and the eastern bishops regarded all bishops as
equal.
● Other areas of dispute included the wording of the creed (the Eastern Church used
Greek, the West used Latin, thus causing difficulties of interpretation), the use of dif-
ferent types of bread (the East used ordinary bread; the West used unleavened
bread). Also, the status of priests was in dispute (the East allowed married men to
become priests).
● There are 75 million members of this Church and 300 bishops.
● The leaders are called patriarchs, with one for each country; the Patriarch of
Constantinople being the senior one.
● Its main area is in Eastern European countries such as Russia and Bulgaria, and in
the Mediterranean countries of Greece, Cyprus and Turkey.
● Britain has approximately 4000 members of the Orthodox church.

84 CHRISTIANITY
Marriage and the priesthood
Bishops are not married and have been a priest first. A man must be 30 before he
becomes a priest and cannot be married afterwards, although he can marry before.
Married priests cannot become bishops. If a married priest’s wife dies, he cannot marry
again unless he abandons his vows and gives up the priesthood.

10.4 Protestantism
Luther
Protestantism gets its name from the protest against the beliefs and practices of the
Roman Catholic Church.
In 1517 CE Martin Luther put forward 95 theses or points of protest for
discussion about corruption in the Church, in particular the sale of ‘indulgences’. An
indulgence was given by doing penance to gain the forgiveness of sin. The problem
arose when Christians were allowed to buy them to cut out the need for penance.
Luther was a German monk (1483–1546 CE).
Some people wished to avoid penance because it involved fasting, wearing sack-
cloth and going on pilgrimages. Luther said that forgiveness and salvation or
‘justification’ came through faith and prayer as St Paul had said in his letter to the
Romans. He also said that the Bible, being the Word of God (which is infallible), was
the only source of authority for Christians; not the Church.
He refused to stop saying this, so he was excommunicated by the Pope. This
meant that he was no longer a member of the Church. Many people liked his ideas
though, and by the time of his death in 1546, North Germany, Denmark and Sweden
had developed a form of Christianity called Lutheranism.

Calvin and Knox

Jean Calvin in Switzerland and John Knox in Scotland took up Luther’s ideas about
the Bible’s authority. The Scottish Church became known as Presbyterian, because
the ministers in Calvinist churches are called presbyters. Presbyters were originally
Elders or Senior figures in the Church.
These Protestant Churches were far removed from the Roman Church, having no
images and subordinating tradition to the authority of the Bible.

10.5 The Church of England or Anglican Church

This was formed because Henry VIII (1509–47) wanted to divorce Catherine of
Aragon so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. This divorce was not allowed by the
Pope, so Henry made himself head of the Church in England (by the Act of
Supremacy of 1534). Thomas Cranmer prepared for the Church of England the Book
of Common Prayer, which included material from the European reformers.
This process was taken much further under Edward VI (1547–53), and although
Mary I (1553–8) tried to make England a Catholic country again, it was too late.
Elizabeth I (1558–1603) made herself head of Church as well as state with a policy of
uniformity which meant that people not attending the Church of England were fined.
She took the title ‘Supreme Governor of the Church of England’.

CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS 85
 Some important points
● The Church of England is not just an English Church and can be found in
every continent.
● The ‘mother’ church is Canterbury Cathedral.
● The Archbishop of Canterbury is unofficial leader.
● It is the ‘established’ or official Church of England.
● The sovereign must belong to the Church because she or he is head of the
Church and must swear an oath to protect it at the coronation ceremony. The
monarch is crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
● Anglican bishops and archbishops can sit in the House of Lords; other
Churches cannot do this.
● The Church is governed according to the 39 Articles of the Church of England.
● Priests can marry.

There are four main beliefs that Anglicans should hold:

(1) The Scriptures contain all things necessary for salvation.
(2) The creeds contain all that Anglicans should believe.
(3) The two sacraments of baptism and Holy Communion should be celebrated
using the words of Jesus (as written in the Bible).
(4) Bishops lead the Church, but their line cannot be traced back through Peter to
Jesus Christ.

10.6 The Nonconformist or Free Churches

These began because many people thought that the Church of England did not go far
enough in its move away from the Catholic Church. They wanted a ‘pure’ Church and
so were called ‘Puritans’. They were called free or nonconformists because they
were (and are) Protestants who did not conform to the established church or Church
of England.

Nonconformists believe that:

● the state has no right to interfere in church matters
● the Church must be free to organise its own worship
● the authority of the Church is in the church, not in the government
● lay people should take the services in church
● a council of lay people makes decisions and policy.

The main Nonconformist or Free Churches are as follows.

The Presbyterians
Presbyterians follow the form of church government laid down by Calvin, the Swiss
Protestant Reformer.

86 CHRISTIANITY
 The Church is governed by Christ and a hierarchy of church courts. The authority
of the Bible is paramount. The importance of the local congregation is emphasised.
Worship is centred on Bible readings, a sermon on the reading, hymns and spoken
prayers by the minister.

The Congregationalists
The Congregationalists formed a congregation with their own elected leaders. They
believe that Church and state must be separate. They believe that each congregation is
governed by Christ’s Spirit, because where Christ is, there is the Church.

The United Reform Church

This was formed in 1972 when the Congregationalists and the Presbyterian Church of
England joined together.

The Baptist Church

Baptists believe that only when a person is old enough to make a conscious commit-
ment to Christ should they be baptised. The Church is governed by the Holy Spirit.
This church emerged in the seventeenth century, and has 40 million members world-
wide today.

The Quakers (Society of Friends)

This group was founded by George Fox in the seventeenth century. He wanted a
return to the faith and simple lifestyle of the early Christians.
The name ‘Society of Friends’ arose because Fox wanted his followers to be
Friends of Christ and of each other. The name ‘Quakers’ comes from the judge who
was trying Fox in 1650 and was told by Fox to ‘tremble [quake] at the voice of the
Lord’. Quakers believe that religion means to follow personal conviction. The Holy
Spirit is the sole inspirer of faith and operates freely without any church structure.
They are total pacifists.

The Methodists
Methodism was founded in the eighteenth century by John Wesley, who was a
Church of England clergyman. The name comes from Wesley’s days as an Oxford
student, where small groups called the Holy Club were very methodical in their
daily devotions and Bible study. The present Methodist church was formed in the
twentieth century from the Primitive Methodists, Bible Christians and Wesleyan
denominations.

The Salvation Army

This was founded in 1865 by William Booth, a former Methodist, to take the Gospel
to the poor in a healing and helping ministry (it was called the Christian Mission at
that time; the name Salvation Army was adopted in 1878). It is organised on military

CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS 87
lines. Today it holds outdoor meetings for worship, provides food and shelter for the
needy, helps ex-prisoners, searches for missing persons and carries out a wide range of
other forms of social work.

The Pentecostal Churches

These appeared in the twentieth century, mainly from the USA. They preach the
gospel ‘through the fire of the Spirit’. They have grown in popularity in Britain during
the last few decades.

The House Churches

In recent years some Christians have rejected the traditional denominational churches.
At first they started worshipping in each others’ homes, but as numbers have grown,
schools, halls and other places have been rented. Most are charismatic, emphasising
the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and displaying a more free, uninhibited approach to
worship.

10.7 The World Church

The Ecumenical Movement
This is a movement which seeks the unity of the various churches. Church leaders
meet from time to time to find shared beliefs and use them as a foundation to look for
further unity. There are shared services, and in remote areas, shared churches, plus
joint church schools.

The World Council of Churches

This was formed at Amsterdam in 1948 when 146 different Protestant Churches
formed a council. Many others have joined since. The modern HQ is in Switzerland. It
has five main divisions:
(1) Faith and Order
(2) Dialogue with people of living faith
(3) World mission and evangelism
(4) Theological education
(5) Church and society.
The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches are not members but they send
observers and co-operate wherever possible.

The British Council of Churches

This is formed by the Church of England and the Free Churches to deal with those
aspects of church affairs where co-operation is possible. Non-members send observers
to the meetings. Also, different churches worship together and share charitable and
other social work.

88 CHRISTIANITY
Other United Churches
The Church of South India
This was formed in 1947 by the union of the Anglican South Indian dioceses, the
Presbyterian and Congregational churches and the Methodists.

The Church of North India

This dates from 1970 and is made up of the Anglicans, Baptists, Congregationalists,
Methodists and Presbyterians.

CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS 89
 11 Places of worship

11.1 Introduction
The Christian place of worship is a church or chapel.
Every diocese of the Anglican and Catholic Church has a cathedral church, usually
shortened to cathedral. Cathedrals are large and are the focus of all diocesan services.
They are the headquarters of the bishop of the diocese.
Most Anglican parish churches as found in villages and towns were built before the
Reformation to a standard pattern.
Chapels are smaller and simpler in design, and are preferred by Nonconformist
Christians.
A diocese is an area controlled by a bishop.
A parish is an administrative sub-division of a diocese and has its own church.

11.2 Anglican churches

Most of these were mostly built before the Reformation and are either rectangular or
cross-shaped (Figure 11.1). There is a door at one side and a belfry, bell tower or
spire, at the end of the nave at the opposite end to the altar. There may be paintings on
the walls, put there in earlier times to teach the life of Jesus and other Bible stories
because many people were illiterate. Stained glass windows were once put in for the
same purpose, but were later decorative or symbolic. It was also common for wealthy
people to pay for a stained glass window as a memorial to themselves, their family or a
long-serving clergyman.

The main parts of the church

The nave
This is the central part of the church where the congregation sits. It used to be com-
pared to a ship (Latin navis means ship), the congregation being on the journey of life
with the clergy as the sailors of the ship.

The Chancel
This is raised above the floor level of the nave, and is made up of the sanctuary at the
end, and the choir.

90 CHRISTIANITY
 Figure 11.1 A traditional medieval-style church, now used for twentieth-century
worship

High altar
CHANCEL
chancel rail

CHOIR choir stalls

lectern pulpit

NORTH nave altar SOUTH

TRANSEPT TRANSEPT

NAVE

font ENTRANCE
(on south side)

The altar
In traditional churches this is found at the eastern end of the chancel. Essentially, it is a
table used to make an offering to God. Holy Communion is delivered from here.
Designs vary from ornate to simple, with embroidered cloths appropriate to the time of
the Church year. On the altar will be found a cross and candles. There are altar rails
between the altar and the rest of the church because it is the focus of the church, and is
the most holy place within it.

The lectern
The Bible stands on this for readings during the service. It is usually made from brass
or wood and is often in the shape of an eagle with outspread wings to symbolise the
spread of the Word of God.

The pulpit
The sermon is delivered from the pulpit. It is made of wood or stone and often has
ornate carvings.

PLACES OF WORSHIP 91
The font
This is where baptism takes place. It looks like a basin on a pedestal, and may be
ornately carved. The wooden cover dates from the days when it was thought necessary
to stop people from taking the holy water which was believed to have healing
properties.

11.3 Roman Catholic churches

Roman Catholic churches have an altar for the celebration of mass as the focal point of
the church. There are normally pictures of the Holy Family and the stations of the
Cross (14 pictures of scenes from Jesus’ journey to Calvary) on the walls around the
inside of the church, plus statues of the crucified Christ, the Virgin Mary, Joseph, and
any saint particularly favoured by that church. There are wide altars where candles can
be lit and prayers offered. These are often dedicated to the Virgin Mary or one of the
saints, and the worshipper may ask that they intercede with God on their behalf.

Other features
The Confessional
This is for the priest to hear confession and give absolution before a person can have
communion. It is a booth with a partition which the priest sits behind to hear the
person confess their sins.

The sacristy
The priest puts on his robes here and it is also where artefacts are kept.

The Lady Chapel

This is dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

The font
This is at the side or near the back of the church, and if there is no font then for bap-
tisms the priest will bring a bowl of water to the altar.

The tabernacle for the Blessed Sacrament

This is where the bread and wine for mass are kept.

11.4 Eastern Orthodox churches

These are either in the shape of a Greek cross or they are square. Either way, there is a
large dome over the center. The hieron is where the liturgy is celebrated. The naos is
where the congregation meets. The iconostasis is a solid screen between the two parts. It
has three doors and is covered with pictures.
● The north door is the servers’ door
● the centre door is the royal or holy door, and
● the south door is the deacons’ door.

92 CHRISTIANITY
There are three areas behind this:
(1) the diaconicon, where priests put on their robes. Equipment is kept here too.
(2) the chapel of prothesis where the bread and wine are prepared
(3) the domed sanctuary where communion takes place
The only seats are reserved for the elderly and the weak. There are icons (holy pictures)
and niches for candles on the walls. On the east side is the altar, with a bishop’s throne
behind it. The altar is covered by a white cloth, and on that is a seven-branched can-
dlestick, a copy of the gospels, and a painting of Christ. The narthex is at the entrance
to the church. This is the stage crossed by novice Christians.

Symbolism in Orthodox churches

● The square of churches so shaped represents order and equality.
● The floor of the nave represents the Earth.
● The four corners stand for the evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John).
● The dome stands for eternity.
● The candlestick represents the seven gifts of the Spirit and the seven sacraments.

11.5 Nonconformist or Free churches

These are very simple in design, having no status or artefacts, and tend to be more
modern. They are usually rectangular and may double up with non-religious uses.
The pulpit is quite near the centre, with the communion table in front of it. There
is a cross on the table – and this can be a Latin cross; a Celtic cross, which has a circle
around the point where the cross beam meets the upright; or a Calvary cross, which
has three steps to represent faith, hope and love.

PLACES OF WORSHIP 93
 12 The family and rites of
passage

12.1 Introduction
Christians see their lives as a journey to be with God. There are important events or
rites of passage that punctuate this journey; hence the word ‘passage’. They do not
travel alone but are part of the community of Christians making the same journey. The
journey is from birth to death and another life with God.

12.2 Baptism
This is normally the first rite of passage and infant baptism is combined with the
naming of the baby.
● The priest pours water from the front on to the baby’s head and says ‘I baptise you
in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit’ (Figure 12.1). The
baby now belongs to the Christian Church, which is the family of Christ.
● Since a baby is too young to understand, there will be a number of godparents, to
make the vows for the child.
● First, the priest asks the parents and godparents if they know what they are doing.
Then they have to make three vows which will be confirmed in a later ceremony.
● Water is used because Jesus was baptised in water and so it has come to mean the
start of a new life in Christ.
● A candle is given to the parents and godparents to show that the child has passed
from darkness into light.
● This service is often called a ‘christening’, which is an Old English world meaning ‘to
make someone a Christian’.

Orthodox baptism
The main steps
The baby is immersed in water and is then dressed in white.
Next comes chrismation or anointing with oil, the priest making the sign of the
Cross on the forehead, eyelids, nostrils, ears, lips, chest, hands and feet, as he says: ‘the
seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit’.

94 CHRISTIANITY
 Figure 12.1 Anglican baptism, St Bartholomew’s, West Ham, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

95
 A lock of the baby’s hair is cut as a sign that he or she is now committed to
Christianity. The baby is also given a crucifix to wear.
The child is now a full member of the Church and can have Holy Communion.

The meaning of the symbolism

● Chrismation takes the place of Protestant confirmation.
● Water symbolises the cleansing of sin and a new life in Christ.
● The oil (chrism) symbolises healing and confirms that the baby will grow strong in
Christ.

Anglican baptism
The minister reads from the gospel account about how Jesus cared for children. The
child is brought to the font and is attended by the parents and godparents (usually
three) while the minister prays and then tells the parents about their responsibility for
the Christian upbringing of their child. The baby is then baptised with water in the
name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Lighted candles are given to those present.
The baby is blessed and is then seen as a member of the Church.

Roman Catholic baptism

Again, membership of the Church is by baptism. The parents and godparents (usually
only two) affirm their faith and renounce evil on behalf of the child and themselves.
Using oil of catechumens the priest makes the sign of the Cross on the baby’s head.
Holy water is poured over the baby’s head while the priest says: ‘I baptise you in the
name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost (or Spirit)’. The baby is
anointed with oil of chrism on the chest. There is also a white baptismal shawl for the
baby. The parents are given a candle lit from the Paschal candle. One or more of the
Christian names of the child will be that of a saint, whose qualities it is hoped will be
followed by the child as he or she grows up.

The meaning of the symbols

● Chrism – a symbol of healing, showing that the child is called to share in God’s
Kingdom
● oil of catechumens – used to welcome new members
● white shawl – the baby is pure and sinless
● candle – Christ is the light of the world; this is why it is lit from the Paschal candle.

Adult baptism
Some of the Protestant churches (for example, the Baptists) are opposed to infant
baptism and have what is called believer’s baptism. The person is totally immersed in
water and is baptised in the name of the Father, Son and Spirit. Immersion in water
symbolises drowning or dying to sin, and being born again in Christ (see Romans 6:
3–11 and John 3: 3–8). This is where the term ‘Born Again Christian’ comes from. Of
course, many Christians who were baptised as a baby may wish to be baptised again as
believers.

96 CHRISTIANITY
Dedication
Some believe that a child should decide for itself whether or not to become a Christian.
They hold a dedication service instead of a baptism after the baby’s birth. This can also
be called a ‘Service of Thanksgiving’. This service involves thanking God for the gift of
a child, the promise to bring it up in the Christian way, and that they will dedicate their
child to God.

12.3 Confirmation
This completes the act of baptism by renewing the vows made for a person by others
when he or she was baptised. The person is confirmed – strengthened to live a
Christian life.
● The candidate for confirmation is prepared by a priest and is then confirmed by the
bishop.
● In the Catholic Church this can happen from the age of seven, after which they can
take their first Holy Communion. Other Churches prefer to wait until the child is
older.
● Having received the Holy Spirit at baptism, the person is now given power for work
in the Church.
● In the Orthodox Church, confirmation and baptism are a single act.

12.4 Confession/Penance/Reconciliation
This is a sacrament of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Originally, the sinner
acknowledged or confessed his or her sin to God through a priest. The priest has the
power to grant absolution or forgiveness in the name of God, provided that the
person had repented. The emphasis is now on reconciliation because sin creates a
barrier between people and God. Sorrow and commitment to change brings this
reconciliation through the forgiveness and love of God. Confession is also found in
the Anglo-Catholic/High Anglican tradition. Sometimes confession is called an act of
contrition.

12.5 Communion
● This receiving of bread and wine (Figure 12.2) celebrates the Last Supper of Jesus
and the Disciples.
● It is called the Body and Blood of Christ.
● Catholics must first attend confession and say prayers of repentence for the forgive-
ness of their sins so as to be in a state of Grace before they can receive Communion.
A child must be aged seven or above before this can happen, because this is regarded
as the age of reason.
● In the Orthodox Church any baptised member of that faith can have Communion.
● Some Protestant denominations have confession.

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 97

 Figure 12.2 Communion in a Roman Catholic church
(ICOREC Circa Photo Library)

12.6 Marriage/matrimony
This is the union of a man and a woman in the sight of God.
Anglicans read the Banns on each of the three Sundays before the wedding so that
anyone with an objection can make it.

98 CHRISTIANITY
The ceremony
The groom and his family and guests arrive at the church first, to wait for the arrival of
the bride. Traditionally she wears white and there will be a great deal of fuss in her
preparation (Figure 12.3). She is led to the front of the church by her father, whose job
it is to ‘give her away’ (if she has no father then another man of her choice, perhaps an
uncle, will substitute).
The priest talks to those present about the meaning of marriage. The bride and
groom promise to ‘love, cherish, for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness
and in health till death do us part’. The priest blesses the ring(s) which are slipped on
to the third finger of the left hand, both saying: ‘With this ring I thee wed’. With the
words: ‘Whom God has joined together let no man put asunder’, the priest pronounces
them man and wife. Hymns are sung and prayers are said at various points in the
service, and there is a sermon.
The Orthodox tradition calls the marriage ceremony ‘crowning’ and the words
‘The servant of God (name) is crowned unto the handmaid of God (name). In the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.’

The failure of marriage

Divorce is not allowed by the Roman Catholic Church. However, if couples separate,
they can use an agency such as RELATE or the Catholic Marriage Advisory Council
(CMAC) to find reconciliation. Anyone of any religious belief, or none at all, can ask
for help. Anglicans accept divorce.

Annulment
Sometimes there may be circumstances which make a marriage invalid. The Roman
Catholic Church may, for example, appoint an official to examine such a claim. If sub-
stantiated, the marriage will be declared null; it is annulled (cancelled). This means
that when the couple have a legal divorce as well they will be free to marry someone
else. Circumstances for annulment include the following:
● The marriage was not consummated, which means that sexual intercourse has not
taken place.
● One or both partners was not competent to make vows.
● One or other partner conceals the fact he or she is unable to have children.
● One partner refuses to have children after having agreed to before marriage.
● Any sort of compulsion or pressure behind either person marrying.

Remarriage
Once divorced, neither partner, if Roman Catholic, is allowed to remarry in church
and will have to undergo a civil ceremony in a registry office. They are also considered
to have cut themselves off from the sacraments of the Church, though in practice this
rule is not strictly adhered to.
In the Church of England the decision about whether to allow remarriage in
church is up to the vicar or rector of the parish concerned. The decision will depend on
the reasons for the breakdown of the first marriage. Some clergy may only be willing to
perform a service of blessing after a civil ceremony in a registry office.

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 99

 Figure 12.3 A wedding in Westminster Cathedral

100
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

CHRISTIANITY
12.7 Family
Christianity teaches that marriage and the family are the natural flowering of the
Christian religion. Its purpose is to provide a stable, loving setting for the bringing up
of children. The Ten Commandments say that children should honour their parents.
The New Testament says that parents should not alienate their children, and should
regard them as gifts from God.
Many churches and Christian groups run youth clubs and parent and toddler
groups, plus other social events to bring Christian families together in a sense of com-
munity and fellowship. Also, there are family services in church specially designed to
appeal to parents with young families.

Birth control
Many couples choose to limit the number of children they have: this might be for
financial reasons; or it might be that the health of the woman would be at risk if she
had too many children. Whatever the reason, artificial contraception, such as condoms
and the pill, are popular and are accepted by most Christian denominations.
The Roman Catholic Church only permits natural methods (such as abstention
from sexual intercourse when the woman is fertile), though many Catholics ignore this
ruling.

12.8 Death and burial

Death for the Christian means leaving this earthly life for an everlasting life, in which
the soul goes to live with Christ in heaven.
The dead person is prepared for the funeral by being washed and placed in a
coffin. A service will be held in a church, chapel, the home, or at a crematorium
chapel.
In this service there is often a sermon explaining the Christian view of death, and a
eulogy, which is a speech in praise of the deceased. There will be appropriate readings
from the Bible, and favourite hymns will be sung.
Burial can be by cremation or in a grave, though cremation used not to be
accepted in the Catholic or Anglo-Catholic traditions. This was because the body is
supposed to reunite with the soul on the Day of Resurrection, when it is believed that
Jesus will come back and judge the living and the dead.

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 101

 Questions

1. (a) What is meant by ‘baptism’? [2]

(b) Describe what happens at a Christian baptism service [6]
(c) Explain how parents might bring up their children to live a Christian life [7]
(d) ‘All Christians should have their children baptised.’
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show that you have
thought about different points of view. [5]
(MEG Sample Paper 1998)

2. (a) Choose either Christmas or Easter.

Give an account of:
(i) a special service of worship held only during the festival.
(ii) the Christian beliefs on which the festival is based.
(b) Explain how either Christmas or Easter shows the importance of family life.
(c) ‘Easter is a more important festival for Christians than Christmas.’
Do you agree? Give reasons for your opinion, showing that you
have thought about more than one point of view. (Total 20 marks)
(NEAB Paper 2, Short Course, 13 June 1997)

3. (a) What is Holy Communion? (2 marks)

(b) Describe the role of the priest at Mass. (6 marks)
(c) Explain why the Eucharist is important to Christians. (8 marks)
(d) ‘It is not necessary to go to Mass in order to be a good Catholic.’
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer showing that you have
considered another point of view. (4 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(London (1479) Specimen Paper for May/June 1999)

4. (a) Describe how the followers of Jesus received the Holy Spirit on the
Day of Pentecost. (7 marks)

102 QUESTIONS
 (b) Explain:
(i) the importance of this event; and
(ii) what Christians believe about the Holy Spirit.
(c) Christians claim that the Holy Spirit is active in the world today.
Do you think this claim can be proved? Give reasons for your answer.
(Total 20 marks)
(SEG SYL A, Paper 2, June 1993)

5. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) Give one other name for the eucharist. (1 mark)
(b) Name one of the four gospels. (1 mark)
(c) What is the word for the Christian belief that God is three persons in
one? (1 mark)
(d) Name two people who visit Jesus’ tomb and find it empty according to
Luke chapter 24. (2 marks)
(e) ‘Any set pattern for worship will always end up being lifeless and boring.’
How far do you agree with this statement? Give reasons to support your
answer and show that you have thought about different points of view. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)
(SEG Paper 14801/1, Section A, 1998 Short Course Specimen Questions)

QUESTIONS 103
 Christianity: a glossary

Absolution
The pronouncement by a priest of the forgiveness of sins
AD/CE
AD = Anno domini, ‘In the Year of Our Lord’: The Christian era dates from the birth of Jesus.
(CE = Common Era)
Advent
‘Coming’: the period observed as the preparation for Christmas
Agape
The New Testament word for ‘love’; also used for the common meal of Christians, a love
feast
Altar
A table made of wood or stone, used for the Eucharist or Mass
Anglican
The Fellowship of Churches, including the Church of England, in full communion with
Canterbury and its historic tradition
Anointing
See Unction
Apocalyptic
Derived from a Greek word meaning ‘revelation’, it refers to a type of literature that reveals
God’s purposes, often concerning the end of the world, as well as the present. The revelations
were made to prophets and seers. Examples include the Book of Daniel in the Old Testament,
and the Book of Revelation in the New Testament
Apocrypha
Derived from a Greek word meaning ‘hidden’, it is often used to describe books in the Old
and New Testaments that are non-canonical: that is, those included in the Septuagint
but excluded from the Hebrew Bible (for example, Ecclesiasticus). Some early Christian writ-
ings are sometimes described as Apocryphal New Testament, for example the Gospel of
Thomas
Apologists
Christian writers of the first two centuries CE, who set out an apology (a reasoned argument), for
their faith; for example, Tertullian and Justin Martyr
Apostasy
In the Septuagint apostasy relates to rebellion against God, as in Joshua 22:22. In the New
Testament it means deliberate turning away from God, or abandoning religious customs and
duties, as in Acts 21:21
Ascension
This marked the last appearance of Jesus in human form. Luke 24 and Acts 1 tell of his ascension
into heaven to assume full divine authority. Ascension day is the sixth Thursday, the fortieth day
after Easter

104 CHRISTIANITY
Atonement
The reconciliation between God and humanity (at-one-ment): it restores a relationship broken by
sin. New Testament doctrine is that Jesus Christ through his life, death and resurrection is the
Saviour who brings about the atonement
Baptism
The rite of initiation into the faith, it involves immersion in or sprinkling with water. There are
two symbolic meanings: (1) purificatory, the washing away of sin; (2) regenerative; the death of
the penitent is seen in the immersion in water, followed by the rebirth in their emergence from
the water
Baptistry
A building or pool used for baptism, especially by immersion
Baptists
Members of a Protestant denomination which practices adult baptism by total immersion as the
rite of entry into membership
Beatific vision
For Roman Catholics this is the ultimate goal of human existence; it is the intuitive knowledge of,
and union with, God which constitutes the supreme joy of heaven
BC
The time before the birth of Christ
BCE
Before the Common Era
Benedictine
A monastic order founded by St Benedict of Nursia c.530 CE
Benediction
The blessing at the end of a service; also a late afternoon service (Roman Catholic) including the
blessing of the congregation with the consecrated host
Bible
A collection of sacred writings: the Massoretic text (Hebrew) of the Jewish Bible contains
39 books, and is also called the Old Testament; the Greek text of the New Testament has 27 books.
The Old and New Testaments make up the Christian scriptures as translated in the Authorized
and Revised Versions. The Latin Vulgate text and its translations has an extra 15 books known as
the Apocrypha
Calvinism
A school of Protestant theology, based on the teaching of Jean Calvin, with the emphasis on pre-
destination, election, original sin and total depravity: this theology is followed by the Baptists,
Presbyterians and Reformed Churches of France, Holland and Switzerland
Catechumens
One who is being taught the principles of Christianity
Catholic
‘Universal’: the catholic faith seen as the universal church throughout the world
Charismatic
A modern movement in the Church, its emphasis is on spiritual gifts such as healing and speak-
ing in tongues
Chrism
Mixture of oil and balsam consecrated by a bishop and used for anointing in various church
sacraments such as baptism
Chrismation
Anointing with oil
Church
A community of Christians, or a building in which they worship
College
The order of Roman Catholic Cardinals responsible for electing a new Pope
Confirmation
The rite of admission into full communicant membership of the Christian Church; Roman
Catholics regard it as a sacrament
Consubstantiation
Luther’s teaching concerning Christ’s presence in the Eucharist

GLOSSARY 105
Contrition (also penance or confession)
One of the seven sacraments of Roman Catholicism
Council
An assembly of bishops for the maintenance of discipline and the declaration of
doctrine
Covenant
An agreement between God and an individual or group of people; God promised to grant certain
blessings if they kept his laws. So in the Old Testament there was a Covenant with Noah, and
with Abraham and Israel at Sinai. The New Testament has a new Covenant made through Christ
with the Church
Creed
A statement of religious beliefs, for example the Nicene Creed
Crucifixion
Roman method of executing criminals by nailing or tying them on to crosses till they died: used
to execute Jesus
Diocese
Area ruled by a bishop
Dominicans
A Roman Catholic monastic order founded by St Dominic at Toulouse in 1212 CE
Easter
The most important Christian festival, in memory of the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ
Ecumenical
World-wide
Ecumenism
A movement within the Church towards co-operation and eventual unity, it started at the
Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910. It established the World Council of Churches
Election
This is a doctrine which states that from the beginning of creation, God elected some of human-
ity to eternal life. The rest were passed by or condemned to eternal damnation. It is particularly
associated with Augustine and Calvin
Episcopacy
A system of Church government by bishops
Epistles
New Testament letters, for example, by Paul and John
Eschatology
(Lit: ‘the doctrine of last things’) The doctrine that there will be an end to this world, probably in
judgement, its concern is for the destiny of humanity
Eternal Life
A term used in the Fourth (John’s) Gospel, which is almost synonymous with the Kingdom of
God in the Synoptics. It refers to the special quality of life experienced by those who commit
themselves to Christ as Lord
Eucharist
(Lit: ‘thanksgiving’) The central liturgical act of the Church, originating in the Last Supper: the
bread and wine focus attention on the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. It can also be called Mass
or Holy Communion
Evangelical
A group or church emphasising the gospel and the scriptures as the path to salvation
Evangelist
A gospel writer: a preacher of the gospel
Excommunication
Cut off from, excluded from the Church
Font
The receptacle holding water for use in the baptism of infants
Franciscans
An order of friars founded by St Francis of Assisi in 1210 CE, they are dedicated to absolute
poverty and the renunciation of worldly pleasure, and to preaching the Gospel and caring for the
sick and needy

106 CHRISTIANITY
Free Churches
Non-conformist denominations, free from state control
Gehenna
Hell
Gnosticism
From the Greek word for knowledge, this refers to systems of belief that claim to
impart special knowledge of God, of his relation to the world and humanity, and their
redemption. Only the enlightened who go through initiation ceremonies can gain such
knowledge. Leaders such as Marcion, Valentinus and Ptolemaus developed different schools.
There was strong opposition from the early Church because they minimized the importance
of faith in the journey to salvation
Gospel
‘Good news’: of salvation through Christ; also refers to accounts of his life and work as found in
the New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John)
Grace
The favour and mercy of God given to people in this life, and shown in the death of Jesus Christ,
his son, as the atonement for the sins of humankind, Grace brings about the forgiveness of
sins and the justification of the sinner. Protestant theology holds that Grace comes through
faith alone. Catholic and Orthodox theology emphasises the part of the Sacraments as ‘efficacious
signs’ of Grace. They also see Grace as an essential transformation of a person by a new God-like
quality
Hades
The place of dead. Righteous & wicked are separated. The good go to the part of Hades called
Paradise
Heaven
The habitation of God and his angels, this is where the souls of the righteous will go after death
Heresy
Denial or dissension from Christian doctrine by a Christian
Hell
The place where damned souls go after death. Also Sheol and Gehenna
Holy Communion (also Eucharist or Mass)
Central liturgical (public worship) act of the Church
Holy Spirit
The third person of the Holy Trinity: through the Holy Spirit, God the Father continues his
redemptive work shown in Jesus Christ. The Spirit is active in the church and the world
Holy Week
The week before Easter, when the last week of Christ’s life is remembered
Icon (also ikon)
Painting or mosaic of Christ or one of the saints, used in the Orthodox faith as an aid to devotion
Iconostasis
A screen separating the sanctuary from the nave in Orthodox churches
Immortality
Christian theology holds that the survival of the soul after the death of the body is dependent on
the resurrection of Christ, believing that by faith in him, the believer is saved from the death of
sin to experience the fullness of Eternal Life
Incarnation
This is the doctrine that the eternal word of God, the second Person of the Trinity (Christ),
became flesh. The New Testament says that he lived a human life, with all the difficulties that
people suffer such as hunger, tiredness, doubt and so on, but that his deity was not reduced or
lessened in any way
Indulgences
Gift of money to the Roman Catholic Church who defines it as a ‘remission of the temporal
punishment which often remains due to sin after its guilt has been forgiven’
Jesuits
The Society of Jesus was founded by the Spanish knight Ignatius Loyola. Papal approval was
granted in 1540. The stress is on missionary and educational activity. Members take the three
monastic vows, plus a vow of absolute obedience to the Pope

GLOSSARY 107
Jesus Christ
The central figure of Christianity, the Son of Man, born to Mary; also the Son of God, the incar-
nate Word, one with God the Father, the second Person of the Trinity
Justification
God’s gift to individual Christians, this is the event by which the sinner passes from a state of
condemnation to being declared just or righteous. Christian theology says that humanity is sinful
and in wrong relation to God, but unable to put things right. Protestantism teaches that
justification is by faith alone. Catholicism says that Justification is by faith reinforced by the grace
that is mediated through the sacraments
Kerygma
Early church preaching (as distinct from exegetical or analytical/critical teaching)
Last Judgement
This is the belief that humankind is under the judgement of God. Some believe it is a process
that continues throughout life and after death. Others believe in the judgement of the individual
at the end of earthly life. Yet others believe that at the end of history there will be a Last
Judgement by Jesus Christ when the saved and the damned will be separated
Lectern
A stand on which the Bible is placed in church
Lectionary
A list of scriptural passages for systematic reading throughout the year
Liturgy
Divine service according to a prescribed ritual – for example, the Eucharist, Matins, Evensong
Logos
A Greek noun meaning ‘word’: in John 1:1 it is the naming of Christ as the eternally pre-existing
and creative word of God. As the Incarnate Word, he is one with the Father, perfect God and
perfect man in John’s teaching
Lord’s Supper
The term used by St Paul for the Eucharist or Holy communion (1 Corinthians 11:20)
Lutheran Church
A Protestant denomination which follows the teachings of the German monk, Martin Luther,
who started the Reformation
Mass
Roman Catholic term for the eucharist or Holy Communion, it is probably derived from the closing
words of the Latin liturgy, ‘Ite, missa est’
Matrimony
The rite of marriage, it is one of the seven sacraments in the Roman Catholic Church
Messiah
‘The anointed one’, an early Christian title for Christ
Methodism
This is a Protestant Christian denomination, which was founded by John Wesley (1703–91).
His followers were called Methodists because of their methodical practice of prayer and Bible
study
Missal
A book containing words and ceremonial directions for saying mass
Montanism
A Christian movement founded by Montanus in the second century, its members expected
the immediate fulfilment of the prophecy concerning the pouring out of the Spirit in the last days
New Testament
The 27 books forming the central section of the canon of Christian scriptures
Non conformist
Protestant denominations that do not accept the teachings of the Church of England
Old Testament
The 39 books of Jewish scriptures included in the canon of Christian scriptures
Order
A brotherhood of monks, friars or nuns – for example, Benedictines, Dominicans and Carmelites;
also, in the priesthood of the Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican Churches, the three divi-
sions of bishop, priest and deacon

108 CHRISTIANITY
Original sin
This is the doctrine that there is a connection between the sin of Adam and Eve and the sin of all
people since. Apart from Genesis, this is mentioned in Psalm 51:5 and Romans 5:12. It is
believed that baptism cleanses the baptized person of this original sin
Orthodox
This was the Church of the Eastern Roman Empire which separated from the Roman Catholic
West in 1054 CE. It has five major Patriarchates: Constantinople, Moscow, Greece, Cyprus and
Jerusalem
Papacy
The papacy is the doctrinal and administrative office of the Bishop of Rome, the central
organization of the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope is the successor of St Peter and
the Vicar of Christ on earth, and as such is the guardian of the faith in the Roman
Catholic Church
Parable
From Greek: placing beside; a comparison; equivalent to Hebrew ‘mashal’ used by Jesus to teach.
Earthly stories with religions meanings, e.g. the wheat and the tares
Paraclete
A term used for the Holy Spirit
Paradise
From the Iranian word meaning ‘a walled garden’: it is a place where the righteous live with
God. Christ used the word to explain the place where the repentent thief would be with him after
dying at the crucifixion (Luke 23:43). Revelation 2:7 describes it as the dwelling place of God, in
the middle of which is the tree of life
Parousia
From Greek: ‘presence’ or ‘arrival’: the second coming or return of Christ
Parish
An administrative subdivision of a diocese with its own church
Paschal
Derived from Pesach, the Hebrew word for the Passover; the Paschal candle lit on Holy
Saturday symbolizes the resurrection light. The paschal lamb is a title applied to Christ
Passion
The sufferings of Christ
Patriarch
The main Eastern Orthodox bishops; also the early Hebrew leaders such as Abraham and
Isaac
Paul of Tarsus (St Paul)
He was a Jewish scholar who set out to destroy Christianity. On the road to Damascus he was
converted when a blinding light dazzled him and Jesus spoke to him (Acts 9). His Letters have
made him accepted as a source and an interpreter of Christian doctrine
Pentecost
The day the early Christians received the gift of the Holy Spirit: it is usually called Whitsun
Pope
The chief bishop, the Head of the Roman Catholic Church
Predestination Church
The belief by theologians such as Augustine and Calvin that some (but not all) Christians are
chosen or elected by God for salvation
Presbyters
Elders or senior figures in the Church
Presbyterianism
A Protestant Christian form of Church government based on the ideas of Calvin, it teaches that
the church leaders should be presbyters or elders, and rejects the system of bishops and prelates.
It also emphasises the importance of the local congregation
Priest
A priest is a person authorized to officiate in public worship and religious ceremonies.
The term ‘presbuteros’ (lit: elder) has been translated as ‘priest’ in the Catholic and Anglican
Churches to refer to those, ordained by bishops, who are authorized to administer the
sacraments

GLOSSARY 109
Protestant
A major division of the Church protesting against the belief and practice of the Roman Catholic
Church, and who do not follow the Orthodox Church, it originates from the Diet of Speyer in
1529 when Luther’s supporters ‘protested’ against the Catholic Church
Pulpit
An elevated stand from which sermons are preached
Purgatory
An intermediate state after death for those not yet ready for the reward of heaven, and not guilty
of such serious sin as would condemn them to hell, but who still have a debt to pay for sin; this is
a Catholic doctrine ratified by the Council of Trent in 1563
Quakers
A Christian society which arose in seventeenth-century England from the teaching of George
Fox, their formal title is the Religious Society of Friends. They have no paid ministry, refuse to
take oaths, and reject war. Their meetings for worship are silent unless someone feels that they
have to speak
Ransom
A term applied to his death by Christ (Mark 10:45); some of the early Church leaders interpreted
it as a ransom paid to Satan for the release of humanity from his power
Reconciliation
This is an important word in the theology of St Paul. Christ was the perfect, sinless sacrifice
which redeemed humanity from sin, and so achieved reconciliation with God, bridging the gulf
between a righteous God and sinful humanity
Redemption
Salvation through the death of Christ: this is a key word in St Paul’s theology and is closely
linked with reconciliation. Christ’s death and resurrection makes it possible, delivering the human
race from sin, death and the powers of darkness
Reformation
The sixteenth-century reform movement that led to the formation of the Protestant Churches, it
is considered to have been started by Martin Luther when he pinned up 95 Theses against
Indulgences
Reformed Churches
The Churches founded after the Reformation; This term is now used for the French Protestant
Church, and the Calvinist Churches of Holland and Switzerland
Resurrection
A central doctrine of the Christian Church which says that Christ rose from the dead
on the third day after the crucifixion. Also the rising from the dead of believers on the
Last Day
Revelation
This term indicates a knowledge of God derived from what He himself reveals, as distinct from
any thoughts about God which are the result of meditation and contemplation. Also the title of
the last book of the bible
Roman Catholic
A major division of the Church, led by the Pope in Rome
Sacrament
This is an outward visible sign of an inward spiritual blessing obtained through the rites of the
Church. The Anglican and Reformed Churches have two: baptism and eucharist. The Roman
Catholic Church has seven: baptism; confirmation; matrimony; orders; eucharist; penance and
extreme unction
Salvation Army
A Protestant organization founded by William and Catherine Booth, it is very evangelical, has
open-air services with military-style bands, and emphasizes social work as an important aspect of
the Gospel
Sanctification
This is the purification and dedication of life through the grace of God. In Catholic theology,
sanctification comes through the grace that comes through the sacraments. Protestantism stresses
the importance of faith alone

110 CHRISTIANITY
Satan
(Hebrew ‘the accuser’) In the New Testament, he is the leader of evil spirits who oppose God.
Also, the chief of devils of fallen angels
Satisfaction
Doctrine of Anselm of Canterbury, that the death of Christ offered to God the satisfaction
(apology) due for the offence by which man’s sin had offended God’s divine majesty
Sheol
See Hell
Sin
Act of disobedience or rebellion against the known will of God; the human condition assessed as
disordered and needing transformation
Society of Friends
See Quakers
Soteriology
A branch of theology concerned with the salvation of humankind – this includes: the fall of man
and sin; God’s redemptive work and the atonement in Christ; grace and eternal life
Spirit
In the New Testament the Spirit of god is referred to as the Holy Spirit. It represents a special
power of God. It can also be another word for the soul
Stations of the Cross
14 pictures of Jesus’ journey to Calvary
Synoptic
A common viewpoint – for example, the first three Gospels by Matthew, Mark and Luke
Tabernacle
A receptacle for the vessels containing the Blessed Sacrament, the bread and wine for the Mass
Thirty-Nine Articles
The accepted doctrines of the Church of England
Transfiguration
The visionary transformation of Christ after the resurrection
Transubstantiation
The Roman Catholic view of the Eucharist, it says that the substance of the elements of bread
and wine is transformed by God’s power into the substance of the body and blood of Christ
directly upon the words of the priestly consecretion of the Mass
Trinity
One God in three persons; Father, Son and Holy Spirit
Unction
This is the anointing with oil in a religious ceremony. In the British coronation service the
monarch is anointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury before being crowned. The sick can be
anointed in a special service with prayers for healing. Extreme Unction is a preparation for death,
and is a sacrament in the Catholic Church. It can also be for the restoration of the sick to health
Universalism
This is the doctrine that God’s purposes are not limited to the Jews, but will ultimately include all
nations. Also, the doctrine that at the end if time, all of humankind will be saved and will share
eternal salvation
Vatican
The Pope’s residence in Rome, it is the administrative centre of the Roman Catholic Church
Viaticum
Holy Communion given to a person near to death
Vicarious suffering
The concept that one person without fault can suffer for another person who is guilty; Christ the
sinless victim suffered in the place of the guilty, thus atoning for them
Virgin Birth
The doctrine that Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary by the power of the Holy Spirit, having no
human father
Virgin Mary
The mother of Jesus Christ

GLOSSARY 111
PART III

Islam
13 Origins and definitions

13.1 Introduction
The word, ‘Islam’, in Arabic means ‘submission (to Allah – God)’. Islam is much more
than the usual Western idea of ‘religion’. It is:

● a religious tradition
● a civilization
● a total way of life.

Islam sets out patterns of order for society in:

● civil and criminal law

● business
● family life
● etiquette
● personal hygiene
● food
● dress.

The Western distinction between religious and secular life is not acceptable to tradi-
tional Islam. Islam believes that individuals, societies and governments should conform
to the will of God.
The word ‘muslim’ (small ‘m’) is someone who submits to the will of God in any
age or time. The word ‘Muslim’ (large ‘M’) is one who follows the religion of
Muhammad.
Muslims believe that Islam has the answer to the religious problems and questions
that have beset mankind since the beginning. Surah 3.19 in the Qur’an declares,
‘Truly, religion with Allah is Islam’. This is because, for the Muslim, Islam
‘religionises’ humanity properly.
Other religions have some elements of ultimate religion but, for the Muslim,
Islam contains and corrects them all, thus bringing religion to a climax in Islam.
There have always been ‘muslims’ who have submitted themselves to the will of Allah,
and Muslims would include Abraham, Moses, David and Jesus. However, it is the
religion of Muhammad that perfects the process. So Muslims see themselves as the
people of the point of what religion should be.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 115

13.2 Historical background
Islam dates from the last ten years of the life of the Prophet Muhammad. It began in
Makkah around 610 CE. The main religion in Arabia at that time was a form of the old
Semitic religion which had shrines to a variety of gods and goddesses in a multitude of
places. There was also a widespread acceptance of a supreme God (Allah). The other
gods were often regarded as angels who could be asked to intercede with Allah on
behalf of the person praying. There was a strong belief that Fate or Time controlled
human fortunes and that this was not something that needed to be worshipped.
Christianity was spreading and there were Jewish communities in Madinah and in
other parts of western Arabia.

13.3 The Prophet Muhammad

Muhammad was born in Makkah around 570 CE, after the death of his father
Abdullah, and was part of the Bani Hashim, one of the nobler but poorer clans of
Quraysh. His mother died shortly after his birth, so he was brought up by his uncle,
Abi Talib, in conditions of some hardship.
Muhammad married the widow Khadijah, to whom he was in service (she was
prosperous and involved in commerce), and although they had a happy marriage with
children, none of their sons survived childhood. She was his only wife while she lived,
but later he had several more marriages.
He was religiously inclined from an early age and often went to Mount Hira near
Makkah for religious vigils and meditation at night. Soon after his fortieth birthday came
the call to prophethood when, while he was meditating, an angel appeared and told him
to ‘recite’ in the name of Allah. He did not, so the angel took him by the throat and
repeated the command. He still did not obey, so the angel choked him until he did.
This was the start of a series of revelations which are the most important mark of
his prophethood. The record of these makes up the Qur’an, which is Islam’s most
important scripture.
Muhammad found all this disturbing and feared that either he was insane or had
demonic possession. It was made worse by a long gap between revelations. Eventually
he realised that this mission was as the agent of Allah’s message to his generation. Thus
began his career as preacher, reformer and prophet.

13.4 Muslims in the UK

The first Muslim migrants
The first arrivals came at the time of the expansion of the British Empire into the sub-
continent of India, when sailors who had been recruited along the sea routes of the
Empire began to settle in British ports. At first they were from West Africa and India, but
after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, they came increasingly from the Yemen.

Large-scale migration
This really began in the twentieth century; firstly, students came in the early part of the
century and then ex-servicemen came after the world wars.

116 ISLAM
Figure 13.1 The Regent’s Park Mosque, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 117

 When the British Indian Empire became independent in 1947–8, the rate of
migration to Britain really increased, especially during the 1950s, when many came
from India and the Turkish part of Cyprus. These were followed by further waves from
Pakistan and later from East Africa. The last major group to date has been from
Bangladesh and the Middle East in the 1970s.

Muslims in the UK today

Most of the post-war immigrants were what are known as economic migrants – people
looking for work. Muslims have settled in most of Britain’s larger cities, and many of
the smaller cities have a Muslim community as well. The Muslims from North Africa
have settled mostly in London and the South East, while Pakistanis have concentrated
further north in Birmingham, Manchester and West Yorkshire, especially Bradford.
This is still a young community, over half of whose members were born in Britain.
Over 50 per cent of British Muslims are of Pakistani origin, while seven out of ten
originate from the Indian subcontinent in general. The overall figures for the size of the
nationwide community is uncertain, and figures vary from 1.5 million to 2.5 million,
while the number of British converts to Islam amounts to just a few thousand.

Mosques
The first mosques opened in Woking, Surrey and Liverpool in the 1880s, and an
Islamic Cultural Centre was set up in London in the years between the two world wars.
In the 1940s, King George VI gave a plot of land in Regent’s Park to the Muslims in
exchange for land in Cairo, where an Anglican cathedral was built. In the 1970s a
mosque was built on the Regent’s Park site (Figure 13.1). At present there are around
400 mosques spread throughout Britain, and these vary from converted factories, ware-
houses and disused chapels, to purpose-built structures.

118 ISLAM
14 Scriptures

14.1 The Qur’an (Koran)

● The name ‘Qur’an’ means ‘the Recital’ and each separate revelation making up the
book is called a Qur’an.
● The Qur’an is understood by Muslims to be the final, the ultimate scripture; that is,
it is the last edition of God’s Will.
● It is the basic religious document for Islam.
● It was pre-existent in Heaven, inscribed on a ‘preserved tablet’ (85:22).
● It is the written collection of the revelation to the Prophet Muhammad by the Angel
Jibra’il (Gabriel) starting on ‘The Night of Power’. The Revelation continued piece-
meal over 20 years, read by the angel from the heavenly tablet.
● It was made to ‘descend’ on Muhammad in tanzil (downward flow).
● Islamic theology gives the term ‘Qur’an’ a sequence:
— the eternal Qur’an with God
— the Qur’an in the Prophet’s hearing
— the Qur’an in the Prophet’s speaking
— the Qur’an in his hearer’s hearing
— the Qur’an in their reciting after him
— the recording of the hearing and reciting in the earthly book.
● It is an infallible source of authority for all matters of doctrine, practice and law.

The structure of the Qur’an

The Qur’an is about the same length as the New Testament in the Bible, containing
114 chapters or surahs.
It begins with a short surah called ‘al Fatihah’, meaning ‘The Opener’, which is
in the form of a prayer to Allah for guidance. This is the most frequently recited part of
the Qur’an and is used in daily prayers and on all sorts of religious occasions.
The following surahs are loosely arranged in order of length, with the longest first
(286 verses) and the shortest (3–5 verses) at the end. Each surah has a name derived
from something mentioned in it.
Every surah except one starts off: ‘Bismillah al rahman, al rahime’, which
means ‘In the name of Allah the Compassionate, the Merciful’. (The ninth surah,
which starts differently, is called ‘The repentance’, and traditional commentators
regard it as a continuation of ‘The spoils’.)

SCRIPTURES 119
 All surahs are assigned in their heading to either one or other of the cities of
Makkah or Madinah. Chronology is ignored, with Makkan and Madinan surahs mixed,
because order is by length. Even inside Makkan and Madinan surahs, the contents
come from different times and circumstances.
The Qur’an is divided into before and after the Hijrah (Arabic: ‘migration’) in
622 CE, when Mohammad and 100 followers left Makkah for Madinah. This marks
the start of the Islamic calendar.

The opening surah

Islam believes that:
(1) the whole Qur’an is within this chapter;
(2) the whole of this chapter is within the Bismillah which opens it;
(3) the whole of the Bismillah is within the initial ‘bi’, the preposition which invokes;
(4) the initial letter is understood in the point or dot below. In Arabic, it makes it the
letter it is.
So in the mystical sense, Muslims are ‘the people of the point’ invoking Allah’s name.
It is their whole religion.
To invoke His name is sure protection for the believer because it has the double
quality of mercy:
● it is Allah’s essentially: Al Rahman (the compassionate)
● it is Allah’s operatively: Al Rahim (the merciful).
In short, believers confess Him by pleading what He is as the pledge of how He will
deal with them – that is, He will be merciful.

14.2 The Hadith

Hadith means ‘saying’. The sayings record the Sunnah, which are the rules of life.
These are based on things that Muhammad said, did or approved of in others. There
are two headings for the Hadith:
(1) the Prophetic Hadith – these are the sayings of Muhammad which reveal his
wisdom and compassion. They concern matters of everyday living.
(2) the Sacred Hadith – these have authority because they go back through the
Prophet to Allah. They are insights that Allah revealed through the Prophet but
which are not in the Qur’an. They cover matters of belief and worship.

The sources of the Hadith

A chain of narrators kept sayings orally and in writing, simply because Muhammad
did not write anything himself. Because of the number of sayings in circulation, it
became necessary to sort out the genuine from the false. Two genuine collections
resulted:
(1) the Bukhari collection (2762 sayings/traditions), filling 97 books
(2) the Muslim collection (4000 sayings/traditions).
Al-Bukhari’s collection is called the Sunna.

120 ISLAM
 The Hadith’s value compared to the Qur’an
● The Qur’an carries greater weight as the revealed Word of Allah, so it is not
open to discussion.
● The Hadith comes directly from Allah, but the way it is recorded comes from
Muhammad, and so can be discussed.

● Sunni Muslims have six collections of Hadith.

● Shi’ah Muslims have five collections of Hadith.

14.3 The Sunna

This is the custom by which Islamic belief and practice is regulated. In the early
centuries of Islam principles of interpretation of the Qur’an evolved which are still used
today. The Shari’a or ‘Highway’ of divine command the guidance covers every aspect
of life. This was important because there were matters not covered by the Qur’an and
the Hadith because they did not exist at the time they were written.

The classification of sunnah

(1) sound (Sahih)
(2) good (Hasan)
(3) weak (Da’if)
(4) infirm (Saqim)
Classification depends on how likely they seem when examined by scholars.

SCRIPTURES 121
 15 Islamic beliefs and the Five
Pillars of Islam

15.1 Allah
● Allah is the only god.
● Allah is One (this belief is called Tawhid).
● Allah is beyond human understanding. He is unique and incomparable.
● He is the First and Last, the One and Only Creator.
● All of creation owes its existence to Allah.
● All living things draw their breath because of His power and authority, so that if it is
withdrawn, then the person or creature dies.

15.2 Angels
● Angels were created by Allah and are His servants.
● Because of their nature they obey Him perfectly; human beings do not, because He
has given them free will. This is the only difference between them.
● Angels are the messengers of Allah; they take His revelations to the prophets and
they strengthen the good in every person.
● There is at least one angel for every person.

15.3 Satan
Only one angel ever disobeyed Allah. This was Satan (or Iblis as the Qur’an calls him).
He is sometimes known as Shaytan.
When Allah created the first man, Adam, Satan became jealous and refused to
serve him as Allah commanded; so Allah expelled him from heaven. Satan decided to
destroy humanity by leading it away from Allah so that it would be damned for eter-
nity. He does this by whispering lies which will make them do wrong.
He tempts Muslims to disobey the laws of the Qur’an, and they in turn persuade
others to follow Satan. These are the ‘false prophets’. The only defence is to keep the
words of the Qur’an constantly in mind.

122 ISLAM
15.4 The Day of Judgement
On this day, the graves will be opened and the dead will be resurrected (brought back
to life). This is when everyone will be sentenced depending on how they lived their
lives. The dead will be questioned by two terrible angels, after which they are to be pre-
sented with a book. If it is placed in their right hand, then they are saved, but if in the
left hand, then they are damned for eternity. The saved pass over the narrow Assirat
Bridge to heaven, with its beautiful gardens. Here will be found heavenly food, and
lovely maidens. Those allowed in are the charitable and humble, and anyone perse-
cuted for the sake of God, or who has fought for and in the name of Allah. The wicked
will fall off the bridge into hell (jahannam). There, they will suffer everlasting fire and
torment. They will suffer physically and experience ‘fire in their hearts’. On the Day of
Judgement Allah will abolish death itself so those who suffer hell will do so eternally;
those who go to Paradise will do so for ever.

15.5 Serious sin

Shirk
This is the sin of seeing any thing or person as comparable or equal to Allah. Other
gods or idols are forbidden. This includes film, sport and pop stars.

Sihr
This is magic. The spirits (Jinn) must not be given authority. To do so will mean the
misinterpretation of Allah’s Will.

Qatl
This is murder, which is a sin and a crime. All life is Allah’s gift and is therefore sacred.

Riba
This is usury, or money-lending for profit. Anyone who can do so must help those
who are less fortunate.

Sariqah
This is theft, which is punishable by the chopping off of the hands unless the person is in
desperate economic need. Islam wants to help people so that such a situation cannot
arise.

Jubn
This is cowardice. It is an obligation for Muslims to fight Jihad for society. Anyone
deserting the battlefield is committing a sin.

Qadhf
This is slander, which is a sin that includes gossip and bad language.

ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM 123

Adultery
This is a crime as well as a sin. It is punishable in Islamic countries. The Qur’an
recommends 100 lashes, but punishment does vary from country to country.

Consuming Intoxicants
Drugs and alcohol cause people to lose control of themselves, and this is condemned
by the Qur’an. Strict Islamic states give severe punishments for this. Non-Muslims
living and working in Islamic countries are asked not to corrupt Muslims in this way.

15.6 The Five Pillars of Islam

These are the principal factors in the worship of Muslims. They are duties which are
part of a Muslim’s ibadat (ibadah) or obligations to God. They are:
(1) shahadah – confession of faith
(2) salat – ritual prayer
(3) zakat – alms for the poor
(4) saum – the fast during Ramadan
(5) hajj – pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Makkah.

15.7 The Shahadah

The way into worship, the beginning and essence of being a Muslim, is to recite the
Shahadah or confession (alternatively known as the Kalimah). It is the ‘word of
witness’. This must be done with sincere ‘intention’ (niyyah), as is the case with all
the Pillars of Islam. It is the conscious focus of purpose that precedes all ritual acts in
Islam. Merely to recite the words of the creed does not make the speaker a Muslim. It
is the ‘intention’ that counts; it must be a deliberate focus of the conscious will.
There are two statements:
● There is no god but Allah.
● Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.
Both occur in the Qur’an, but not together. They are recited by new converts as part of
the ceremony of becoming a Muslim.
Note that Muhammad is the last and the greatest of the prophets. He is the model,
the archetype of all true religions, faith and practice.
In later parts of the Qur’an, the title ‘messenger of Allah’ is used synonymously
with ‘Prophet’.

15.8 The Salat

This was the earliest Islamic practice to emerge. It is the ritual or liturgical (public
worship) prayer in Islam (Figure 15.1). It was required only of Muhammad until some
time after the Hijrah in 622 CE, when Muhammad and his followers went from
Makkah to Madinah.

124 ISLAM
Figure 15.1 Worshipping at the Regent’s Park Mosque, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM 125

 It was performed twice a day at sunrise and sunset, but at Madinah all Muslims
had to perform the Salat. Possibly because the Jews performed their prayers three times
a day, a third or ‘middle’ Salat was introduced.
For the first year after the Hijrah, Muslims faced towards Jerusalem to pray. At the
time of the ‘break with the Jews’ the direction of prayer (qiblah) was reorientated
towards Makkah, and this has been so ever since. Parts of the later Salat are mentioned
in the Qur’an; for example, the bowing (ruku), and the prostration (sujud). The three
daily Salats performed by all Muslims in Muhammad’s time are mentioned by name in
the Qur’an.
The number of Salats had risen to five within a century of Muhammad’s death,
and a number of hadiths (traditions) arose supporting this number.
Salats are announced by a public call to prayer (adhan) by the muezzin (‘caller’).

The call has seven statements

(1) Allah is most great. (repeated four times)
(2) I testify that there is no god but Allah. (twice)
(3) I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. (twice)
(4) Come to prayer. (twice)
(5) Come to salvation. (twice)
(6) Allah is most great. (twice)
(7) There is no god but Allah. (repeat once)

In the call to morning prayer, the statement ‘Prayer is better than sleep’ is inserted after
the fifth statement, or in one of the legal rites at the end. Shi’ites insert ‘Come to the
best work’ after the fifth statement, and recite the final statement twice.

Ritual purification
Without this preliminary purification, prayer is invalid. Every mosque has its pool
or fountain if possible. Failing that, taps, bottles or an artificial water supply is
used. Sand can be used instead of water if there is a drought. This ablution, called
wudu, is performed before prayer because of the need for inward purity. Hands, fore-
arms, and legs below the knees must be washed. The face, nose and mouth must be
rinsed.

The positions and postures of Salat

After purification, word and posture move together. It is important to understand that
these postures are both a ‘sacrament’ of personal worship and of corporate devotion.
Salat takes the hands, knees, and joints from other use and takes them for worship.
This worship is not just thought and said; it is done as well, because the Qur’an says
‘perform the prayer’.
No matter where the Salat is performed, the personal immediacy is the same,
because there is no rite depending on another, no external agency, no substitute;
whether the person prays alone or in the mosque it makes no difference. In other words
everyone is his or her own ‘doer’. This is vital, because the prayer act is the celebration
of God’s being, which includes His power, mercy, unity and revelation.

126 ISLAM
15.9 Zakat
Zakat means ‘purification’. Purification can be achieved by giving charitably. The
amount is 21/2 per cent (a fortieth) of disposable income. It is a religious duty.
Zakat can be given to relatives, the poor, or to an Islamic charity. It must be paid
every year, and it must be given sincerely and willingly.
No one should refuse it or feel ashamed to get it. The spirit of solidarity and kind-
ness reflects Muhammad’s generosity during his lifetime.

15.10 Saum
Saum is fasting and is observed during Ramadan: see Chapter 17.

15.11 Hajj
Hajj means pilgrimage to Makkah and must be undertaken at least once in a lifetime by
any physically fit Muslim who can afford to do so. It is undertaken in the twelfth
month of the year. It reminds every Muslim that earthly prejudices and personal pride
mean nothing because all will be equal on the day of Judgement. (See also ‘The Day of
Arafat’ in Chapter 17.)

ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM 127

 16 The mosque

The word mosque is from the Arabic ‘masjid’, meaning ‘to prostrate oneself’. A
mosque is a building where Muslims bow before Allah to show their submission to His
will.
It is not necessary to have a building to do this. Muhammad said that ‘Wherever
the hour of prayer overtakes you, you shall perform the prayer. That place is the
mosque’. In his early days in Makkah there was no mosque, so he and his friends
would pray anywhere.

16.1 The building

● The mosque is usually rectangular.
● The sacred area is established by the walls (Figure 16.1).
● Shoes must be removed before entering.
● There will be a place to wash, either at the entrance or in the courtyard. Face, hands
and feet must be washed before prayer.

Figure 16.1 Diagram of a mosque: A Site of fountain; B Hall of worship; C Mihrab;

D Qiblah wall; E Entrance; F Minaret

B
E
A
F
E

128 ISLAM
● If the mosque has a roof, it may have a dome as well, to symbolise the universe and
enhance the imam’s voice.
● Prayers are said in the main room, which may have carpets, and lines to help the
congregation to form neat rows.
● Buildings are plain, because Islam does not allow idolatry; so there are no stained
glass windows, statues or pictures. The reason is that only God is worshipped, and
there can be no likeness of him because he is pure spirit. Beautifully elaborate Arabic
inscriptions are permitted and calligraphy is a highly developed art.

16.2 The minaret

This is a high tower, from which the faithful are called to prayer five times a day; a
mosque will have at least one. The call is made by the muezzin, who stands in the top
of the tower. Prayer times are fixed by the sun, and the muezzin will judge when it is
time for the next session.

16.3 The qiblah wall

This gets its name from the word meaning ‘direction’. It shows the Muslim where
Makkah is because it is built in the direction of the city, towards which Muslims face to
pray. This wall is different from the others: in hot countries there may not be a roof, so
it may be that one wall is higher than the others. Or there may be a niche, known as the
mihrab, which points towards the Ka’bah. Elsewhere it points in the direction of
Makkah, so the prayer leader stands before it when leading worship. In some places the
qiblah wall is a covered colonnade, and the mihrab is a majestic ornamental arch.
Examples include the Blue Mosque at Isfahan in Iran, and the great mosque of Lahore
in Pakistan.

16.4 The pulpit

This is usually found in front of the qiblah wall, to one side of the mihrab. It can be a
raised platform, or may be at the top of a flight of stairs. It is from here that addresses
are made on Fridays.

THE MOSQUE 129

 17 Festivals and food

17.1 Introduction
Islamic festivals are called eid (or id), an Arabic word from a root which means
‘periodically returning’. These festivals are times for reducing tension and for establishing
new relations in an atmosphere of festivity and happiness. It is vital that strangers, the
poor and the lonely feel at home. Broken relations must be mended, quarrelling must
end and orphans must experience the love of others. The two major festival days are:
(1) the festival of Breaking the Fast after Ramadan
(2) the Festival of Sacrifice after the pilgrimage.

Some general points about festivals

● Festivals begin with an act of devotion and prayer.
● Individual Muslims remember Allah at the mosque, at home, at school, at
work; in short, wherever they are.
● On the two major festival days, a larger gathering is held for the whole commu-
nity, either in the biggest mosque or outside.
● Muslims celebrate many of the events of Muhammad’s life and the history of
Islam.
● Festivals will be celebrated by Muslims according to their country’s customs,
but all agree on the importance and spiritual significance of the events that
they are celebrating.

17.2 The annual fast: Ramadan

This is the annual fast of the ninth month of the lunar year. Ramadan moves through
the seasons because the lunar year is shorter than the solar year.
It is the fourth ‘pillar’ or duty of Islam.
It is linked with the great events in Islamic history such as the revelation of the
Qur’an to the Prophet, and three important battles.
It involves total abstinence from food and drink from dawn till sunset for the
whole month. The Prophet’s tradition is followed by breaking the fast each day at
sunset with dates and water at the mosque. Then the faithful say the maghrib, or
sunset prayer, before returning home for the main meal.

130 ISLAM
 The custom in Makkah is for people to take food to the Grand Mosque of the
Ka’aba before sunset. The food is shared when prayer is complete and the cannon
signalling the end of the fast for the day has been fired. A prayer is said after eating.
Ramadan is the month of forgiveness and charity, so Muslims must pay zakat-
ul-fitr, which is a charity given as an act of purification. It is the price of one good meal
for each member of the family and is for the relief of the poor.
The aim of Ramadan is to fulfil Allah’s commands of discipline, piety and
collective worship.
Mosques and minarets are lit up, and restaurants and coffee bars are closed during
the daytime.

Exemptions at Ramadan
The following categories of people are exempt from fasting at Ramadan:
● the very old
● those under the age of 12, who gradually build up to a full fast by going without a
little more food and drink each year
● the sick
● women who are menstruating, pregnant or breastfeeding
● those who are travelling.
Compensation must be made by fasting on an equal number of days at a later date.

Why the fast is beneficial

● The fast produces an immense sense of solidarity.
● The rich realise what it is like to be poor.
● As everyone is hungry, everyone is equal while it lasts.
● Spiritual benefits and merit are acquired because prayer and charitable donations go
hand in hand with the fasting, the contemplation, and reading the Qur’an.
● Passion is checked, the will is denied, and the material world’s preoccupations are set
aside.
● The self-discipline learned brings the faithful nearer to the angels, whose behaviour is
perfect in Allah’s presence.
● The feast which ends the fast is the peak of communal consciousness because the
whole of Islam celebrates its fulfilled obedience, and the merit which it brings.

Islam does not seek to justify Ramadan, because it is ordained by God. In other
words, it is an obligation which people owe to God. Ramadan is not asceticism,
because Islam does not approve of that. Rather, it is discipline, not denial,
because the world is to be enjoyed. It teaches restraint and the mastery of desire.

17.3 The Festival of Breaking the Fast: Eid-ul-Fitr

This festival ends the fast of Ramadan. It falls on the first day of the following month,
Shawwal, and lasts for three days.
It is also called the Small Festival or Eid-ul-Sagheer. Two other names for it are Eid
Ramadan and Bairam.

FESTIVALS AND FOOD 131

 It is a time of thanksgiving for having the strength to complete the fast and so fulfil
their duty. There is also celebration and rejoicing in God’s favour for His revelation of
the Qur’an.
Id-ul-fitr is a festival of alms-giving, and those Muslims who have not paid
zakat during Ramadan must do so before the Id prayer, which begins the festival.
This is the purification act which allows the poor and needy to participate in the
festivities.
The festival begins with salat-ul-fitr, the festival prayer, an hour after sunset.
This is an essential requirement of the festival, and it is like the Friday prayer, having
two rakas or prostrations in congregation and without adhan or iqamat (major or
minor calls to prayer). Bowing and prostrating before God like this links the spiritual
experience of the Ramadan fast with the enjoyment of the festival. There is a sermon
after prayer, during which there will be some mention of charity.
Customs associated with this festival are based on the Pillars of Islam, and stem
firstly from the rules of the Qur’an and the tradition of the Prophet, and secondly from
the national variations in Eid traditions.

Procedure
● The Muslim bathes and puts on best or new clothes.
● There is a meeting with fellow Muslims at the mosque.
● The night of Eid is spent in meditation and prayer.
● Families go to the mosque for news of the new moon.
● Others remain at home to prepare for the feast day.

17.4 The Day of Arafat

The day of Arafat falls on the ninth day of the twelfth month (Dhul-Hijjah).
It commemorates the end of the Qur’an’s revelation to the Prophet on Mount
Arafat, 12 miles east of Makkah. The revelation ended shortly before the Prophet’s
death with a verse which can be found in surah 5:4 of the Qur’an. Umar ibn al-Khatab
was told that if this verse was revealed to any community, they would celebrate the day
of its revelation to Muhammad as a festival. Umar said that he knew that the verse was
revealed on Friday at Arafat, so that both Friday and the Day of Arafat are festivals for
Muslims.

The main features of Arafat

Arafat is the climax of hajj (the pilgrimage to Makkah). Observances are concentrated
on the eighth, ninth and tenth days of the month.
There are four main ceremonies:
(1) walking round the Ka’bah seven times (Figure 17.1)
(2) walking between the hills of al-Safa and al-Marwa
(3) the afternoon assembly on Mt Arafat on the ninth day
(4) sacrifices of sheep, goats or camels at Mina on the following day, the Festival of
Sacrifice.

132 ISLAM
 Figure 17.1 The act of Tawaf, the circumambulation of the Ka’bah
Hulton Library

The state of ihram

Just as the worshipper must wash according to the prescribed ritual before prayer, pil-
grims must be in the physical and spiritual state of ihram before making the pilgrimage.
The state of ihram involves four things:
(1) consecrating oneself to God
(2) wearing the two plain unsown sheets which are the garments of ihram
(3) the shaving of the head for men
(4) no sexual relations until after the sacrifice at Mina

The Mount Arafat service

The pilgrims set out from Makkah after sunrise on the ninth day and head for the
mountain. It stands on a plain large enough to hold the entire assembly of about two
million pilgrims. It is on the mountain that the pilgrims examine themselves and
repent. They break camp after sunset and move to Muzdawfah, five miles away. Here,
the night is spent in prayer and meditation. The Festival of Sacrifice which is held on
the following day ends the pilgrimages. Anyone who has completed the pilgrimage is
now known as a hajji if a man; hajja if a woman.

FESTIVALS AND FOOD 133

17.5 The Festival of Sacrifice: Eid-ul-Adha
This festival, known as Eid-ul-Adha, is the culmination of the pilgrimage to Makkah.
Celebrations last for four days, which is a day longer than the other major festivals of
Islam. Animals are offered at the small village of Mina on the way back to Makkah
from Arafat. This is to celebrate Ibraham’s (Abraham) willingness to sacrifice Isma’il
(Ishmael), his only son, to God. (Islam teaches that Ishmael, not Isaac, was prepared
for sacrifice by Abraham.)
There are three stone pillars near the village, representing the places where the
Devil tried to tempt Isma’il to rebel against his father who was taking him to be
sacrificed. Pilgrims stone these pillars in rejection of evil promptings.
An animal is sacrificed by each pilgrim after the stoning of the first pillar. This is to
follow Ibraham’s example when he sacrificed a ram after God spared his son. This festival
symbolises the submission and commitment of each Muslim to the Will of Allah.

The Festival of Sacrifice for those not on pilgrimage

Muslims not on pilgrimage will celebrate the occasion with much festivity and
rejoicing. The following are the main points:
● An animal is bought for the sacrifice.
● The night before the festival is one of prayer and meditation.
● The festival prayer begins the day.
● Then there is a sermon during which sacrifice is mentioned.
● Afterwards the animal is sacrificed in the name of Allah.
● A portion of the meat is given in charity as an act of purification to enable the poor
to join in the festival.
● The celebrations may extend until those on pilgrimage have returned.

The four names for the Festival of Sacrifice

(1) The Great Festival (Eid-ul-Kabir)
(2) The Festival of Immolation (Eid-ul-Nahr)
(3) The Festival of Offering (Qurbani Eid)
(4) The Festival of Sacrifice (Eid-ul-Adha)

The Prophet’s farewell sermon

The Day of Sacrifice is also a time to celebrate the Prophet’s farewell sermon, which was
delivered on that day three months before his death, in the tenth year of the Hijrah (the
migration from Makkah to Madinah). The sermon is important because it sums up the
principles of Islam as laid down by the Qur’anic revelations. It concludes with the
demand that Muslims follow the teachings of the Qur’an and the tradition of the Prophet.

17.6 The New Year festival

New Year’s Day is on the first day of the month of Muharram and is very important
for Shi’ite Muslims, who commemorate the death of Hussain, the grandson of

134 ISLAM
Muhammad, in the Battle of Karbala. They make this a time of mourning and extra
time is spent in prayer. Symbols are set up in the streets and the Shi’ites dress in
black.
Gatherings are held to recall stories about Muhammad, Ali and Hussain. At the
end of this period, when the members of the sect have eaten the ‘food of sorrow’, a
passion play is formed to re-enact the martyrdom of Hussain.
The tenth day of Muharram is a public holiday for Shi’ites everywhere. Special
mention is made of the departure of Muhammad from Makkah. He had intended to
settle in Saif to the south, but opposition from the leaders of the old religion was too
strong, so he had to go to Madinah for safety. This city came to be known as the ‘city
of the Prophet’.

17.7 Muhammad’s birthday: Maulid an Nabi

Muhammad’s birthday is celebrated on the twelfth day of the third month (Rabi’ul-
Awwal). This, the last of the festivals to evolve, was introduced by the Abbasids of
Baghdad during the tenth century CE, a time when the Abbasids were the rulers of
Islam.
The whole month may be kept as the ‘birth month’, but the birthday is a public
holiday in only a few countries. The celebrations include the following:
● singing the praises of Muhammad
● readings from the Qur’an
● processions and feasting
● bright clothes being worn and homes being decorated
● lectures on the Prophet’s way of life
● meeting places being decorated with lights and flags.

17.8 The festival of the Prophet’s night journey

and Ascension: Al-isra
This festival (al-isra), on the twenty-second of Rayab (the seventh month), is cele-
brated throughout the Islamic world, and mosques and minarets are lit up in honour of
the night journey from Makkah to Jerusalem, known as the Hadith, when Muhammad
was led by the Angel Jibra’il (Gabriel). From the remains of Solomon’s temple the
Prophet ascended into Heaven (al-miraj ) and led all the other prophets in prayer before
ascending through the Seven Heavens to Allah. He was told by God that all Muslims
must pray five times a day after ritual purification achieved by washing.
Prayer is the only direct link between the Muslim and Allah, and so it is the central
pillar of Islam. This particular commandment was repeated more than 80 times in the
revelation of the Qur’an.

17.9 The Night of Forgiveness: Lailat-ul-Bara’t

This is the fifteenth of the eighth month (Sha’ban). The night is spent in prayer,
because a person’s life for the coming year is determined by God during this night, so

FESTIVALS AND FOOD 135

His guidance is vital. Many will fast on the previous day in preparation. Some places
have firework displays, charity is given and Muslims pay respect to dead relatives by
visiting the cemetery.

17.10 Food
Introduction
To eat the pure and wholesome foods given by Allah, in a spirit of thankfulness, is seen
as an act of worship. A healthy, moderate diet is a religious duty.

Food banned by the Qur’an

The following foods are banned:
● pigs because of their general filth, and their diet of offal and rotting food: swill. Their
meat is also rather fatty and they are prone to disease;
● meat, if its method of slaughter is unknown;
● meat which still contains the blood of the animal;
● an animal killed in the name of any but Allah;
● intoxicants (alcohol).

Important points to remember

● Islam teaches that Allah is protecting the minds and bodies of Muslims by setting out
these laws.
● If a Muslim has to choose between eating these banned foods and starving, then he
or she must eat.
● Lawful food must be killed according to strict rules (halal). Animals must be killed
with compassion. The throat of the animal is cut with a sharp knife, so that death
is as quick and painless as possible. The animal must not see the knife, and the
killing should not be seen by another animal. It is taken comfortably to the place of
slaughter and left free to move about while it bleeds to death.

Alcohol
Allah has provided the bounty of nature for human enjoyment, but Satan encourages
the misuse of these gifts; alcohol being an excellent example. The date palm and vine
provide fruit, date-honey and vinegar but the rotted, fermented fruits produce the
alcohol which corrupts individuals and societies.
In strict Muslim countries the buying, selling, making and drinking of alcohol is
dealt with by the use of severe corporal punishment.

136 ISLAM
18 The family and rites of
passage

18.1 The family

The family is the living symbol of Islamic society, and it is in the family that the values
of Islam are upheld. The ground rules for the running of the family are set out in the
Qur’an.
● The family must be united for the sake of the children, who are its pride and joy.
● Children must be brought up in the faith and the Adhan (call to prayer) is whispered
to babies so that they hear the words that ‘God is great’ from the very beginning of
their lives.
● Parents must be kind and nurture their children.
● Children must be loyal and obedient to their parents. They must also love their
parents and be caring and supportive as they grow old.
● The father is the head of his family; the mother is the heart. He provides for the
material needs; she creates an Islamic home true to the principles of the Faith.
● Muslims have extended families so that all rites of passage involve all of a family’s
members.

18.2 Birth
All babies born into a Muslim family are the gift of Allah. Therefore they are welcomed
into the Ummah, which is the worldwide family of Islam. Within minutes of birth, the
father of the child whispers the Adhan to it. Then a tiny piece of sugar or date is put on
to the baby’s tongue by an older member of the family in the hope that the child will
grow up to be obedient and kind. Food, clothes and money are given to the poor in
thanks.

18.3 Aqiqah
This ceremony takes place seven days after birth. It involves shaving the baby’s head,
symbolising the removal of misfortune. It also removes the uncleanliness of birth and
encourages the hair to grow more quickly.
Gold and silver of a weight equal to the shaven hair is donated to the poor. A
sheep or goat will be sacrificed if the child is a girl. Two animals must be sacrificed if it

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 137

is a boy. A third animal is given in charity. Relatives receive a third of the meat which is
sweetened while cooking; the poor get the other two-thirds.
The child is named, and this is done with much thought. Most names are taken
from those of Allah (who has 99), Muhammed or one of the great Muslim leaders of
the past. The word Abd (servant) is added.
Abu Musa asked Muhammad for a name for his son, so parents may ask the
imam to choose a name for the baby. Fashionable names are not used because
Muslims believe that the name influences the personality and character.
Muhammad stated that Allah liked names such as Abdullah (servant of Allah) or,
for girls, one of the 99 beautiful names of Allah.

18.4 Circumcision
Boys can be circumcised when eight days old, although this can be done at any time up
to the age of 10. Circumcision is known as ‘khitan’ and is carried out because the
Sunnah says it is a practice of all prophets, even though it is not mentioned in the
Qur’an.

18.5 The Bismillah ceremony

This takes place when the child is four years, four months, and four days old. It
remembers the first time that the Angel Jibra’il appeared to Muhammad, and is the
start of the child’s religious education. The father gets the child to repeat the first
lesson from the Qur’an: ‘In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful’, and
this is followed by further verses from the Qur’an. Sweetmeats are shared by everyone
at the ceremony.

18.6 Aqd Nikah (marriage)

The Qur’an says that marriage is a natural state. It is a righteous act though not a
sacrament. Sexual relations are allowed in marriage.
The creation of a family is a natural part of Islamic life. Marriage is a public com-
mitment between the two people. The woman must state her willingness and her father
must give his permission. A man can have up to four wives, but in practice this does
not happen. (In the UK the law does not allow this anyway.) Marriage is for life, so
great care is taken over choosing a partner, and parents and relatives are involved in the
choice; this is known as arranged marriage.
A man wishing to marry a woman presents himself to her family and asks the con-
ditions for her hand in marriage. When agreement is arrived at, the engagement is
announced. Sex before marriage is banned and is punished by the shari’ah law. In a
Muslim country, marriage can take place anywhere, typically the bride’s home is used;
in Britain it is usually undertaken in the mosque. The ceremony has readings from the
Qur’an (usually the fourth surah: ‘The Woman’) and the Hadith read by the qadi
(legal official).
There is a spoken and written contract; there must be three copies of the latter so
that the husband and wife have one each, the third being for the officials. The contract

138 ISLAM
is between the bridegroom and the bride’s male guardian in front of two male
witnesses.
The Qur’an demands that the husband gives his wife money or property (mahr)
to keep, the qadi announcing the amount of dowry being given (this belongs to
the wife).
The ceremony can be conducted by any male Muslim, but it is usually the imam.
Rings are exchanged by the couple, the one put on the man’s finger cannot be gold.
There is a feast afterwards, in which dates are shared. Then the bride and groom
go to their home. The next day, family and friends come to the marriage celebration
(walima).

Divorce
Muhammad said that divorce is the most hateful of permitted things. The marriage con-
tract is terminated only if the marriage has totally broken down; even then it must be
done amicably. In the event of divorce, Islamic law protects the rights of the wife,
although the children usually go to the custody of the father. Remarriage is encouraged.

18.7 Death
Muslims believe in the resurrection of the body and life after death. After death, a soul
is reunited with friends and family who have already died. Death should be faced
without fear and with a spirit of hope.

Preparation for death

As death approaches, the creed (shahadah) is recited and the Qur’an is read, especially
surahs 36 and 55. Prayers are said for forgiveness. The last statement before death is,
‘There is no god but God and Muhammad is His messenger’. When the person dies,
Muslims say ‘To Allah we belong and to Allah we return’.

18.8 Burial
The procedure
● After death the body is washed by a member of the same sex, as before prayer, in
scented water. The mouth and nostrils are perfumed.
● Male corpses are dressed in three robes, females in five. If the dead person was lucky
enough to have been on the pilgrimage to Makkah and returned with the sheets that
they wore, then they will be wrapped in these sheets, especially if they had been
washed in the holy well at Zam Zam.
● Rich and poor must be treated the same; everyone is equal in the sight of God.
● The body is taken to the mosque or open space for the funeral prayer, which is led
by the imam or by a family member.
● There are no strict rules about how long a body should wait for burial, as long as it is
not kept in a house for too long.
● The body is taken to a cemetery for burial, because Muslims do not believe in
cremation. In Muslim countries, a coffin is not used and the grave is dug to fit the
size of the body; it is important for the body to be in actual contact with the soil.

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 139

● More prayers are said, and then the body is placed in the grave with the right side
facing Makkah; the head is turned in that direction as well. Surah 20:25 is recited.
● The ground is left raised and without monuments.

Mourning
This lasts anything from seven days to three months. Islam teaches that the grave is
visited by two angels to question the deceased to establish whether or not he or she
is fit for the next life and the Day of Judgement. Graves are visited as a reminder of
the ultimate fate of everyone. Muslims are not ashamed about weeping because
Muhammad wept when his son died. Muhammad said that all a person can leave is
charity given, knowledge passed on and pious children to pray for them.

140 ISLAM
 Questions

1. Zakat (giving of charity) is one of the ‘pillars’ of Islam.

(a) Describe:
(i) the practice of Zakat;
(ii) who should receive Zakat. (7 marks)
(b) Explain the meaning and importance of charitable giving for Muslims. (8 marks)
(c) ‘You should give to charity because you want to, not because your religion
says you should.’
Do you agree? Give reasons in support of your answer. (5 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(SEG SYL A Paper 2, June 1995)

2. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) During which month should Muslims obey the command to fast? (1 mark)
(b) What is Tawhid? (1 mark)
(c) What does the word Qur’an mean? (1 mark)
(d) Name two groups of people who are excused from making the pilgrimage
to Makkah. (2 marks)
(e) Explain the importance of prayer in Islam. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)
(SEG Paper 148011, Section A, 1998 Short Course Specimen Questions)

3. Birth, marriage and death are important family occasions in Islam. Select one of these.
(a) (i) Describe the religious customs associated with the occasion you
have chosen. (5 marks)
(ii) Explain the importance to the family of these customs. (5 marks)
(b) Who do you think benefits most from these customs – the individual,
the family or the community? Give reasons for your answer, showing
that you have thought about more than one point of view. (10 marks)
(NEAB Short Course Paper 4, 19 June 1997) (Total 20 marks)

QUESTIONS 141
4. (a) How many times a day do Muslims pray? [1]
(b) Describe three of the Five Pillars of Islam. [7]
(c) Why are these rituals and beliefs important in a Muslim’s life? [7]
(d) ‘Prayer is the most important part of a believer’s life.’
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show that you have thought
about different points of view. You must refer to Islam in your answer. [5]
(MEG Sample Paper, Summer 1998)

5. (a) What does the word ‘wudu’ refer to? (2 marks)

(b) What do Muslims mean by the word ibadah? (6 marks)
(c) Describe and explain how Ramadan makes a difference to a Muslim’s daily
life. (8 marks)
(d) ‘If religious people were really generous, there would be no poverty.’
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer showing you have considered another point
of view. (4 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(London (1479) Specimen papers for May/June 1999)

142 QUESTIONS
 Islam: a glossary

Abd
Arabic, meaning ‘slave (or servant) of Allah’, as in Abdullah; it indicates the status of human
beings as doers of God’s will
Abu Bakr
The first Khalifah or successor to the leadership of the Muslim community when the Prophet
Muhammad died
Adam
The first man and the first prophet of Allah; this is the same Adam who, with Eve, lived in the
Garden of Eden until God sent them away for sinning
Adha
A feast held to coincide with the annual sacrifice which takes place at Makkah, near the end of
the Hajj
Adhan
The call to prayer, made five times a day to Muslims from every mosque; it is from the same root
as ‘Mu’adhin’, one who makes the call to prayer
Ahmadiyyah
A reform movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839–1908), who announced that he
was the expected Mahdi of Islam (see under al-Mahdi)
Aishah
One of the wives of the Prophet Muhammad, daughter of Abu Bakr
Akhirah
Everlasting life after death
Akhlaq
Attitudes, ethics and behaviour
al-Amin
The ‘Trustworthy’: a name used to describe the Prophet Muhammad
al-Aqsa
Al-Masjid al-Aqsa, ‘The Farthest Mosque’: it is in Jerusalem
al-Fatihah
‘The Opener – surah 1 of the Qur’an; it is recited at least 17 times daily during the five times of
salat. It is also known as ‘The Essence’ of the Qur’an
al-hamdul-li-Llah
Lit: ‘Praise belongs to Allah’; it is often used as an expression of thanks to Allah
Al-isrd
The Festival of The Prophet’s Night Journey and Ascension
al-Kafi
Lit: ‘Enough’ or ‘Sufficient’; this is the title of the books of Hadith compiled by Muhammad ibn-
Yaqub Koleini, a Shi’ah scholar
al-Khulafa-ur-Rashidun
Lit: The ‘Rightly-Guided’ Khalifahs: they were the first four successors to the leadership role of
the Prophet Muhammad. They were Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali

GLOSSARY 143
al-Madinah
The ‘City of the Prophet’, the name given to Yathrib after the Prophet moved there in 622 CE
and founded the first Islamic state; note that it is a shortened form of Madinatu’n-Nabiyy
al-Mahdi
Lit: ‘The guided one’: he will appear towards the end of time to restore righteousness. This is the
expected and promised Messiah
Al-Miraj
The ascension into Heaven by the Prophet
Ali
Cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, he was the husband of Fatimah (al-) Zahrah, and the
father of Hassan, Hussein, and Zainab – the fourth ‘Al-Khulafa ur-Rashidun’ according to Sunnis
and the first successor accepted by Shi’ah Islam
Allah
Derived from the Arabic ‘al-ilah’, this is the name of the Supreme Being. The Arabic term has no
singular, plural or gender. Allah is the sole deity with no associates, and no images of him are per-
mitted. The attributes of Allah are rehearsed in the 99 Most Beautiful Names, which are often
recited with the aid of prayer beads
Allahu Akbar
Allah is most great
Ansar
Lit: ‘supporters’, they were the Muslims of Madinah who welcomed and supported those
Muslims who came from Makkah
Aqd Nikah
Marriage
Arafat
A plain a few miles from Makkah where pilgrims gather to worship, pray and ask for forgiveness
on the ninth day of the Islamic month of Dhul-Hijjah
Asr (salat-ul-Asr)
Mid-afternoon salat, which is any time from mid-afternoon until half an hour before sunset
As-Salamu alaykum
An Islamic greeting, literally ‘Peace be upon you’
Assirat Bridge
The entrance to Heaven
Ayah
Lit: sign; a unit within a Surah of the Qur’an
Barakah
Blessings
Bilal
The first Mu’adhin of Islam, who was once an Abyssinian slave
Bismillah
‘In the name of Allah’
Bismillah-ir-Rahman-ir-Rahim
‘In the name of Allah, most Gracious, most Merciful’, the preface to all surahs of the Qur’an
except the ninth
Caliph
See Khalifah
Da’if
Weak; one of the classifications of Sunnah
Dar ul-harb
Lit: ‘the house of war’, or those areas of mankind that Islam has not yet subdued
Dar ul-Islam
Lit: ‘the house or abode of Islam’, this means the lands under Islamic rule
Da’wah
Inviting people to Islam, literally or by preaching and the example of good actions
Dawud
The prophet to whom the Zabur (psalms) were revealed

144 ISLAM
Dhikr
Lit: ‘remembrance’, it means to remember Allah by mention of His names, and His reminder to
men, which is in the Qur’an, the relevant sections of which should be recited
Dhimmi
A non-Muslim living freely under the protection of an Islamic state
Dhul-Hijjah
The month of the hajj, last month of the Islamic year
Din
Religion in general and religious duties in particular; it includes the five basic obligations of the
Muslim. It also means divine judgement
Din ul-fitrah
Description of Islam as the ‘natural way of life’
Du’a
Varying forms of personal prayer and supplication
Eid
See Id
Eid-ul-Nahr
Festival of Immolation
Fajr (salat ul-Fajr)
The dawn salat, performed at any time from dawn until just before sunrise
Fana
In Sufi Islam this is a term meaning the passing away of the self, either momentarily or permanently
Fard
An obligation under Divine Law, such as the five daily times of salat
Fatihah
The title of the first surah of the Qur’an; see al-Fatihah
Fatimah (al-) Zahrah
Muhammad’s daughter and the wife of Ali, the mother of Hassan, Hussein and Zainab
Fatwa
A legal opinion given by a Muslim mufti, by which the Shari’ah is applied to cases or issues so
that its authority and precedents may be upheld
Fiqh
Islamic jurisprudence; it is the legal order as exercised in the courts and expounded by the several
schools of law
Fitnah
Originally trial or persecution borne by believers in Muhammad, it was later used to describe
sedition or conspiracy against the Islamic state
Five Pillars of Islam
Five duties incumbent on all Muslims: (1) Shahadah or the profession of faith and confession of
the Unity of God; (2) Salat or prayer; (3) Zakat or almsgiving; (4) Saum or fasting; (5) Hajj or
Pilgrimage to Makkah
Ghusl
Greater ablution; the formal washing of the whole body before worship
Hadith
Tradition in Islam from the sayings and deeds of Muhammad as reported and recorded by his
household and companions, this is a major source of Sunnah or obligatory law
Hafiz
Someone who has learned the Qur’an by heart
Hajar
The wife of the Prophet Ibrahim and the mother of the Prophet Isma’il
Haji (Hajji)
A Muslim male who has completed Hajj
Hajiah (Hajja)
A Muslim female who has completed Hajj
Hajj
Pilgrimage to Makkah in the sacred month; the fifth pillar of Islam

GLOSSARY 145
Halal
Any action which is permitted or lawful; for example, meat that is slaughtered according to
Islamic requirements
Hanif
A seeker after true religion; in the Qur’an Abraham is an example of a God-fearer before the
coming of Islam
Haram
Anything unlawful or forbidden
Hasan – good; one of the classifications of Sunnah
Hijab
Lit: ‘curtain’ or ‘veil’, used to describe the headscarf of modest dress for women. This involves
covering everything except the face and hands in front of anyone other than the immediate family
Hijrah
Lit: ‘migration, emigration, departure or exit’; in 622 CE Muhammad and 100 followers left
Makkah for Madinah which is about 300 km away. A new community was set up there. This date
is the beginning of the Islamic calendar
Hira
The name of the mountain near Makkah where the Prophet Muhammad used to go for solitude
and to worship. This is where he received the first revelation of the Qur’an
Ibadah (Ibadat)
This covers all acts of worship and covers any permissable action performed with the aim of
obeying Allah. It comes from the verb ‘Abada’ (to serve), and ‘Abd’ (a slave)
Iblis
The Angel who defied Allah by refusing to bow to Adam, and later became the tempter of all
mankind. See also Shaytan
Ibrahim
Abraham, a prophet of Allah to whom the ‘Scrolls’ were revealed
Id (Eid)
Lit: ‘recurring happiness’, this is a religious holiday, a festival and feast for thanking Allah
Id mubarak
A greeting on Islamic festivals: ‘Happy Id!’
Id-ul-Adha
Festival of the Sacrifice commemorating the Prophet Ibrahim’s willingness to do Allah’s will by
sacrificing his son Isma’il. It is also known as Id ul kabir – the ‘Greater Id’ and Qurban Bayram or
Feast of Sacrifice in Turkey
Id-ul-fitr (Eid-ul-Fitr)
This is the day after Ramadan ends, and is also the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month. It is
also known as Id Eid-al-asaghar or the ‘Lesser Id’, and it is the Turkish Sheker Bayram or ‘Sugar’
feast
Ihram
The state of ritual purity necessary for hajj or umrah; it also refers to the plain white garments
worn by male pilgrims to show the equality, brotherhood and purity of the pilgrim
Ijma
The general consensus in Sunni Islam on matters of law, practice and usage
Ijtihad
The initiative of experts and pioneers in facing and responding to new situations in Islam
Ikhlas
Religious sincerity as an ethical ideal in Islam as set out in the Qur’an, surah 112, named Ikhlas
Imam
Lit: ‘leader’; someone who leads communal prayer/public worship in a mosque or elsewhere.
The imam is not a priest and has no authority. The Shi’ites gave the title to their leaders, descen-
dents of the Prophet through his daughter Fatima
Imamah
Religious authority in Shi’ah Islam as successor to the Prophet as leader of the Muslim
community
Iman
Faith

146 ISLAM
Injil
Gospel
Iqamah
The call to stand up for salat
Isa
Jesus, who in Islam is seen as a prophet of Allah who had a virgin birth and to whom the Injil was
revealed
Isha (salat-ul-Isha)
The evening salat, which can be performed from an hour after sunset until midnight
Isma’il (Ishmael)
The son of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Hajar (Hagar), described in the Qur’an as a prophet (xix.55), he
is seen as the father of the Arabs. He helped Ibraham to build the Ka’bah, and placed the Black
Stone in it (ii.119–25). Islam teaches that Isma’il, not Isaac, was prepared for sacrifice
by Ibraham
Islam
Lit: ‘Peace through willing obedience to Allah’s divine guidance’, it is an Arabic word based on
the letters S-L-M, in which there is also the root of the word ‘Salaam’ meaning ‘peace’. It is the
religious teaching, faith, obedience and practice, and the widespread religious community
founded by the prophet Muhammad, and based on the Qur’an. Without a capital letter, islam
indicates the quality of submission or surrender to the Divine word as taught by Islam
Isma’ilis
A branch of the Shi’ah Muslims, sometimes called the ‘Seveners’, because they believe that the
seventh Imam was the last and the greatest
Isnad
The chain of transmission of each hadith
Jahannam
Hell
Jahiliyyah
The time of ignorance in Arabia before Islam
Jibra’il
The Angel Gabriel, who delivered Allah’s messages to His prophets
Jihad
‘Striving’ or ‘Holy War’, this is the duty imposed by the Qur’an on every Muslim to fight against
polytheists (viii.39), or Christians and Jews (ix.29) in order to advance the faith. A Jihad must be
carefully defined and led by an imam or Islamic head of state. The Sufis say that the true Jihad is
against personal sin
Jinn
Demons and spirits mentioned in the Qur’an, Muhammad was sent to preach to them, and some
repented
Ka’aba
This an Arabic word meaning ‘cube’. It is a cube-shaped structure in the centre of the grand
mosque in Makkah. It is a sacred shrine in the courtyard and is 12 metres long × 11 metres
wide × 5 metres high. It is towards this that all Muslims turn to pray. It is covered by a black
cloth into which the confession of faith is woven, and it is renewed annually. The Black Stone is
set into the east corner. Tradition holds that it was built by Ibraham and Isma’il as the first house
built for the worship of Allah
Kalimah
This is the title of the Shahadah or confession made by Muslims that: ‘There is no god but God;
Muhammad is the messenger of God
Khadijah
The first wife of the Prophet Muhammad
Khalifah
‘Successor, inheritor, custodian, viceregent’, it refers to the chief defender of the Islamic faith.
Sunni Muslims regard Abu Bakr as the first in Madinah. Shi’ah Muslims reject the first three and
start from Ali. The Abbasid Caliphate was founded in Baghdad in 750 CE and remained there
until they moved to Cairo in 1258. In 1517 the Turks forcibly removed the Caliphate to Istanbul,
which was its home until 1924 when the Turkish National Assembly abolished it

GLOSSARY 147
Khitan
Circumcision
Khums
The additional contribution to zakat of one-fifth of surplus annual income paid by the Shi’ah
Muslims as demanded in surah 8:41
Khutbah
‘Speech’: a talk delivered on special occasions such as the Jum’ah and Id prayers
Kufr
The ultimate evil; disbelief in Allah and His signs, rejection of revelation and thanklessness
(Compare with Shukr.)
Labbaika
It means ‘Here I am before Thee’ and is the cry of greeting of the Muslim pilgrim in Makkah
Laylat al-qadr
The Night of Power when the first revelation of the Qur’an was made to the Prophet Muhammad
during the last ten days of Ramadan
Maghrib (salat ul-Maghrib)
Sunset salat, which can be performed after sunset until daylight ends
Mahr
Dowry given by husband to wife
Maryam
The virgin mother of the prophet Isa
Masjid
Lit: Place of prostration; mosque
Makkah
The city where Muhammad was born, it is the spiritual centre of Islam and is in Arabia. In the
centre is the sacred Mosque, and the Ka’bah with the Black Stone. Legend links its foundation
with Adam and its development with Ibraham and Isma’il (Ishmael)
Madinah
The tomb of the Prophet is there, and it is still a place of pilgrimage second only to Makkah.
(See also al-Madinah.)
Mihrab
The niche or alcove into which the imam prays, it indicates the direction of Makkah, of the
‘qiblah’ for those worshipping in the mosque
Mina
A place near Makkah where pilgrims stay on the 10th, 11th and 12th of Dhul-Hijjah and perform
some of the activities of the Hajj, including stoning three pillars
Minaret
The tower near a mosque from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer, five times a day; it
was probably a fire tower or beacon originally
Minbar
Rostrum, platform or dais: the stand from which the imam delivers the khutbah or speech in the
mosque or place of prayer
Miqat
Lit: A ‘place appointed’ at which the pilgrims enter into the state of ihram
Mosque
Building for Muslim public worship, it is normally in the form of a square, with an open court-
yard containing a watertank for ritual washing. It has an area for prayers, with a pulpit, and a
recess in one wall which shows the direction of Makkah. This word is derived from the Arabic
‘Masjid’, meaning a place of prostration
Muezzin (Mu’adhdhin)
The man who calls the faithful to prayer; he does this five times a day from the minaret of the
mosque. The name is derived from the Arabic word Mu’adhdhin’: the adhan caller
Mufti
Islamic lawyer who gives judgements or fatwa based on the Shari’ah or religious law
Muhajirun
Those who took part in the Hijrah when Muhammad and his followers migrated from Makkah to
Madinah in 622 CE

148 ISLAM
Muhammad
Lit: ‘Praised’: he is the final Prophet and was born in Makkah around 570 CE. At the age of 40
he experienced visions and revelations which form the basis of the Qur’an
Muharram
The first month in the Islamic calendar which is reckoned from the time of the migration to
Madinah
Mumin
A person who wholeheartedly yields to Allah’s guiding wisdom and so is in harmony with His will
and at peace with himself and all creatures
Munafiqun
This is the term used in surah lxiii of the Qur’an to describe hypocrites
Murid
This is the first stage in Sufi discipleship; the would-be seeker
Muslim
Someone who submits to the will of God in any age or time
Muslim
One who has submitted to the Will of God, and has accepted Islam
Muzdalifah
Place where pilgrims camp for the night after standing at Arafat during hajj
Nabi
Prophet of Allah
Nifaq
A Muslim term for hypocrisy, or pretended belief in the Qur’an which is devoid of sincere faith
Niyyah
Lit: ‘intention’; the statement of intent made before all acts of worship such as salat, hajj or sawm
Pilgrimage
The fifth pillar of Islam is the duty to undertake a pilgrimage to Makkah (Hajj), at least once in a
lifetime
Prophet
The Qur’an identifies many figures in the Old and New Testament as prophets (this includes
Jesus), but believes that Muhammad is the final prophet of Allah. Qadi – Muslim judge
Qadar
Allah’s complete and final control over the outcome of events or destiny. (See also
Laylat al-qadr.)
Qiblah
The direction to which Muslims must turn in prayer towards the Ka’bah in Makkah. (See also
mihrab.)
Quraish
The tribe to which Muhammad belonged; the ruling authorities in Makkah
Qurbani Eid
The Festival of offering
Qur’an
That which is read or recited; it is the Divine book revealed to the prophet Muhammad on the
Night of Power. It is Allah’s final revelation to mankind. It has 114 surahs or chapters
Rabb
Lit: ‘Lord’, the title most frequently for Allah
al-Rajim
The Muslim name for Satan (‘the accursed one’, see also Iblis), it means ‘one who is stoned’, and
is derived from the stone-throwing ceremony at Makkah
Rak’ah
A unit in salat, made up of recitation, standing, bowing and two prostrations
Raka’at
The Muslim ritual of repeating several prayers with obligatory bodily positions in a specified
sequence
Ramadan
The ninth month of the Islamic calendar, which involves fasting during the hours of daylight, it
celebrates the month when the Qur’an was ‘sent down’

GLOSSARY 149
Rasul
Messenger of Allah
Ruku
Bowing in Salat
Sabr
Patience and fortitude under adversity; the staying power which is the fruit of firm reliance on
God
Sa’y
Walking between Safa and Marwah as part of Hajj, in remembrance of Hajar’s search for water
for her son Isma’il
Sadaqah
A voluntary payment or good action for charitable purposes
Safa and Marwah
Two hills in Makkah, near the Ka’bah; now next to the grand mosque
Sahih al-Bukhari
The title of the books of Hadith compiled by Muhammad ibn Ismail al Bukhari, a Sunni scholar,
this collection is described as Sahih or ‘Authentic’
Sahih Muslim
The title of the books of Hadith compiled by Abul Husayn Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, a Sunni scholar,
the collection is described as Sahih or ‘Authentic’
Salat (salah)
This is ritual or liturgical prayer in Islam, and is the second Pillar of Din; it is performed five
times a day
Salat ul-Jum’ah
The weekly congregational prayer and attendance for the khutbah performed at middays on
Fridays
Salik
The second stage of Sufi discipleship, the journeyer
Saqim
Infirm; one of the classifications of Sunnah
Sawm (also Saum)
Fasting, especially during Ramadan, it lasts from dawn till sunset every day during the ninth
month of the Islamic calendar. This includes all food, drink (including water), smoking and
sexual relations
Seveners
Muslims who accepted the seven Imams, and in 765 CE accepted the leadership of Isma’il, thus
becoming the ancestors of the Isma’ili Muslims
Shahadah
The declaration of faith, the witness and confession of the Kalimah; the first Islamic Pillar of Din:
‘There is no god except Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah’
Shari’ah
Canon Law of Islam based on the Qur’an and Sunnah, but more commonly used to mean all the
commandments of God concerning human actions
Shaytan
The ‘accursed’; a name given to Iblis or Satan
Shi’ah
The Islamic sect which regards Ali as the first true Khalifah, they believe in the successorship of
Ali and the eleven of the most pious knowledgeable descendents of his after the Prophet
Muhammad. It is the official religion of Iran, and has subdivisions such as the Imamis and the
Isma’ilis
Shirk
Lit: ‘association’, this is the cardinal sin of idolatry or deification. This applies to any deviation
from the exclusive worship of the one true God
Shukr
Gratitude for divine mercy
Sirah
The career or biography of Muhammad

150 ISLAM
Sufi
A Muslim mystic
Sujud
Prostration in Salat
Sunnah
From the Arabic for ‘custom’; the path of tradition; the theory and practice of orthodox Islam,
following the standards of Muhammad
Sunni
The broad mass of Islam who rely on the Qur’an, the Sunnah and the community. They reject
the Shi’ah Imams
Surah
Division or chapter of the Qur’an
Tanzil
The descent or downward flow of inspiration that came to Muhammad
Taqlid
Authoritarianism, unquestioning adherence to a traditional school of teaching in Islam
Tariqah
The Sufi way of discipline and initiation into divine knowledge through self-transcendence and
self-mortification
Tawhid
The driving motive of Islam: the doctrine of divine unity, that God is one; let God be God alone
Ulama
Islamic doctors of theology or law. They are the guardians of Islamic teaching
Ummah
The world-wide family of Islam
‘Urf
Customary law, from which the content of Islamic Shari’ah is derived
Wahhabis
An Islamic community which has been the main influence in Saudi Arabia since 1924, it was
founded by ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703–92)
Wahy
The state of mind and spirit in which Muhammad received and communicated the Qur’an
Walima
Marriage celebration
Wasil
The final stage of Sufi discipleship
Wudu
Washing before prayer: the hands, forearms and legs below the knees must be washed, the face,
mouth and nose must be rinsed
Zakat (zakah)-ul-fitr
Almsgiving; the third of the five Pillars of Islam
Zawiyah
A local Muslim community or ‘cell’ sharing devotion and spiritual exercises
Zuhd
The call to abstinence or a religious life

GLOSSARY 151
PART IV

Hinduism
19 Hinduism: origins and
definitions

19.1 Introduction
The year 1829 saw the first-known use of the word ‘Hinduism’ in English. Definition is
not easy because Hinduism is at least 3000 years old and is followed by hundreds of
millions of people. ‘Hindu’ is in fact a Persian word meaning ‘Indian’, and strictly,
Hinduism refers to the civilization of the Hindus, the inhabitants of the land of the
River Indus. Indian law tells us that a Hindu is a citizen of India who is not a Muslim,
Christian, Parsi or Jew. Presumably, this must include Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs as
well; but what of the followers of Hinduism who are citizens of the United Kingdom
and other countries?
We can say that Hinduism is the worship of the gods Vishnu or Shiva, the
goddess Shakti, or any of their various forms, incarnations, spouses or offspring. This
includes the cults of Rama and Krishna, who are incarnations or avatars of Vishnu;
and Durga, the wife of Shiva, and their sons Skanda and Ganesha. The important
benchmark is that any teachings do not deny the authority or supremacy of the sacred
scriptures of the Veda. This is vital because every Hindu pays homage to the Veda,
even though few read or follow it today.
Hinduism is made up of a vast number of cults and sects which are more or less
closely connected with the high tradition which influences them, and gives them a
quite recognisable Hindu form. This high tradition has formed over the centuries by
absorbing the gods, rites and philosophies of each tribe and locality. The secret of
understanding Hinduism is to focus on this high tradition and its literature, and the
Brahman priests and scholars who are its guardians.
Interestingly, Hinduism is an ethnic religion, unlike the more recent missionary
religions such as Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. It is the religion of a single cultural
unit, like Judaism, and has not strained to attract converts from outside that unit. It is
sharply distinguished from Western religions by its belief in transmigration. It shares this
characteristic with Buddhism and Jainism. Briefly, this means a belief that the soul
inhabits many bodies in rebirth after rebirth, until it reaches its ultimate goal of com-
plete freedom from rebirth.
Hinduism has a huge range of popular belief, elaborate ritual and philosophy.
There are many stages of transition, magic, animal worship, belief in demons, a multi-
tude of gods of varying degrees of power, mysticism, asceticism, abstract theology,
some of which is very profound, plus a variety of esoteric doctrines. It includes all sorts
of belief and worship without the need to select or remove any. In Hinduism no reli-
gious belief ever dies or is succeeded because any new idea is combined with existing
ones.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 155

 Hindus respect the Divine in any form and tolerate other beliefs as suit them best.
They can follow another religion without giving up Hinduism. It is believed that the
different religions and divine powers complement each other. Hindus distinguish
themselves from others on the basis of practice (or orthopraxy) rather than doctrine (or
orthodoxy). They call their religion the ‘sanatan dharma’ or ‘eternal dharma’. ‘Dharma’
in simple terms means ‘law’ and ‘religion’ (this will be dealt with in more detail below,
see Section 20.4).

19.2 An evolving religious tradition, not a

separate religion
Its characteristics
It has few of the characteristics normally associated with a religion.
● It has no founder
● It is not prophetic
● It does not have a creed
● It has no particular doctrine, dogma or practice
● It is not a system of theology
● It is not a single moral code
● The concept of God is not central to it
● No specific scripture or work is uniquely authoritative
● It is not sustained by an ecclesiastical organization.

Its diversity
It has had an astonishing diversity since historical times.
● It is the mainstream of religious development in the Indian subcontinent going back
thousands of years.
● It has input from other races and cultures.
● India is vast and has huge regional variations in climate, resources, terrain, com-
munications, people, culture and language.

Three important features

Three important features of Hinduism give it a distinctive form and consistency:
● the six Darshanas or philosophical schools at the intellectual level
● the Epics and Puranas for legend and mythology
● the caste system for day-to-day behaviour.

19.3 Hinduism in the UK

Since the break-up of the British Indian Empire in 1947–8 there has been a steady
stream of Hindus to Britain, but not in any numbers until the late 1950s onwards.
They were encouraged to come to fill vacancies in British industry, transport and in the
Health Service. In the late 1960s and early 1970s a new wave of Hindu immigration

156 HINDUISM
came from East Africa, where the ‘Africanisation’ policies of Kenya, Uganda and
Malawi forced them to leave.

The progress of Hindus in the UK

The main concentrations of Hindus are to be found in London, and in the industrial
cities and towns of the Midlands and the North. Clearly, they have been economically
successful, especially as they can escape the restrictions of caste in this country. Even
so, caste is still important in matters such as marriage, which is still arranged to a large
extent. The first generation immigrants had the difficulty of coping with language and
customs, but generations born in Britain, on the other hand, have the problem of
retaining their sense of Hindu identity.

The main characteristics of Hinduism in the UK

● The traditional extended family is the norm.
● Marriage outside Hinduism is rare.
● Hindu rites of passage are observed.
● The home is the stronghold of Hindu practice in Britain and it has a special shrine
room with pictures of favourite gods.
● Major festivals such as Divali and Holi are celebrated but not on the sort of scale
that they would be in India.
● The National Council of Hindu Temples provides a link for local temples through-
out Britain, and The Hindu Centre in London provides information for non-Hindus
who have to deal with Hindus in such matters as the care of the dying, blood transfu-
sions, and funerals.
● Temples provide schooling for children in the language of their ethnic group.

Associated movements
The Ramakrishna mission
This was established in Britain before the main migration of Hindus to this country,
and it has had little impact on the general Hindu community. In any case, its mission is
to mankind in general and not just Hindus.

The Hare Krishna movement

This is a Hindu movement and it works with Indian Hindus. It has centres for visitors
and produces literature for use by the Hindu community. It has an annual yatra (pil-
grimage) procession through London every year.

The Swami Nariyan movement

This is active in bringing Hinduism to the attention of non-Hindus.

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 157

 20 Hindu beliefs

20.1 Three purposes in Hinduism

(1) Coming to terms with this life
Bringing up a family and earning a living is difficult at the best of times because of
natural and supernatural challenges. Hinduism has to deal with everyday problems
such as sickness, the need for a successful harvest, fending off ghosts and the ‘evil eye’
or pleasing a troublesome minor god.

(2) Gaining merit and a good rebirth

Hindus must keep to their dharma to avoid sin and gain merit. Dharma requires that
every being must live by the laws that affect its particular nature. People, for example,
have to obey the rules of their particular caste. It is concerned with the ultimate
purposes of humankind, and the fate of souls when people die. It also includes the
upholding of social order.
There are rules and regulations to allow people to find and pursue a way of life and
observance that will let them gain the merit needed for an improvement in their rebirth.
So, there are two main aims. Firstly a proximate aim: to gain merit by appropriate
living and observance. Then the ultimate aim, which is to acquire a better lot in life in
a future rebirth earned by merit achieved in this life. Of course, merit brings incidental
benefits in this life – for example, a good name and prosperity.

(3) The search for liberation and salvation

This is a very personal quest and concentrates on liberation, salvation and union with
the Supreme Being. It is to be free from the cycle of rebirth. It is ‘to be carried safely
across the ocean of existence’. This is what is called a ‘Transcendental Complex’;
in other words, it aims to rise above worldly matters. There are two ways that this
affects religion in village life: asceticism and the sect.

Asceticism
Asceticism, or renouncing the world, is taken up by the sannyasin, who stands
outside the caste system in searching for liberation from samsara and the laws of
karma. Wandering ascetics are a familiar sight in India and from time to time one
will live on the outskirts of a village. The sannyasin, who has renounced worldly affairs

158 HINDUISM
and is on the last of the four stages of life, is very influential and is honoured and
respected for pursuing the quest for moksha (salvation) in this way.

The sect
This is more common and more influential, and the numbers, beliefs and practices of
sects seem boundless.
Of greatest importance are those who seek living salvation by loving devotion to God.
This is known as bhakti. This third form of religious motivation is highly personal and
is completely concerned with the next world in matters such as liberation, salvation and
union with God.

20.2 Samsara, Heaven and Hell

Samsara is the transmigration of the soul and its continual rebirth by the law of karma,
by which our deeds determine our fate in this life, and after death and in rebirth. The
soul goes to heaven or hell until its merit or sin runs out, after which it is reborn. There
are various heavens, and Indra, Shiva, Vishnu and Krishna each have one.

20.3 The doctrine of Atman Brahman

Hindus believe in an Ultimate Reality which they call brahman. It is in all things and is
the ‘self’ (atman) of all living creatures. Brahman is uncreated eternal, infinite and tran-
scendent and includes absolutely everything. It is the only reality, the only source and
the purpose of all existence. This Brahman is impersonal because it has no qualities or
attributes. Hindus see it as a personal high God; normally Vishnu or Shiva. The belief
in, and quest for this Ultimate Reality has remained the focus of Hindu spiritual life,
practically unchanged for 3000 years.

20.4 Dharma
Some definitions of dharma
Generally, dharma means religion, duty, law, righteousness and eternal order.
Dharma is a mode of Hindu religious motivation, acquiring merit and having good
rebirth. To keep to dharmic rules means to avoid sin and to acquire merit.
● Hindu dharma is the dharma of the Hindus.
● Sanatan dharma is the eternal dharma which is the unchanging universal law of order
which says that every being in the universe must act according to the laws that apply
to its own nature.
● Sadharan dharma is the general code of ethics that applies to everyone. This includes
pilgrimage, giving to charity, honouring brahmins, not lying, not injuring and so
forth; all bring merit.
● Varnashrama dharma is accepting and following customs and rules of caste.
● Jati dharma decides how and which samskaras (or rites of passage) are celebrated
by each caste or subcaste.

HINDU BELIEFS 159

Why dharma is important
Dharma is at the core of Hinduism because by fulfilling it individual Hindus gain merit
and achieve the goal of their religious quest. They learn the rules in their families and
these will affect nearly all aspects of their life. Probably the best example is that they
follow the rules of their caste and subcaste, and in matters of purity, purification and
pollution. The Samskaras depend on caste and family customs, and mark the major life
changes. Sadharan dharma is concerned with carrying out these rites properly.

Sadharan dharma
This is so important that it warrants a more detailed examination at this point. It
contains two categories of principles.

First category
● This bans murder, violence, cruelty and incest.
● There must be respect for Brahmans, the Vedas, parents and elders.
● The gods and the cow must be honoured.
● One should be honest and moral.

Second category
This is for the pursuit of extra merit and moral advancement; for the next rebirth and
for the prestige attached to being righteous now. This includes the following:
● Increasing divine knowledge by reading scriptures and by meditation and
contemplation.
● Performing acts of worship and sacrifice to the gods.
● Giving alms to brahmans, mendicants (those who live by alms), temples and the
poor.
● Building temples, cow shelters, wells, tanks, and bathing places on rivers.
● Visiting the major spiritual centres of pilgrimage and bathing in the Ganges to wash
away sin.

The three methods of learning dharma

(1) This is through scripture. In the village setting this means finding someone who
knows texts; recitals with explanation; and professional wandering preachers.
(2) Myths and stories are used for moral instruction and explaining festivals. These are
passed down from generation to generation.
(3) This is by custom and example in both caste and family. Custom not only makes a
practice acceptable, it sanctifies or makes it sacred.

20.5 Transmigration and karma

Transmigration is the passing of a soul or form of existence into another body after
death. Karma literally means ‘deeds’ or ‘doing’ and is the sum of a person’s actions in
successive lives. These actions determine fate or destiny in future lives after a stay in
heaven or hell. The process of continual rebirth is called samsara.

160 HINDUISM
20.6 The characteristics of samsara
● It is cyclic or recurring and all worldly life is subject to it.
● It has no beginning and normally no end.
● It is a state of never-ending attachment.
● It is not a cycle of progress.
● It is not a process of purification.
● It is like self-perpetuating clockwork in that while running down, it winds up
again.
● As a result, the atman or self is trapped in a permanent cycle of death and rebirth.
Any social interaction, especially involving food or sexual relations, means the mutual
exchange of good and bad karma for the believer. Misfortunes are the direct result of
karma resulting from one’s actions. Furthermore, world history is the result of collec-
tive karma. So people should strive towards ending this mechanism of karma and
samsara and to achieve moksha or liberation, because worldly life is not true existence.
This can be achieved by knowledge, works and devotion leading to the integration of
the soul with Brahman (the ultimate Reality).

20.7 The three margs, or paths to salvation

(1) The Karma Marg – This is ‘The Path of Duties’; it is the disinterested perform-
ance of ritual and social obligations.
(2) The Jnana Marg – This is ‘The Path of Knowledge’; it uses yoga’s long and
systematic training, plus meditation, to secure revelation and an insight from
higher consciousness into one’s identity with Brahman.
(3) The Bhakti Marg – This is ‘The Path of Devotion’; it means devotion to a
personal god. It can also mean the integration of the self with Brahman.
The three paths are presented in the Bhagavad Gita or ‘Song of The Lord’ which
dates from around 200 BCE. It tells us that it is not acts themselves but the desire for
their results that produces karma. Only a small minority of Hindus pursue moksha, but
liberation is an ideal that affects all Hindus. Its purpose is to discuss what must be
done to gain true fulfilment, and what must be realised in the light of experience to
escape samsara or bondage. This will bring spiritual liberation. For millions of ordinary
Hindus, life’s daily path consists of following social and ritual duties. There are tradi-
tional rules for personal conduct for every caste, profession and family. All of this
makes up dharma for the individual. It is all part of the broader picture of order,
society, nature and basic equilibrium in creation.

Summary
Religion for Hindus is:
● a tradition
● a heritage
● a way of life
● a mode of thought
● the right application of methods for securing welfare in this life and a good
condition in the next life.

HINDU BELIEFS 161

20.8 Bhakti
This is the devotional way of achieving salvation and is open to everyone of either
sex and any caste. It means ‘love’ or ‘devotion’. It is used as a general name for the
system of bhakti. Bhakti has led to a huge increase in the number of sects. Here the
divine is no longer a multitude of gods as in ordinary religion, but is a unique and
personal God, with whom the devotee can identify, and in whom that person may
participate. In fact ‘participation’ is another meaning of bhakti. Love and total
devotion to the Lord brings salvation. Divine grace is given to the pure and humble
heart.

The importance of bhakti

● It is a revolutionary doctrine because it rises beyond both caste and renunciation.
● It is an easy road to salvation open to everyone without distinction.
● Love allows a person to give up the need for renunciation by becoming detached and
disinterested. This is called ‘internalisation’, because the process goes on within the
believer, so inactivity is not necessary.
● Thus devotion takes the place of deliverance.

The two principal types of bhakti

● Nirgun Bhakti: devotion to the Divine as seen without attributes
● Sagun Bhakti: devotion to the Divine seen as having attributes such as an avatar or
incarnation (Krishna is a good example).

20.9 The role of the guru in Hinduism

The role of the guru in the quest for salvation is worth mentioning at this stage.

Meaning
The word ‘guru’ comes from ‘gu’, meaning darkness, and ‘ru’ meaning light. So a
guru dispels spiritual darkness and gives light to the disciple. Another meaning
links the name guru with a word meaning ‘heavy’. In other words, the guru removes
the burden of doubt and ignorance from the disciple, leading from the unreal to the
real.

The four qualities of the guru

The guru must:
● be knowledgeable in scriptures
● have achieved the spiritual goal
● be free from desire
● be pure and without cunning.

162 HINDUISM
The work of the guru
The guru:
● guides the seeker in:
— which action to take
— which food to eat
● advises from his knowledge of mantras and techniques of meditation.
The guru acts as a helmsman to steer the disciple across the ocean of birth, life, death
and rebirth.

20.10 The four stages of life

Introduction
The four stages are:
(1) the celibate student (brahmachari)
(2) the householder (grihastha)
(3) the hermit (vanaprasth)
(4) the homeless religious beggar (sannyasin).
Few Hindus at any one time have strictly kept to the above categories, but it is an ideal
for them to consider. Even today, elderly men tired of a life of worldly struggle may
devote their remaining years to meditation and worship.

Stage one
The age of the initiate varies from eight to twelve when he leaves homes to begin his
studies with a guru or master. His way of life will be severely simple and economical,
and he will learn how to perform the domestic devotions of the brahmin, as well as
studying the Vedas. By the time his studies are complete, the student will have become
a young man. He then goes home to his parents to marry.

Stage two
As a householder, a man’s life is spent pursuing the ‘Three Aims’ which are:
(1) religious merit
(2) wealth
(3) pleasure.
Hindu law books point out that the first is most important, and that the first two are
more important than the third.

Stage three
This begins when a man’s hair is grey and he has grandchildren. He should then give
up his home, and he and his wife go to live in a hut in the forest. This stage of life is
devoted to the welfare of the soul through penance and religious exercise.

HINDU BELIEFS 163

Stage four
The aged man breaks all worldly attachments and becomes a penniless wanderer.

20.11 Caste
In simple terms, castes are divisions or groups in Hindu society. They are not the same
as the four classes or varnas and there are hundreds of castes and sub-castes through-
out India. A person gets his or her caste by being born into it.

Some basic facts about caste

● A caste is a separate hereditary group.
● Castes protect their overall purity by restricting contact with other castes which are
polluting and impure. To some extent ‘pure’ and ‘impure’ depends on the status of
the caste making that judgement. So, for example, the Brahman caste is the highest
and is most in danger of pollution.
● The other three castes are the Kshatriya (the ruling or warrior division), Vaishya
(merchants and farmers) and Sudra (the lowest division).
● Marriage usually takes place only within the caste.
● Food is a serious problem when it comes to pollution, because it so readily carries
pollution. There is an elaborate set of rules concerning which castes can accept
water, cooked food, raw food and so on from any other caste.
● Another area is physical contact with the so-called ‘untouchable’ castes, who are now
called Harijans, and who, incidentally, are still bottom of the hierarchy.
● The lowest castes are those who handle dead animals and skins and who do funeral
work.
● Discrimination is greatest in villages and weakest in towns.
● If one person breaks the purity rules, then his whole caste is affected. He or she will
then have to perform a number of ritual acts of purification before being allowed full
caste rights again.
● A person’s ritual status depends on his or her caste’s status.

20.12 Pollution
Involuntary pollution
Everyone becomes polluted no matter what their caste, so purification is constantly neces-
sary. Human emissions such as urine, faeces, saliva, semen, menstrual flow and afterbirth
are all polluting. Death and decay are the most powerful cause of pollution. The whole
household and other members of the family, plus those who handle the dead body, are
deeply polluted. This polluted state lasts until the funeral rites are completed several days
later. The polluted family are subject to various restrictions depending on their caste.

Voluntary pollution
This comes about when the purity rules of the caste are broken by contact with the
impure. Examples include:
● touch
● taking food from an impure person

164 HINDUISM
● eating with an impure person
● sexual intercourse
● serious sins; for example, killing a cow pollutes the whole village.

Coping with pollution

At a social level
There are specialist castes to deal with polluting situations such as toilet excretions,
washing polluted clothes and dealing with the corpse at a funeral.

At a personal level
This is by purification. Some examples are:
(1) the Indian-style bath – this is the commonest. It involves pouring water over
oneself because running water is a very effective purifying agent. Bathing and
washing covers all involuntary and voluntary situations;
(2) penances – verbal, pilgrimage, giving a feast, or giving a gift to a brahman if, say, a
cow, calf or ox is killed. A person may have to pay a penalty to his caste, or in the
case of marriage to a non-caste person the marriage would have to be dissolved.
If that caste was of a different status, then this would be more serious, and a
heavy penalty would be involved;
(3) cowdung is a purifier because the cow is a pure animal. Dung is smeared on the
floor where a ritual is to take place;
(4) a new mother is made to drink cow’s urine to purify her because the act of giving
birth is considered to be polluting.

20.13 Aspects of village religion

Ghosts
Hindus have a strong belief in ghosts. Different regions have their own names for
ghosts, and in northern India, for example, the word for a ghost is bhut.
Bhuts can be a problem for villagers because they are believed to seek revenge against
a person or family if they have a grievance, or if they have died in abnormal circumstances
such as murder, suicide or drowning, and it is believed that someone is responsible.
At funerals meticulous care is taken over the ceremonial to make sure that the soul
of the dead person is not angered. Every soul remains a pret (a lingering shade) until
these ceremonials are completed 13 days after death. If it is not done properly, then the
pret will become malevolent. Another problem is the need to prevent bhuts from touching
the corpse in order to make it a bhut also. It is thought that bhuts often take the form of
wasps to make it easier to slip through the mourners who surround the body to protect
it. The mourners keep a piece of iron next to the body because it is thought that iron will
make the bhut burst into flames and vanish. The best protection is not to be afraid.
If anything bad happens to someone, then bhut possession is often suspected.
Examples include odd behaviour and movement, and unexplained illness and death.

Some general points about ghosts

● In the daytime they look dreadful.
● At night they have a human form but can be recognised because they do not have a
shadow and their feet are back to front.

HINDU BELIEFS 165

● House bhuts are less of a problem and can be quite harmless.
● Those outside the house are most feared, especially in the vicinity of water where
someone might have drowned, or near trees where someone might have fallen.
● The curail is the prominent female type, especially those that died childless or in
childbirth. They seduce men and cause impotence, and they attack other women.
● The brahm or Brahman ghost is the most powerful male type, and is often made a
devata or minor god.
● Numerous other types of spirit threaten crops, livestock and villagers.
● Demons are such a problem in some areas that every village will have a demon
temple and devil dances.

Magic
Witches and wizards in India follow a procedure similar to those in the west. This
subject is a source of constant discussion and attention in rural India, and accusations
of witchcraft are often used against personal enemies. There are experts who will inter-
pret the effects and enable the afflicted to take countermeasures. Witchcraft is believed
to be the cause of much misfortune.

The Evil Eye

This is greatly feared as an ever-present threat and great effort goes into countering it.
No one is immune because there is always someone worse off than oneself. Villagers
attribute misfortune to the Evil Eye just as they do to witchcraft. The death of a child,
for example, could be attributed to a childless woman asking to see it.

Astrology
Astrology is vital for the villagers to decide whether or not a date is auspicious (lucky)
enough for someone to marry, to plant crops and so forth. Full moon days are very
auspicious, eclipse days are not. Months and days of the week are similarly divided.
Points of the compass have these attributes: east is auspicious, south is not. Aches and
itches on the left side of the body are auspicious for men but not women; the opposite
is true for the right side. Birds and animals are connected with good and bad omens:
for example, it is seen as an absolute disaster for a vulture to land on the roof of a
house.

166 HINDUISM
 21 The Hindu gods and
goddesses, holy rivers

21.1 Shiva (Siva)

In his earliest form in the Indus valley civilization he is represented as a male figure
seated with crossed legs. This figure has three faces and is surrounded by animals. This
was the prototype of what was to become Shiva, Prince of the Yogins, Lord of the
Beasts, whose faces look to the four quarters of the Earth.
In classical Hinduism he had many attributes.
● He is the god of love and grace.
● He has a dark side to his nature inherited from Indra, the Storm God and destroyer.
● His realm is the battlefield, cemetery and burning ghat, and he is often portrayed
with a garland of skulls. He destroys the world at the end of the kalpa (era).
● He is the great ascetic whose yogic meditation keeps the world in existence.
● As the fertility god he is the patron of procreation, and his symbol became the
lingam, symbol of the male sexual organ.
His following is strongest in Kashmir and southern India and is associated with a
mother goddess who is his consort. This is Shakti (Sakti), who symbolises divine
energy or power. She is also called Parvati, Kali and Durga.
Other aspects of Shiva include:
● Pashupa, the protector of cattle
● Bhutapati, the father of demons
● Tryambaka, accompanied by three mother goddesses
● Digambara, who is ‘clothed in space’ or ‘sky-clad’
● Nataraja, the Lord of The Dance.

Shiva’s appearance
He wears a tiger skin and snake collar. His hair is tied in the knot of the ascetic and he
is adorned with the crescent moon and trident. He is usually shown with four arms
and the third eye open. He rides the bull Nandi, which has become a god because
Shiva is so holy. Sometimes he is shown with a blue throat because he drank the
poison produced by the churning of the Sea of Milk, so saving the world. As Lord of
the Dance he is shown dancing a joyful dance with which he fills the cosmos until it is
on the point of annihilation, so that it has to be destroyed to be reformed again.
Statues of him dancing show him crushing the dwarf (a symbol of ignorance)
underfoot.

THE HINDU GODS AND GODDESSES, HOLY RIVERS 167

21.2 Vishnu
Vishnu appeared in the Vedic era but was not important at that time. In those days
he was a sun god. It was in the immediate pre-Christian era that he was to become
important, and it was towards the end of the pre-Christian era that the trinity of
Brahman deities, the Trimurti, emerged. They are:
● Brahma – who created the world
● Vishnu – who preserves and protects the world
● Shiva – who destroys.
This proved to be short-lived and Brahma’s importance waned, leaving Vishnu and
Shiva as the most important gods.

The Avatara doctrine

This is set out in the Bhagavad Gita and literally means ‘a descent’. It tells us that
Vishnu takes on an earthly form to save the world when the forces of evil threaten its
destruction. Vishnu has 10 avatars.

The avatars of Vishnu

(1)
The fish (Matsya), who saved Manu (the first man), the Sages (ancient wise
ones) and the Veda from the Great Flood which engulfed the world.
(2) The tortoise (Kurma): the gods put Mount Mandara on his back. They had used
the mountain to churn the milk ocean to recover the ambrosia (food of the gods)
they had lost in the Flood.
(3) The boar (Varaha) killed the demon Hiranyaksha and rescued the Earth from the
cosmic ocean into which the demons had thrown her.
(4) The man-lion (Narasimha): the demon Hiranyakashipu could not be killed
indoors or out, day or night, by god, man or beast, so Vishnu appeared from a
pillar in the demon’s palace as a man-lion at twilight and killed the demon on his
threshold.
(5) The dwarf (Vamana) appears before the demon Bali, who granted him as much
space as he could cover in three strides. He covered Earth, air and sky in two
strides but refused the third stride, leaving the nether region to Bali.
(6) Rama of the axe (Parashu Rama) cleared the Earth of kshatriyas 21 times to
defend the Brahmans against royal misbehaviour.
(7) Rama, king of Ayodhya, hero of the Ramayana, who killed the demon Ravana
of Sri Lanka.
(8) Krishna – see below, section 21.3.
(9) The Buddha was probably included to attract the heterodox into Vaishnavism.
Certainly there was tolerance between the two traditions, and the divisions
between them became blurred in a later period. Perhaps it is recognition of what
the Vishnu cult had borrowed from Buddhism. Another theory claims that
Vishnu became incarnate as The Buddha to end animal sacrifice.
(10) Kalkin is the incarnation of the future, who appears in various forms: a horse, a
horse-headed man, a man on a white horse holding a flaming sword. It is he who
will bring judgement to Earth and restore the Golden Age at the end of the
present Dark Age. He will destroy evil so that goodness can flourish.
It is possible that the origin of the first three avatars stems from the cults of sacred
animals. The seventh and eighth are the most popular, and today only Rama, Krishna

168 HINDUSIM
and Buddha have followings. The cult of Rama only appeared at the time of the
Muslim invasions.

21.3 Krishna
Krishna’s name means ‘dark’ or ‘black’ so it is possible that he could have been a god
of the dark aboriginals of India. When the Greeks invaded northern India in the fourth
century BCE they equated him with their own Herakles or Hercules. Various stories
have been added over the centuries. He first appears as a hero who kills Kamsa, his
maternal uncle (or cousin) as foretold in a prophecy which had made Kamsa order a
slaughter of the innocents at Krishna’s birth. As a child he is constantly involved in
naughty pranks and impresses adults by performing miracles. As an adolescent he gets
involved in amorous adventures with the gopis or milkmaids, playing a flute and calling
the wives and daughters of the place to come to him. Krishna ruled Mathura (the
kingdom of Kamsa) for a while, but was forced to lead his followers to Dvaraka, on the
west coast, where he married Rukmini and established his kingdom. Eventually, his
kingdom broke up in a drunken feud and his son was killed. Krishna wandered into the
forest and was killed when a hunter mistook him for a deer and shot him in the heel,
which was his one vulnerable spot.

21.4 Hanuman
Hanuman is the monkey god. He has great strength and is a great devotee of Rama. In
March and April there is the festival of Hanuman Jayanti, to celebrate the birth of
Hanuman. A fair may be held near a Hanuman temple.
Legend tells us that he organised the building of a bridge from India to Sri Lanka.
While riding in the sun his shadow fell on the sea and it was grabbed by a sea monster
who used it to pull the god into the water. Hanuman increased his size to gigantic pro-
portions so the monster did the same. Then Hanuman became tiny and entered the
monster’s body and escaped through its ear before it could recover from the surprise.
Hanuman was caught by his shadow on another occasion, this time by the mother of
the demon Rahu. Hanuman entered her body by becoming small and then swelled to
enormous proportions to burst her apart.

21.5 Ganesha
Ganesha is the elephant-headed god. He may well have been a local god in western
India who was absorbed into the Hindu tradition as a son of Shiva (Figure 21.1).
The Shiva Purana tells us how Shiva’s wife Parvati asked her son to guard her
room to prevent anyone entering, no matter who it was. When Shiva wanted to enter,
Ganesha refused to allow it. Shiva enlisted the help of other Hindu gods. There was a
fight and Ganesha was beheaded by Shiva’s trident on the battlefield. Parvati said that
Shiva would have to replace his head with that of the first living thing that he met. As it
was an elephant, Ganesha duly received an elephant’s head.
Hindus pray to Ganesha as the remover of obstacles before they marry, take
exams, move house, or undertake anything else new or important.

THE HINDU GODS AND GODDESSES, HOLY RIVERS 169

 Figure 21.1 The Hindu God Ganesha
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

170 HINDUSIM
 Hindus tell stories of how Ganesha came to have only one tusk. One story tells
how the gluttonous Ganesha went for a ride on a rat after a feast. A snake frightened
the rat and Ganesha fell, his stomach bursting open. He gathered up his guts and used
the snake as a belt to hold himself together. The moon had seen all this and was
howling with laughter. This angered Ganesha, who tore off a tusk and threw it at the
moon adding a curse that the moon would lose its power of giving light every so often.
Another legend says that he used the tusk to write the Mahabharata, because he is
also the god of literature.

21.6 Rama
Rama was born into a royal family but had to leave because of his step-mother’s plot-
ting. His wife Sita went with him, but she was kidnapped by Ravana, the demon king
of the Rakshahas, who had tricked Rama into going off to hunt a phantom deer. An
eagle revealed the place of her imprisonment in Sri Lanka. Hanuman, the king of the
monkeys, was Rama’s ally, and he discovered that she was still alive. Rama therefore
took an army to rescue her, but the ocean refused to divide to let the army cross. Then
Nala, the son of the blacksmith god, Visvakarma, taught the monkeys to build a bridge,
and this was ready in five days. Rama’s army fought the demons. His arrows shot off
the ten heads of Ravana but they grew again, so he used a magic arrow which passed
through Ravana’s chest and returned to Rama, leaving Ravana dead. However, Rama
would not have his wife back until her purity was proven because there were rumours
that she had been ravished by the demon. Sita therefore built a funeral pyre and walked
into the flames, which did not harm her, but took the shape of a divine being and lifted
her up. This was the proof that Rama wanted, and they were reunited.
The legend of Rama never developed beyond the Sanskrit epic; see Ramayana
section. Rama is an avatar of Vishnu; see section 21.2, above.

21.7 Hari Hara

This is a god who represents an attempt to join Vishnu and Shiva, love and terror. His
left side is Vishnu, and his right side Shiva. Each side has the attributes appropriate to its
god; the hair knot, trident and tigerskin of Shiva, and the tiara, disc and robe of Vishnu.

21.8 Durga
Her name means ‘The Inaccessible’ and she is another form or aspect of Jaganmatri,
the Divine Mother and wife of Shiva. She forms a triad with the goddesses Uma and
Parvati. This relates to aspects of Kali, because Kali is the basic form of all three
members of the triad. This is the case with Durga Pratyangira, where Durga has
vampire-like teeth and a flame-decked hat. She has four arms which carry the trident of
Shiva, the sword, drum and bowl of blood.

Jaganmatri
This means ‘World Mother’, and is another name for Durga.

THE HINDU GODS AND GODDESSES, HOLY RIVERS 171

 21.9 Ganga
Ganga is the goddess of purification of the River Ganges and her name means ‘Swift-
goer’. She is identified with Parvati and was depicted as a crowned mermaid whose
forehead was marked with ashes or as a white queen enthroned with a lotus and a lute.
When the faithful look at the Ganges and touch and drink its waters, they are cleansed
from sin.

21.10 Kali
Shiva, like the other gods, has a female partner to whom he delegates power. Her dif-
ferent names are thought to reflect the different attributes of the ‘Great Mother’ who
has been part of Indian thought since the earliest times. Kali or Durga is the most
important. Her strength and dominance come from the pre-Aryan culture of India
which was matriarchal (female-dominated).

The two aspects of Kali

There is a fierce aspect of death and judgement in which Kali is portrayed wearing a
garland of skulls and a skirt of severed hands. The other aspect shows her as the night
of rest and peace between the cycles of world creation. Even in the fierce aspect, Kali is
said to bring peace by overcoming the fears of her faithful followers. Although Shiva is
remote from time and creation, Kali touches him and brings him to the world of time
and touch as the creator and animator of all things.

21.11 Lakshmi
Lakshmi, the goddess of love and beauty, was born from the churning of the Sea of
Milk. She is the wife of Vishnu, and brings good fortune and prosperity. She is also
known as Sri, and was reincarnated as Sita and as Rukmini, the consort of Krishna.

21.12 Holy rivers

The Ganges (Ganga) is the greatest of these. It is personified as a goddess that Hindus
believe originally flowed only in Heaven, until brought to Earth by Bhagiratha to purify
the ashes of his ancestors. She was reluctant to descend and broke her fall by cascading
on Shiva’s head. This was necessary to prevent the Earth from shattering. Confluences,
or places where two rivers join are very holy places. The Ganges confluence with the
Yamuna at Allahabad is the most sacred place in India. The Sarasvati is another
important river and is personified as a goddess of learning and eloquence.

172 HINDUSIM
22 The scriptures and literature

22.1 The Rig Veda

Between 1500 and 1200 BCE Aryan tribes invaded India and settled in the Punjab.
They composed hymns which make up the Rig Veda or ‘Wisdom of the Verses’, the
oldest work of literature in an Indo-European language. It is also the oldest living reli-
gious literature of the world.
The Indians are unique in that they are the only Indo-European people who have a
religion that is in direct descent from that of the parent culture.
There is a collection of 1028 hymns to the Vedic gods, and other collections called
Samhitas were made for chanting. There is also a collection for the sacrifice, the Yajur
Veda. These secondary collections reproduce a large proportion of the Rig Veda, but
are reorganised for their special purposes.
There is a fourth collection called the Atharva Veda or ‘wisdom of The Atharvan
Priests’, which is distinct in that it contains spells and chants for such purposes as
magical aids to victory in battle, or medical healing and so forth.

The Brahmanas (‘Discussions of The Ritual’)

This series of works explain the hymns and deal with their ritual application, mythol-
ogy, sacrifice and the universe. They date from 800 to 600 BCE.

The Aranyakas and Upanishads

These carry the meditations and ideas of the secondary collection further. The
Upanishads are secret teachings concerning ‘cosmic equations’.

The subordinate set of works

Most of these are now lost. They are concerned with sacrifice and its needs, and
include astronomy, ritual and grammar.

Indo-European elements
These include worship of male sky gods, especially the god Dyaus, whose name is
related to the Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter or Jove. The Vedic ‘World of The
Fathers’ is akin to the Nordic Valhalla or ‘Hall of The Slain’.

THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE 173

Why the Vedas are important
Veda means ‘knowledge’. It is the collective term for the holy scriptures of Hinduism
which were directly revealed as eternal truths to be ‘heard’ or received by the
rishis (seers). They in turn recorded it in Sanskrit, which they regarded as the most
perfect human language. They are therefore not the creation of man or god; they are
eternal.
Such is the veneration for the Vedas that even though their religion, which
revolves around the fire sacrifice ritual, has been superseded by later Hindu doctrines,
it has not relinquished its absolute authority and sacredness. It is still at the core of
almost all the various forms of Hinduism. Even after thousands of years, devout
Hindus learn and recite parts of the Veda because in religious terms this has great
merit.

22.2 The Bhagavad Gita

● This is ‘The Song of The Lord’.
● It is the most famous and popular Hindu scripture.
● It has 18 chapters and 700 verses.
● It is part of the great epic, the Mahabharata.
● It was probably composed in the fourth and third centuries BCE.
● It is a dialogue between the bewildered nobleman Arjuna and Krishna, who is
disguised as his charioteer.

The story
Arjuna, on the eve of battle, was tempted to withdraw, because in doing his duty he
would be killing his relatives and friends in the enemy army. It would be better to let
them keep the kingdom that they held, even though it was not theirs by right. Krishna’s
advice makes up the substance of the book, and is an amalgam of almost every Hindu
point of view.

Krishna’s advice and the lesson for Hindus

His advice is that a man should do his duty according to his class and stage of life.
Arjuna is a kshatriya, one of the warrior class whose sacred duty is to fight in defence of
goodness. Man has a duty to support the stability and solidarity of society (loka
sangraha). He must recognise the necessary part which every caste and occupation
plays in the social system. The Gita encourages acceptance of the world and active
participation in it. It is believed that one should engage in good actions without
thought of personal reward. This should be done in devotion to the Lord Vishnu.

The major strength of the Gita is that it emphasises the points of agreement
between the various systems of thought instead of their disagreements. Not
surprisingly, it is the best-known and most valued Hindu scripture.

174 HINDUISM
22.3 The Ramayana
● This is a major epic poem, dating from the second century BCE to the second
century CE.
● It is a quarter of the length of the Mahabharata, having 24 000 verses instead of
100 000.
● It is a close second to the Gita in popularity.
● It is the story of Rama the king, and his wife Sita, and the hatred of them by Ravana
the demon king of Sri Lanka. (See section 21.6 for the full story of this.) Rama is
virtuous and brave, the ideal ruler, and Sita is the Indian ideal of womanhood: faith-
ful, devoted and chaste.
● The poem promotes three main virtues:
(1) patient endurance in adversity.
(2) ardent piety.
(3) the proper performance of duty.
● Public recitations and dramatic performance of it are an important way of spreading
Hindu ethics.

22.4 The authority of Sruti

Sruti means ‘what is heard’. It is a revealed scripture, and the name is applied to the
Vedas and Upanishads, which were ‘heard’ by ancient seers. Originally these were
handed down orally. The most sacred are the Veda, made up of four divisions:
● Rig Veda
● Sama Veda
● Yajur Veda
● Atharva Veda.
Acceptance of the authority of Sruti is one of the features of Hinduism. In ancient
India those who accepted the Vedic revelation were Astika (orthodox). Jains and
Buddhists did not, and so were Nastika (unorthodox).

22.5 The Puranas

These Hindu chronicles or epic poems celebrate the power and work of the gods.
Tradition recognises 18 poems; six each for Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma. In a broader
sense, all traditional Hindu narrative literature is covered by the term ‘Puranas’. The
myths, legends and genealogies of the gods are covered in great depth.

Important points to note

The Puranas and the epics with which they are closely linked in origin, became the
scriptures of the common people, available to all regardless of sex or class. This con-
trasts with the Vedas, which were restricted to the men of the top three orders. The
Puranas thus brought new non-Brahmanic influences into orthodox religion.

THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE 175

● Vedic and Puranic mythology are in part continuous, but the emphasis differs: in the
Rig Veda Indra, for example, is a god of war, the monsoon, and the prototype of the
warrior; but to the masses he was a rain god and still is today.
● Little is learned of goddesses in the Veda, whereas Puranic myth gives them fuller
treatment.
● The importance of some gods rises in Puranic Hinduism. Vishnu and Shiva from
being minor Vedic gods become the principle gods of the Purana. The different
stages of their rise can be seen as they absorb the identities of the other popular gods.
● By 1000 CE sectarianism creeps into mythology. The main interest now is cosmol-
ogy, the myths of the great ascetics, and sacred places such as rivers and fords.

Cosmogony
Puranic cosmogony (the study of the evolution of the universe) expands on the
cosmogony of the Brahmanas, Upanishads and Epics. Hindus believe that in the begin-
ning the god Narayana who is identified with Vishnu, floated on the snake Ananta
(‘Endless’) on the primeval waters. A lotus grew out of his navel, and it was in this
lotus that Brahma was born, reciting the four Vedas from his four mouths and creating
the ‘Egg of Brahma’ which holds all the worlds. The Vedas do not see an end to the
world but it is periodically destroyed by the Fire of Time. Some sources say that Shiva
dances the tandava dance of doomsday and destroys the world. Then creation starts all
over again.

Cosmology
Puranic cosmology (the structure of the universe) sees three levels: heaven, earth and
the netherworld.
● Heaven has seven levels, at the top of which is the world of Brahma (or brahma-
loka).
● Earth has seven circular continents. In the middle of the central one is Meru, the
cosmic mountain. To the south is Bharatavarsa, which is the old name for India.
The continent is surrounded by a salty ocean. The other continents are surrounded
by oceans of other liquids.
● There are seven levels below the earth. These are the hells where demons and
serpents live.

176 HINDUISM
23 Ritual, worship and pilgrimage

23.1 Individual ritual

The following is a summary of the ritual acts carried out by a woman after a good
harvest, to thank the minor god, and to ensure that he will help in future years. The
services of a Brahman are not needed, nor that of any other specialist.

First
● She rises early and bathes.
● She puts on clean clothes.
● She fasts until the ritual is complete.

Second
● She replasters the kitchen floor and hearth with cowdung.
● On the freshly plastered hearth she prepares karah, which is a sweet pudding to
be used as an offering.

Third
● She takes the image of the devata from the inner room where it is kept.
● She smears a small area of the verandah floor with the same plaster of cowdung
used in the kitchen.
● A small wooden stool is placed in this area and the image is placed upon it.
● Anyone now approaching this area must first remove their shoes.

Fourth
● The woman removes her shoes and then bathes the statue in fresh water.

Fifth
● Now she bows before the image and offers flowers and incense.
● She applies a red powder to the forehead of the statue.
● She ties a sacred thread around its waist.

Sixth
● She offers some of the pudding to the devata, pressing a little bit of it to its
mouth.

RITUAL, WORSHIP AND PILGRIMAGE 177

 Seventh
● She gives the rest of this food offering to her family and close neighbours. This
food offering is now known as prashad.
● The rest is put to one side for other friends and relatives who call at the house
that day.
● No morsel of prashad must be dropped or left in a place where it might
become polluted by contact with the impure – for example, with leather
shoes.

Eighth
● The woman puts the image away later in the day.
● The worship area is cleared of debris from the ritual.
● The remains of the offerings are thrown into a nearby stream.

23.2 Priestly ritual and public worship

This involves a scriptural recital (katha). A Brahman priest recites a piece of scripture
in Sanskrit and it is then explained in the local dialect. It must be a Brahman priest
because only he has the training and knowledge. This is preceded by a formal act of
worship in which the person who has asked for katha worships Ganesha and the nine
planets to secure their blessings upon the recital.

First
● The man returns from the fields in the evening.
● He bathes and puts on clean clothes.
● The day and time were decided beforehand by a Brahman priest who used an
almanac to make sure it was auspicious (at a favourable or lucky time).

Second
● His wife then replasters the kitchen hearth with cow dung.
● She does the same to the place in the main room where the worship is to take
place.
● Then she prepares prashad for distribution after the katha.
● Her prashad is made from flour fried in ghi and sweetened with crude
sugar.

Third
● The priest arrives and washes his hands.
● He will have bathed and put on clean clothes beforehand.
● Then he prepares the mandala (sacred diagram) on the area of the floor
replastered for that purpose. The mandala is made up of symbolic representa-
tions of the nine planets and deities or sacred beings. It is traced on the floor in
white flour.

178 HINDUISM
 Fourth
● Guests start to arrive.
● When it is time to begin, the priest blows the conch shell.
● The householder sits next to the priest in front of the mandala when invited to.
● Then the priest ties a length of red moli (thread) to the man’s wrist and tufts of
sacred kusha grass to the third finger of each hand.

Fifth
● The priest recites from the Sanskrit text.
● He also instructs the householder regarding worship of the symbols in the
mandala.
● Offerings are made to each of these: water, rice, flowers and incense.
● Ritual gestures, bowing with folded hands, are made to each symbol in
turn.

Sixth
● It is now that the reading begins. The priest chants the verses and then explains
them.
● When this is concluded, the prashad is given to all present. None of the
prashad must be trodden on.

Seventh
● When the guests go, the wife scrapes up the diagram and offerings and puts
them on a tray. Her husband then throws them into a stream.

Features common to both rituals

● Participants must bathe first, and put on clean clothes. Shoes must be removed.
● The ritual site must be smeared with cow dung.
● Ritual equipment is disposed of afterwards by being thrown into running water, and
precautions are taken over the disposal of the prashad.

23.3 Worship in the temple

The temple is not as important in Hinduism as the mosque in Islam, the synagogue in
Judaism, or the church in Christianity. Even so, it is regarded as the centre of religious
life. Orthodox Hinduism has no group worship or service for a congregation.
During worship, Hindus sit on the floor facing the shrine. Men and women may sit
on different sides. The god’s image is dressed in royal robes and flowers. Music is
played and scriptures recited.
Worship can be performed individually in the temple, but in some reformed sects
congregational worship has developed. During festivals, the faithful gather in crowds to
see a professional pujari, or priest, conduct a ceremony.
Large temples have several shrine rooms and courts. A shrine will normally have
a canopy or pyramid over it. Shrines are beautifully painted and contain many
sculptures.

RITUAL, WORSHIP AND PILGRIMAGE 179

 Temples also fill the roles of social centre and centres of pilgrimage. Some have
schools and give religious instruction.

23.4 Havan: the offering of fire

This is based on the sacrificial worship of the Aryans. The priest and his helpers put
pieces of wood and camphor into a portable fire-altar and light them. He then pours
ghi (liquid butter) into the fire, while reciting the Vedas. The following prayers are
offered.
(1) A prayer for purity – Purity is essential to approach the Holy One. The priest
takes water in his left hand and dips one of his right-hand fingers into it. Then he
touches his ears, nose, eyes, mouth, arms, body and legs. Then the worshippers
do the same.
(2) A vedic prayer for the good of all.
(3) Prayers for the chief gods.

23.5 Arti: the worship of light

This is the ceremonial of love and devotion to the Lord. Symbols are used, represent-
ing the five elements from which Hindus believe that everything is made.
● Fire – a flat tray with five lights on it is passed before the shrine.
● Earth – this is represented by incense and flowers.
● Air – a fan is waved.
● Ether – a conch shell is blown.
● Water – is placed in a shell or other container.

The ceremony
This has five main points:
(1) The arti tray is moved slowly before the images of the gods.
(2) The lights are held before pictures of the gods.
(3) A spot of red paste is put on the foreheads of the images, pictures and
worshippers.
(4) Each person puts money on the tray and then each passes his or her hands over
the flames and over his or her forehead and hair. This is how they receive God’s
blessing and power.
(5) The congregation receive prashad, a mixture of dried fruit, nuts and sugar
crystals. This is a token of God’s love for the faithful.

The singing of Bhajans

Bhajans are hymns expressing devotion to God. This is very popular and Hindus sing
them anywhere. They are especially sung in the temples of Vishnu and Shiva, and there
is often dancing as well, because dance is a form of worship. The worshippers will
press the palms of their hands together before they begin. Then they bow; these are
gestures of worship. In the past there were temple dancers who dedicated the whole of
their lives to worship.

180 HINDUISM
23.6 Personal worship
Every Hindu starts the day by having a bath and reciting the Gayatri Mantra, which is
the most sacred of all Vedic verses or prayers. It is recited three times a day by the
Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, at dawn, noon and sunset.

Mala japa
A mala is a string of 108 beads rather like a rosary. It is fingered while repeating the
name of God, and while saying the word ‘OM’. This repetition is known as japa.

Private worship
There is great variety even within castes. Prayer takes place before shrines at home as
well as in temples. Some people use yoga to refresh the soul in unity with God. Fasting
and pilgrimages are also a vital part of private devotion.

23.7 Animal sacrifice

Vedic large-scale animal sacrifice died out long ago, but, in the Middle Ages it arose in
another form, and still continues in some temples. The ritual involves beheading an
animal, such as a goat, in front of the god; perhaps Durga or Shiva. This is done so
that the blood splashes on to it. Then the worshipper offers the blood to the god, a
piece of meat to the priest, and he himself can eat the rest. Note that Hindus are able
to do this without breaking the non-violence rule, because the soul of the animal goes
straight to Heaven, which is a great blessing for it.
Centuries ago there was human sacrifice. This was provided by volunteers who
hoped to go to Heaven as a result, or those who wished to fulfil a vow, and by criminals
donated by the king for that specific purpose.

23.8 Pilgrimage
Why pilgrimage?
Clearly there is immense satisfaction to be had from fulfilling a religious yearning to
visit a holy place, and this is even more so when it involves much effort and sacrifice.
Pilgrimage has a value in this life and the next because the pilgrim acquires merit and a
good karma. It helps to build up the balance of good actions to weigh against bad
deeds. Hindus believe in the continuity of life, so a pilgrimage may be undertaken to
benefit ancestors. People take time off work and may use buses, trains or just walk to
reach their chosen destination.

The value of pilgrimage

Value is determined by the following factors:
● the importance of the shrine
● the distance to be travelled

RITUAL, WORSHIP AND PILGRIMAGE 181

● the means of transport
● the purpose of the pilgrimage
● the time of year.

Some effects of pilgrimage

It has a levelling effect in that people of any caste or class may travel the same road. At
the temple of Jagganath at Orissa all caste barriers vanish while people are there
(Figure 23.1). At the holy city of Benares (Varanasi) all who bathe in the Ganges
receive equal cleansing. Those who worship God in different forms such as Shiva or
Krishna forget their differences, and if they should pass minor local shrines on the way
to their destination, they will offer worship at them all.

Figure 23.1 Places of Hindu pilgrimage in India, showing the principal deity or form
of worship: V Vaisnave; S Saiva; D Sakta (Mother Goddess or Devi). Shows
a pilgrimage route (tı-rtha ya-tra- ), mainly by train, a round tour of India taking
about ten weeks

Jawa-la Mukhi (D)

- Keda-rna-th (D)
Rishikesh
Hardwar (S,V) - - th (V)
Badrina

NEPAL
Delhi
P AKISTAN
Vrinda-van (V)
Mathura (V) Ka-makhya-
Pushkar Ayodhya (V)
Baijna-th (S)
Praya-g (Allahabad)
Gaya- (V) BANGLADESH
- -
Nathdwara (V) -
Kashi
Eklingji (S)
Sidhpur (Va-ra-nasi, Benares) Dacca
Nabadwip (Nadia-)
Bishnupur (V)
Ujjain (S) Ka-ligha
- - t (Calcutta) (D)
Da-kor (V)
Dwa-rka (V) Mandha-ta- (S)

I NDI A
Somna-th (S) Bhubaneswar (S)
Na-sik-Tryambak (V) Jaganna-th Puri (V)
Bombay Shirdi (Sa-i Ba-ba-)

A RA B IAN SEA Bay of Bengal

Pa-ndharpur (V)

Sringen (S) Tirupati (V)

Udipi (V) Halebid (S)
Belur (V) Kanchipuram (S,V)

Chidambaram (S)
Palni (S)

Madurai (D,S) Thanjavur (Tanjore) (S)

Rameswaram (S)
Trivandrum (V)
Kanya- Kuma-n

182 HINDUISM
 Figure 23.2 Hindu pilgrims in Kathmandu, Nepal
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

183
Centres of pilgrimage
Benares (Varanasi)
This is the most famous centre and is situated on the banks of the River Ganges, the
holiest of rivers, at the point where it is joined by the Varuna, one of its tributaries.
It is Varuna that gives it one of its other names, Varanasi. A third name is Kashi, which
means ‘resplendent’, a name given because of its superb temples and religious impor-
tance. Famous centres are normally associated with stories of the gods, and in this case
it is Shiva to whom the city is especially sacred because it is thought that he once lived
there. Rama is also remembered every year at the Festival of Dussehra in October and
November when there is a 30-day enactment of the Ramayana.
Those who die in Benares and have their ashes thrown into the Ganges are said to
be freed from rebirth providing they have repented and died in faith. Pilgrims take
home bottles of Ganges water because it is sacred.

Puri
Puri, in Orissa, is the site of one of the most famous Hindu temples dedicated to
Jagganath, or Vishnu. An image of Krishna is taken in procession on a huge cart
around the town. Local people and pilgrims join together to pull it through the streets.

Vrindavan
This city on the River Jumna is accepted as the site of Krishna’s birth, and has been
called the Bethlehem of India as a result. Pilgrims follow a special route around the city
to see places associated with incidents in his youth. They may then proceed to Dwarka
on the west coast of India because it was here that Krishna had his palace and finally
left the world.

Rameshwaram
This is in southern India and is sacred to Vishnu and Shiva. The shrine is said to have
been built by Rama and his wife Sita and was dedicated by them to Shiva. This was
because Rama and Sita landed there when she had been saved from the demon
Ravana. Rama had become impure by killing Ravana’s soldiers, and the building of the
shrine purified him, and enabled him to offer thanks to Shiva and worship him too.

184 HINDUISM
24 Festivals and fairs

Hinduism has more festivals than any other religion. Only a small number are univers-
ally observed throughout India. Many are celebrated in a group of northern or south-
ern states, or even in one state. Large numbers of festivals are found in just a few or
even one village. Festivals of other religions such as Islam can and do take place along-
side Hindu festivals.
The Anthropological Survey of India (1959–61) carried out research in 290
districts in 19 states and found that there were:
● 15 festivals in at least six states
● 50 regional festivals
● 300 local festivals.
One wonders what the figure would be for the entire country!

There are three main groups of festivals

● Festivals which follow the lunar cycle
● Occasional festivals which celebrate the birthday of a famous person
● Seasonal/agricultural festivals

Here are some notes on the most important festivals.

24.1 Divali
Divali is also known as Deepavali; both names mean a row or garland of lights. It is the
most widely celebrated Hindu festival, lasting from two to five days and taking place at
the same time throughout India.
Lamps are lit and are sometimes floated along the river because light symbolises
the victory of goodness and virtue. The lamps or divas are small earthenware bowls
filled with oil or ghi with a cotton wick. They can be placed in rows inside and outside
houses and are lit when evening falls. These days, small electric lights may be used.
Lighting these lamps is associated with the welcoming home of Rama and Sita
after their victory over Ravana. Other associations concern the defeat of King Mahabali
by the dwarf avatar of Vishnu, the god Yama, or Lakshmi the goddess of wealth.

FESTIVALS AND FAIRS 185

 Lakshmi puja (worship of Lakshmi) is a common feature but takes place on differ-
ent days, depending on the area. In some places the trading castes close accounts and
at home or in the temples coins are heaped on to the ledgers. Then an image of the
goddess is placed on top for worship. Lakshmi puja is the centre-piece of Divali in
some areas where the divas are to help her to find the way to the worshippers’ homes,
to bring blessings and happiness.
Activities include gambling, the women drawing colourful designs on the floor
near the threshold, sending cards and the distribution of food and sweets in front of the
temple.
Remote villages have their own unique celebrations such as singing traditional
songs and consulting mediums for problems such as illness, education and marital
desertion.

24.2 Holi
This is a Spring festival in northern India, and is associated with tales of Holika, the
demoness. Its main features are the relaxation of the normal social hierarchy and the
building of a bonfire. In northern India Divali lasts for two or three days; it lasts five
days elsewhere.
Food offerings are partly roasted on the fire before being eaten as holy food
(prashad). The direction of the bonfire flames will reveal which land is to be the most
fertile in the coming year.
Coloured dye, powder and paint are thrown in inter-caste and inter-sex rivalry,
and mud is thrown, while women may give men a beating. In connection with
fertility and the spring there is erotic dancing and the shouting of obscenities. In
Gujarat, babies and young children are carried round the fire in a ritual to bring them
protection.
The dye-throwing and child rituals are connected with Krishna, who disguised
himself as a cowherd in order to misbehave with the milkmaids. Another story tells
how the baby Krishna slew the demoness Putana. In yet another story Krishna is
chased by King Kamasa until he killed the wicked king and took his kingdom.

24.3 Navarati/Durga Puja/Dassehra

This occurs in September to October and is one of the few genuinely all-Indian fest-
ivals. Dussehra (‘the tenth’) is the day after Navaratri (nine nights), but refers to the
whole 10 days in some parts of India.
The main themes are the worship of the goddess in various forms, especially
Durga who killed Mahishasura, the Buffalo Demon; and also the victory of Rama over
Ravana the demon king on Dussehra, the tenth day.
The festival is called Durga Puja in West Bengal and surrounding states. Durga is a
goddess and is one of the names of Devi, wife of Shiva. Images of her dressed for battle
and riding a lion are worshipped for nine days. On the tenth (day) they are immersed
in a river or pond, to celebrate the legend of when Mahishasura once defeated all the
gods, who then sent Durga to kill him armed with a weapon from each god. She rode
to the battle on a lion given by Himavan and wearing superb jewellery as well as
armour provided by Vishnu.

186 HINDUISM
 The weapons donated by the gods included:
● Shiva’s trident
● Vishnu’s disc
● Yama’s spear
● Agni’s dart
● Vayu’s magic bow
● Sutya’s quiver of arrows
● Kala’s sword and shield
● Kubera’s club
● Indra’s thunderbolt.
At the Minakshi temple at Madurai in Tamil Nadu, Minakshi is identified with
Durga. The key stages of the festival are:
● First night – an image of Minakshi is placed on the special shrine of the goddess with
an amulet tied around the left wrist to protect the goddess in battle.
● Eighth night – the shrine is decorated to show Minakshi beheading Mahishasura.
● Ninth night – she is shown worshipping Shiva.
● Tenth day – the ritual washing of Minakshi’s hair, after which the goddess and Shiva
are paraded around Shiva’s part of the temple. The worshipping of Shiva and the
ritual of hair washing are performed to make amends to Shiva for killing the demon
who was one of his devotees
Other goddesses are honoured at Navaratri. A notable example is Saraswati, the
goddess of learning, arts and beauty.
In northern India the festival celebrates great events in the story of Rama; and
Delhi has a superb Ram Lila based on the Ramayana (Lila is a Sanskrit word for play
or sport). The festival culminates when the actor playing Rama shoots an arrow which
sets fire to an effigy of Ravana that has been filled with fireworks.

24.4 Raksha Bandhan/Shravani Purnima/Salono/

Rakhi Purnima
This festival occurs in July/August. Raksha means ‘protection’, and Bandhan means
‘to tie’.
In northern India girls and married women tie an amulet called a rakhi on to the
right wrist of their brothers as a protection against evil influences. (Amulets may be
sent through the post.) They receive cash and gifts in return.
Family priests make visits to receive presents during the festival, and members of
the ‘twice-born’ castes change their sacred threads.
The festival is called Rakhi Purnima in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, where
workmen tie multi-coloured threads to their work tools. Work is also halted for the day.

24.5 Vasanta Panchami/Shri Panchami/

Saraswati Puja
Vasanta Panchami is widely celebrated in northern India as marking the coming of
Spring (January/February). Some temples in southern India celebrate it, but it is not a
public or household festival in the region.

FESTIVALS AND FAIRS 187

 Families wear yellow clothes because the name of the festival literally means
‘yellow fifth’ or ‘spring fifth’. In addition to this, they have a ceremonial bath and the
women may fast.
The festival is also called Shri Panchami, because long ago it was associated with
Shri or Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. Now it is linked with Saraswati, goddess of
learning and the fine arts. In many places books and writing implements are not used
on this day. Although it is called Saraswati Puja (puja means worship), this name is
more normally used for one of the days in the Navaratri festival. In West Bengal clay
statuettes of this goddess are paraded through the streets before immersion in a river or
pond.

24.6 The Kumbha Mela festival

This huge gathering of pilgrims occurs every 12 years at four sacred places in northern
India:
● Prayag (Allahabad)
● Hardwar
● Nasik
● Ujjain.
These places were chosen because legend tells of a battle between the gods and the
demons over a pitcher (kumbha) of immortality-giving nectar which had been obtained
from the ocean floor by churning it up. The gods won and became immortal, but four
drops of the nectar fell during the battle, one at each of the four sites.

24.7 Fairs
Melas or religious fairs are held throughout the year and vary a great deal in size and
importance. The smallest and most local are called marhais. The Kumbha Mela (see
above) is an excellent example of a larger gathering.

188 HINDUISM
25 The family and rites of
passage

25.1 Initiation ( Upanayana)

This was once confined to the three highest classes but is now practised by the
Brahmans only. It makes a boy a full member of the Aryan community.

The three main elements of initiation

(1) The initiate receives the sacred thread at the Upanyan ceremony. The thread
crosses the left shoulder and under the right arm. He will wear this thread all of
his life, being careful to keep it free from defilement.
(2) Then he is entitled to hear, learn and recite the Vedas, though this will only be so
in strictly orthodox families. In fact, printing has made the Vedas available to
anyone irrespective of class or sex.
(3) He will be taught the Gayatri, which is a very sacred verse of the Rig Veda. This
is his spiritual birth; he is now ‘twice born’ (dvija).

25.2 Marriage
Monogamy (one partner) is the rule in Hinduism. The marriage ceremony can take
place in a temple or at home (Figure 25.1). The ceremony is elaborate and used to last
for days, but modern practice is to limit it to one day. In traditional practice bride and
groom did not see each other before the wedding and the bridal veil could not be
removed until the bride was given away by her parents.

The ceremony
● The bride’s father pays homage to the groom.
● Her mother and the other women perform the consecration ceremony.
● Then the priest reads their family trees.
● The bride’s sari is tied to the groom’s scarf to link them.
● The priest recites mantras and prayers while they make the fire offering.

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 189

 Figure 25.1 A Hindu wedding in Bombay, India

190
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

HINDUISM
● Then the couple walk round the sacred fire. This is the focal point of the wedding.
They take seven steps together as the groom recites:
‘This I am, that art thou; that art thou, this I am; I am the heavens, thou the
earth. Come let us marry, let us beget offspring. Loving, bright, genial, may we
live a hundred autumns.’
● Gifts are exchanged while guests toast the couple.
● The bride stands on a grinding stone and her husband says: ‘Be firm as a rock’. This
seen as a sign of permanence.

After the ceremony

After sunset on his wedding night a man should sit silent with his wife until the stars
appear. When the Pole Star appears, he should point it out to her and say to the star:
‘Firm art thou; I see thee the firm one. Firm be thou with me, O thriving one! ‘Then he
says to his wife: ‘To me Brihaspati has given thee; obtaining offspring through me, thy
husband, live with me a hundred autumns.’ This ritual is laid down by the scriptures to
guard against the unexpected in life, and the uncertainties of earthly bliss by the stead-
fast influence of the ‘constant star’.

Divorce
The Hindu Code introduced by the Indian Government allows divorce, but, for the
strictly orthodox this is not possible once the seven steps are taken. This ancient rite
binds them not just on earth but in the next world too. In the west a marriage can be
annulled if it has not been consummated, but this is not the case in Hinduism. This
was a difficulty in the days of childhood marriage, because if a girl was widowed before
she reached puberty, then she would have to spend her days as an ascetic praying for
her husband’s soul.

A Wife’s status in marriage

Hindu society is strongly patriarchal or male-dominated, and a wife is subordinate to
her husband. This is given scriptural authority in some texts which state that women
can never be independent.
● She is subject to her father in childhood.
● She is subject to her sons in old age.
● The only property she can own is jewellery or other similar personal possessions.
● She must wait on her husband in all ways.
● She must get up in the morning before him, and must go to bed after him.
● She must completely obey him even if he is a bad husband.
Possibly because of Islamic influence in the north, the women of the higher classes
were often kept in confinement. If they went out, they had to wear a veil and have an
escort. Though this has declined as a social practice, it survives to some extent in the
villages. In the south it has never been the case.
Although the law bans polygamy, it was once allowed in Hinduism. Men of the
ruling families had harems of wives and concubines. Rich men did the same. However,
Rama and Sita provide the ideal in their devotion to one another, and a man would not
take a second wife unless his first wife was childless or produced only daughters. This
is because it is his son’s duty to continue the family and he must have a son to perform
his funeral rites.

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 191

 On the other hand, women must be treated with kindness and respect, and mothers
are very much honoured. Interestingly, some classes and castes have inheritance through
the female side and they practised polyandry (more than one husband) until recently.

25.3 Death, burial and cremation

As a rule, the dead are cremated, though small children, ascetics and some low castes
are usually buried. For 10 days after a funeral, the mourners are secluded, because
both they and the corpse are ritually impure. During this time ceremonies are carried
out to give the deceased a new spiritual body so that his or her soul can pass on to the
next life.
Great care is taken in the performance of these rites, to prevent the soul from
remaining as a ghost and causing trouble for the relatives. This is why it is important
for Hindus to have a son, as only he can perform the funeral rites. If there is no son,
then an orthodox Hindu will have an adopted substitute, even though this is not as
good.
At the ceremony, dirges are played on drums as the body is carried to cremation.
The eldest son leads the procession and carries a lamp. He whispers the letters AUM
or OM to attune the spirit to God. He also lights the funeral pyre to free the soul.
Offerings of balls of rice and containers of milk are made.
After 10 days, if all is well, the soul passes on to a new life, and the mourners are
no longer ritually impure, because they will have undergone the purificatory rites.
Offerings are made periodically to feed the soul.

25.4 Suttee (or sati)

In times gone by, a high-class widow would be burnt alive on her husband’s funeral
pyre. This was never demanded of a mother with young children, and was supposed to
be voluntary. In reality, family and social expectations meant the widow had little
choice. In religious terms, the justification was that she would purge both her own and
her husband’s sins, and they could then enjoy millions of years in heavenly bliss. If she
did not comply, then the following would happen:
● She would have to be an ascetic for the rest of her life.
● Her head would be shaved, and she would not be allowed to have jewellery, cosmet-
ics or fine clothes.
● She would have to pray continually for her husband’s spirit.
● She would become a household drudge, and would be neglected by all.
● She would be inauspicious (bad luck) to anyone who came into contact with her.
● In normal circumstances she could not remarry, though it was not impossible; she
could marry the dead man’s brother or next of kin.

25.5 Girls at puberty

There is a traditional rite for when a Hindu girl begins her menstrual cycle. She is kept
in a dark room for four days and is forbidden to see the sun. She is regarded as unclean

192 HINDUISM
or ritually impure and no one may touch her. Her diet is boiled rice, milk, sugar, curd
and tamarind without salt. On the fifth morning, she goes to a neighbouring tank
escorted by five women whose husbands are alive. She is smeared with turmeric water,
they all bathe and return home, throwing away the mat and other things that were in
the room.
The Rarhi Brahmans of Bengal compel a girl at puberty to live alone and forbid
her to see the face of any man or boy. She has to stay in a dark room for three days to
undergo penance. She is not allowed to eat meat, fish or sweetmeats, only rice and
ghee are allowed.
The Tiyans of Malabar believe that a girl is polluted for the first four days of her
first menstrual period. She has to keep to the north side of the house where she sleeps
on a special grass mat in a room hung with garlands of young coconut leaves. Another
girl will stay with her at this time but she must not touch another person, tree or plant.
She must not see the sky, crows or cats. Diet is vegetarian without salt, tamarinds, or
chillies. To protect against evil spirits she is allowed a knife which is either carried on
her person or is placed on the mat.

25.6 Pregnancy and childhood

● Three rites are performed during pregnancy.
● A short ceremony is performed as soon as a baby is born and before the umbilical
cord is cut.
● The next ceremony is ten days later, when mother and child are no longer ritually
impure. It is then that the baby is named.
● There is a ceremony when the baby is four months old and has his first sight of the
sun.
● There is another ceremony when the baby is weaned.
● High-class boys receive their ritual tonsure during their third year.

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 193

 Questions

1. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) What name is given to the Ultimate Reality (Supreme Being) worshipped
by all Hindus? (1 mark)
(b) Which is the earliest of the Vedas? (1 mark)
(c) What special name is given to the ‘eternal self’ by Hindus? (1 mark)
(d) Name two avatars of Vishnu. (2 marks)
(e) Explain, using examples, the importance of symbols in Hindu worship. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)
(SEG Paper 1480/1, Section A, 1998 Short Course Specimen Papers)

2. (a) What is a samskar? (2 marks)

(b) What might a Hindu hope to gain by making a pilgrimage to Varanasi? (6 marks)
(c) Explain why the final samskar (cremation) is important in the Hindu view
of life. (8 marks)
(d) ‘When you’re dead, you’re dead, and that is the end of you.’
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer showing you have considered
another point of view. (4 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(London)

3. (a) What is meant by ‘caste’? [2]

(b) Describe the Hindu caste system. [6]
(c) How might belief in dharma (religious duty) affect the life of a Hindu today? [7]
(d) ‘Hindus in Britain cannot continue to live by the rules of the caste system.’
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show that you have
thought about different points of view. [5]
(MEG Sample Paper, Summer 1998)

194 QUESTIONS
4. (a) Describe how Hindus in India and in Britain celebrate the festival of
either
Divali,
or
Holi. (7 marks)
(b) What is the religious meaning of each of these festivals of Divali
and Holi? (7 marks)
(c) ‘Hindu festivals are social events rather than religious ones.’ (6 marks)
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer, showing that you
have thought about more than one point of view. (Total 20 marks)
(NEAB SYL 2, Paper 3, Short Course, 3 June 1997)

5. ‘My favourite god is Shiva because when we went to India my Mum bought me a
necklace and Shiva was on it. I like him because at night when I have bad thoughts
I think about him and they go away.’ (Comment by a Hindu girl)
(a) Describe the features and symbols which might show that the image on
the necklace was Shiva. (7 marks)
(b) Explain the importance of Shiva in Hinduism. (8 marks)
(c) Do you think this girl’s view of Shiva is childish? Give reasons in support
of your view. (5 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(SEG SYLA, Paper 2, June 1995)

QUESTIONS 195
 Hinduism: a glossary

Acharya (Acarya)
Sanskrit: ‘One who teaches by example’; a special spiritual teacher of the Vedas
Advaita
A term for non-duality from ‘a’ (‘not’), and ‘dvaita’ (‘duality’); the unity of Brahman (ultimate
reality) and Atman (human soul)
Agama
A collection of authoritative scriptures
Ahimsa (Ahinsa)
Respect for life; not killing, non-violence
Ananda
A Sanskrit term for bliss; with sat and cit, it is one of the three attributes of Brahman in the
Vedanta philosophy
Anasakti
The doctrine of ‘selfless action’
Anrta
The Vedic concept of chaos
Antaryamin
The soul within the soul, the inner controller
Aranyakas
Lit: ‘belonging to the forests’: Hindu texts, attached to the Brahmanas, composed or studied in
the forests of India
Arjuna
An epic hero, his dialogue with Krishna on the eve of batle forms the subject matter of the
Bhagavad Gita
Artha
Economic development; the second human aim
Arti (Arati)
A welcoming ceremony in which auspicious articles such as lamps and incense are offered to the
god or to saintly people
Aryan
From Sanskrit ‘arya’ meaning noble, applied to the Vedic Indians’ tradition
Ashram (Asram)
A place set up for spiritual development
Ashrama (Asrama)
One of the four stages of life adopted according to material considerations, but ultimately as a
means to attain spiritual realisation; also, a centre of religious teaching and spiritual living, a
retreat for meditation and self-discipline
Astika
Orthodox Hindus who accept the Vedic revelation; they are divided into six schools of
thought

196 HINDUISM
Asuras
Lit: ‘spiritual’ or ‘divine’: originally used of the supreme gods of Hinduism; later applied to
demons and anti-gods of the Vedic hymns, against whom the Aryan gods struggled
Atharya Veda
The fourth Veda
Atman (Atta)
Lit: ‘self’, the real self, the soul, the principle of life
Avatar (Avatara, Avtara)
Lit: ‘a descent’: the descent of a god/deity, usually Vishnu, who has 10 avataras
Avidya (Avijja)
Lit: ‘not knowing’ or ‘ignorance’: the condition of those involved in the cycle of rebirth
Bhabhut
The ashes from a fire offering, preserved by an Indian village worshipper
Bhagat
A devotee; one who practices Bhakti
Bhagavad Gita
‘The Song of The Lord’, spoken by Krishna; the most famous and popular scripture
Bhagvan
A name for the impersonal supreme Spirit, God
Bhajan (Bhajana)
A hymn
Bhakti
‘Love’ or ‘devotion’: loving adoration to God with ardent worship
Bhakti yoga
The path of loving devotion, aimed at developing pure love of God
Bhedabhedavada
The doctrine of identity-in-difference as found in the Brahma Sutra; Brahman seen as both iden-
tical with and different from Atman
Bheru
The ferocious aspect of the god Shiva
Bhopa (Bhuvo)
An Indian village priest, or servant of a local deity or god
Bhutapati
Shiva as father of demons
Bhut
Ghost
Brahma
The creator god, one of the Trimurti or triad with Vishnu and Shiva
Brahmacharya (Brahmacharin)
The first of the four ashramas or stages of life, the celibate student; this stage lasts for 12 years
Brahmachari
Someone in the first stage of life
Brahm
Brahman ghost
Brahman
The ultimate reality, the absolute or god, it has no attributes, and is indescribable
Brahmanas
Sacred texts of the Hindu priestly class, attached to the Vedas
Brahma Samaj
A reformed Hindu sect founded by Ram Mohan Roy in 1827
Brahma Sutra
A collection of statements about Brahman which, with the Upanishads, forms the basis of Vedanta
philosophy
Brahmin (Brahman, Brahmana)
First of the four varnas, the priestly class
Buddha
In Hm an avatar of Vishnu

GLOSSARY 197
Caste
Divisions or groups within Indian society, they are not the same as the four classes or varnas
Chamar
A member of a ‘scheduled class’ (untouchable or outcaste) whose traditional occupation is
connected with tanning leather
Chandala (Candala)
General term for an untouchable or outcaste
Chela
A disciple of a guru; also an Indian village practitioner who seeks to overcome the effects of
sorcery by exorcism and the use of mantras
Chuhra
An outcaste or untouchable who works as a sweeper
Cit
Consciousness, one of the three essential properties of the eternal self, with ananda and sat
Curail
Female ghost
Darshanas
The 6 philosophical schools
Dakshina
The fee paid to an Indian family priest, for the performance of a religious ceremony
Devata
A minor god
Deva
Superhuman, spiritual beings; the shining ones
Dharma
Lit; ‘the quality of the self’, ‘that which sustains one’s existence’, generally, religious duty
Dhatu
The six sense objects (five sense organs plus manas)
Dhoti
A cotton garment worn over the lower body and legs by men
Dhyana
Meditation
Digambara
Shiva ‘clothed in space’ or ‘sky dad’
Divali (Diwali)
‘Row of lights’: the festival of Lights ending one year and starting the next (also Dipavali/ Deepavali)
Duhkha (Dukkha)
Suffering
Durga
A goddess; one of the names of Devi, wife of Shiva
Dussehra
‘Ten Days’: the festival celebrating the victory of Lord Rama over Ravana (also called Vijaya
Dashami)
Dvija
One who is ‘twice born’; applied to the three upper classes
Dwarka (Dvarka, Dvaraka, Dwaraka)
A pilgrimage site on the west coast of India
Gandhi
Twentieth century spiritual and political leader
Ganesha
Elephant-headed Hindu god
Ganga
The River Ganges, the most sacred river of India
Gayatri Mantra
The most sacred Vedic verse or prayer
Ghat
A flight of steps leading to a river landing place; burning ghats or cremation places

198 HINDUISM
Ghi
Clarified butter used in sacrifices and cremation
Gram-devata
Godlings in villages with limited local powers
Grihastha (Gristhi, Grhastha)
The second of the four stages of life: the householder
Gunas
Lit: ‘rope or qualities’: the three forces or qualities, through the interplay of which the Universe
evolved
Hari Hara
A god joining Vishnu and Shiva; love and terror
Harijans
Lit: ‘Sons of Hari’: Gandhi’s term for the untouchables or outcastes: The Indian constitution
calls them the ‘Scheduled class’. They call themselves Dalith (Dalit), meaning oppressed
Hanuman
The monkey god who serves Rama and Sita
Havan (Homa)
The Fire ritual at weddings and other ceremonial occasions
Havan kund
The container in which the havan fire is burned
Holi
The Spring festival of Krishna
Indra
The most important Vedic god
ISKON
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness, a religious group of the Vaishnava tradtion
Isvara
Sanskrit: Lord, Master, King, God: most often refers to Shiva as the Supreme being. In the
Bhagavad Gita it is applied to Krishna as the Lord of Beings
Jagat
The cosmos of moving beings; that which can be felt, heard and smelt
Japa
The repetition of the name of God as a devotional exercise
Jati
Lit: ‘birth’: Occupational kinship group, another term for caste, also, family, lineage or rank
Jenoi (Janeu)
Sacred thread worn by males of the ‘twice-born’ castes
Jnana
Knowledge or wisdom coming from direct insight into the nature of ultimate reality; one of the
ways to salvation
Jnana-yoga
The path of knowledge to liberation
Kali
Lit: ‘black’: she is Shiva’s consort
Kali Yuga
The fourth of the ages; the iron age or age of quarrel or hypocrisy
Kalkin
Avatar of Vishnu as incarnation of the future appearing as a horse, horse-headed man, or a man
on a white horse with a flaming sword
Kalpas
Alternate ages of activity and rest, through which the Universe has evolved
Karah
Sweet pudding used as an offering
Kama
The third of the four aims of life-regulated sense enjoyment
Karma (Kamma)
Lit: deeds, doing or action: these determine a person’s destiny in a future life

GLOSSARY 199
Karma-marga
The path of action leading to salvation
Karma-yoga
The path of pious work aiming at enjoying this world, in this life and the next
Katha
The reading of scriptures by a Brahman priest, sponsored by a worshipper
Khota
The anger of an Indian village godling, seen as the cause of suffering among the community
Kirtan
‘Glorification’; usually performed with musical instruments
Krishna
Popular god, an avatar or incarnation of Vishnu
Kshatriya (Khetri, Khatri)
Second of the four varnas or divisions of Hindu society; the ruling or warrior division
Kurma
Tortoise avatar of Vishnu
Lakshmi
The goddess of fortune
Lingam
The symbol of the male sexual organ
Mahabharata
The longer of two Indian epic poems; the other is the Ramayana. It includes the
Bhagavad Gita
Mahatma
‘Great soul’, a title given to leaders such as Gandhi
Mahavakyas
Great sayings in the Vedic scriptures
Mala
A circle of stringed beads used in meditation
Manas
A sixth sense which co-ordinates the perceptions of the other five
Mandala (mandal)
A circular sacred diagram, also an area or community/group
Mandir
Temple
Mantra
Lit: ‘that which delivers the mind’: a sacred prayer repeated often (In Vedic literature, a hymn or
verse which aids meditation)
Manu
The ancestor of the human race who outlined the rules of conduct for Hinduism. Each age has its
own manu: the present one is the seventh of fourteen
Marg
A path leading to salvation
Marhais
The smallest, local religious fairs
Mata
An independent female devata: Matas have specialist functions – for example, Sitalamata is the
smallpox goddess, Hadakaimata, the goddess of rabies
Mathura
The birthplace of Krishna, a holy place
Matsya
Fish avatar of Vishnu
Maya
From the human point of view, it is the power to create illusions, and then illusion itself; from the
divine point of view it is the power which creates the world
Mayin
A title for God as the wielder of Maya

200 HINDUISM
Mela
A religious fair
Metempsychosis
The transfer of the soul from one body to another
Mimamsa
One of the six schools of philosophy
Moksha (Moksa, Mukti)
Liberation from the cycle of rebirth
Mundan
Head-shaving ceremony
Murti
‘Form’, the image used as a focus of worship
Nandi
Bull ridden by Shiva
Narasimha
Man-lion avatar of Vishnu
Natavaja
Shiva as Lord of the Dance
Navaratri (Navaratra)
Nine nights festival before Dussehra
Nazar
The Evil Eye
Nastika
Unorthodox schools of philosophy that do not accept the Vedic revelation
Nirgunam Brahman
Term for Brahman without gunas or qualities
Nyaya
One of the six orthodox schools of philosophy
Om (Aum)
The sacred symbol and sound representing the ultimate; the most sacred Hindu words
Pancayat
The caste assembly which enforces caste rules, and settles disputes between fellow caste members
Pancgavya
A mixture of the five products of the cow, consumed as a purifying agent: includes milk, curds,
ghi, cow dung and urine
Panchatantra
Part of the supplementary Vedic scriptures (animal stories with a moral)
Pap
Sin
Parashu Rama
Rama of the Axe; an avatar of Vishnu
Paratantra
The doctrine that all worldly things depend for their activity on God
Parvati
The goddess of the Himalayas; one of the names of the consort of Shiva
Pashupa
Shiva as protector of cattle
Prahlada
A devotee of Vishnu connected with the Holi festival
Prakrti
Sanskrit: ‘making before’, used in the sankhya school of philosophy for Nature or Primordial
Matter, eternal and self-existing
Pranam
Greeting involving bowing with hands together before the deity, or bowing down to touch the
feet of the deity or a guru
Prashad
Sanctified food at a sacrifice, eaten by those present at the end of worship

GLOSSARY 201
Prasada
‘Grace’, the gift of Krishna, used in the Gita
Pravachan
A lecture based on scripture
Pret
‘Lingering shade’ the state of the soul between death and the completion of funeral ceremonies
Puja
‘Worship’: usually the raising of hands, palms together
Pujari
Village priest
Punya
A meritorious act that brings a reward in this life or the next – for example, meditation and
generosity
Puranas
‘Ancient’, part of the smrti scriptures
Purohit
A family priest
Purusha
The soul as distinct from material nature: in the Rig Veda it is used for Cosmic Man
Rajas
One of the gunas or qualities, translated as ‘energy’, ‘passion’, or ‘force’
Raksha Bandhan
The festival when women tie a decorative bracelet on their brothers’ wrists
Rama
One of the ten avatars of Vishnu, as king of Ayodhya, hero of the Ramayana
Ramayana
The story of Rama, an epic poem in Sanskrit
Rig Veda
Lit: ‘verse knowledge’ or ‘word knowledge’, the Royal Veda, the first and most sacred scripture
Rishi (Rsi, risi)
The seven seers who received the Vedas from the gods
Rta
The Vedic concept of cosmic law by which all things are maintained in existence
Sadhana
Regulated spiritual practices or discipline
Sadharan dharma
General code of ethics
Sadhu (Saddhu)
Holy man, ascetic (Sanskrit)
Sagunam Brahman
A term in the Upanishads for the Divine with gunas (qualities); this came about because of the
difficulty of understanding Brahman without qualities or attributes
Saiva
A follower of the god Shiva
Salagram
An ammonite stone with spiral markings, one of the symbols of the god Vishnu
Sama Veda
The Veda of chanting; material mainly from the Rig Veda arranged for ritual chanting in sacrificial
worship
Samsara (Sangsara)
‘Going through’ or transmigration or rebirth of the soul in different species
Samskaras
Rites of passage initiating new stages of life
Sanatan Dharma
The eternal, imperishable religion, preferred by some of the faithful to the word Hinduism
Sangha
An assembly of sages

202 HINDUISM
Sankhya
One of the orthodox schools of philosophy
Sannyasin (Samyasin, Samnyasin)
Someone in the last of the four stages of life, having renounced worldly matters
Sanskrit
Sacred language of the scriptures
Sarana
A description of Krishna, as a refuge for his followers, used in the Gita
Sat
‘Being’ or ‘existence’ and hence ‘the good’ or ‘the true’; one of the three attributes of the divine
principle, Brahman, with ananda and cit
Sattva (Sattwa)
One of the three gunas or qualities; ‘goodness’, sustaining and nourishing
Satyagraha
‘truth-force’ or non-violent action; Gandhi’s policy of non-co-operation with the British
Seva (Sewa)
Service, to the divine or to humanity
Shaivism (Saivism)
The religion of those who are the devotees of the god Shiva
Shakti (Sakti)
Energy and power, especially of a god
Shiva (Siva)
A god; the name means ‘kindly’ or ‘auspicious’
Shivaratri (Sivaratri)
Annual festival in honour of Shiva (also Mahashivarti)
Shraddha (Sraddha)
Ceremony in which sanctified food is offered to departed ancestors
Shri (Sri)
‘Fortune’: a title of respect; fem. Shrimati
Shudra
The fourth varna: artisans; they are of higher status than the outcastes or untouchables
Sita (Seeta)
Rama’s consort
Smrti (Smirti, Smiriti)
‘That which is remembered’: scriptures other than the Vedas and Upanishads (which are revealed)
for example, the Gita
Sruti (Srti, Shruti)
‘What is heard’: the four Vedas and the Upanishads which were ‘heard’ by ancient seers
Sudra
The lowest of the four division of society
Suttee
When a wife was burned alive on her husband’s funeral pyre
Svatantra
A doctrine that God alone is autonomous; his activity and existence do not depend on anything
else, but all other beings are dependent
Svayambhu
A descriptive name for God found in the Upanishads; from the root ‘sva’ self, literally meaning
self-existent
Swami (Svami)
Lit: ‘controller’: one who can control his senses, this is an honorary title for religious teachers and
holy men
Swastika
Sanskrit ‘well being’: a mark of good fortune
Tamas
Ignorance, dullness or denseness; the lowest of the three gunas
Tantra
Texts containing dialogues between Shiva and his spouse

GLOSSARY 203
Totka
A magic ritual carried out by a village priest
Transcendental Complex
The quest for liberation and salvation from samsara, the cycle of rebirth and continued existence
Transmigration
Belief that soul inhabits many bodies in successive rebirths
Trinurti
The three gods: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva
Tryambaka
Shiva accompanied by 3 mother goddesses
Tuna (Tona)
Sorcery practiced by a villager to cause suffering or disaster
Untouchable
Those outside the caste system (outcastes)
Upanaya
Sacred thread-tying ceremony
Upanishad (Upanisad)
‘To sit down near’: a sacred text
Vaikuntha
The heavenly realm of Vishnu, where liberated souls live
Vaiseshika
One of the six schools of philosophy
Vaishnavism (Vainavism)
The religion of those who are devotees of Vishnu
Vaishya (Vaisya)
The third of the four varnas or social divisions (merchants and farmers)
Vamana
Dwarf avatar of Vishnu
Vanaprasthi
The third of the four stages of life (Lit: ‘forest dweller’)
Varaha
Boar avatar of Vishnu
Varna
‘Colour’: the four divisions of Hindu society
Varnashrama dharma
The system dividing society into four varnas (divisions) and life into four ashramas (stages)
Varuna
Vedic sky god
Vayu
Vedic god of wind or spirit
Veda
‘Knowledge’: the earliest Hindu scriptures
Vedanta
Lit: ‘end of the Veda’; one of the six philosophical schools
Vidya
‘Knowledge’, especially spiritual wisdom
Vishnu (Visnu)
One of the three gods of the Trimurti
Vrat
Vow
Vrindavan (Brindavan, Vrindavana)
The village connected with Krishna and the gopis
Yajna
A sacrifice to get extra merit
Yajur Veda
The sacrificial Veda: texts from the Veda with instructions for use in sacrificial worship

204 HINDUISM
Yama
The god of death who punishes the wicked
Yantra
A mystical diagram, such as a mandala, used in ceremonies
Yatra (Jatra)
Pilgrimage
Yoga
‘Communion’; the union of the soul with the Supreme; a method of discipline leading to
salvation; one of the six philosophical schools
Yogi
A person who practices yoga (fem. yogusi)
Yuga
Age, or extended period of time; there are four

THE FAMILY AND RITES OF PASSAGE 205

PART V

Buddhism
26 Buddhism: origins

26.1 Introduction
Buddhism began in India around 500 years BCE. Many people at that time
had become disillusioned with some of the beliefs of Hinduism, especially the
caste system and the endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth. People turned to
other beliefs and many new sects arose. It was in this climate that Buddhism
appeared.

26.2 Historical background

Around 1000 BCE India was conquered by a race of people called the Aryans, who
came through the north-west mountain passes. They brought with them a religious
treasury called the Veda, the earliest body of Hindu scriptures. This was a period when
original thinkers were to search for new religious paths.
The Aryan invaders dominated the native population. They had two classes: the
Brahmins, the religious class, who administered rites, and the kshatriya or noble
class, who held political power.
The Buddha’s family lands were in north-east India in the foothills of the
Himalayas. There was fertile farmland and large areas of forest where those looking for
spiritual enlightenment would go to meditate.

26.3 The early life of the Buddha

He was the son of King Suddhodana and Queen Mahamaya, and was born in
563 BCE near Kapilavatthu in the foothills of the Himalayas in what is now Nepal.
Seven days after his birth, the queen died and the baby was reared by her sister,
Mahapajapati Gotami, who was the king’s second wife.
His name was Siddhartha, which means ‘One whose aim is accomplished’, and his
family name was Gautama. The family traced their descent from the sun, and were
part of the Sakya clan, so he was later also known as ‘Sage of the Sakyans’ or
‘Sakyamuni’ and ‘Kinsman of the Sun’.
The name ‘Buddha’, taken by him in 531 BCE, means ‘Enlightened One’.

ORIGINS 209
 As he belonged to the Kshatriyas – the second of the four classes of Hindu society
– his youth was comfortable, and he enjoyed all the pleasures that would be expected
for someone of his background.
He was married at the age of 16 to his cousin Yasodharo, who was also 16. They
had a son named Rahula, which means ‘fetter’ or ‘bond’.

26.4 Mahamaya’s dream

This happened the night before the future Buddha was born. A silvery white elephant
danced three times before her while holding a lotus flower in its trunk. It then entered
her womb through her side. The priests interpreted the dream as foretelling the birth of
a son who would become either a universal monarch or a buddha.
Ten lunar months after conceiving, the queen went to visit her parents. On the full
moon day of Vesakha (May) she gave birth as she clutched the branch of a sala tree.
This took place in the curtained enclosure set up for her in Lumbini, a garden or park.
This place, now called Rummindei, is in Nepal.
Siddhartha was immediately acclaimed by Brahma and other Hindu gods, and a
choir of angels sang in the brilliantly lit heavens. To show that his message would have
a vital influence in the world he took seven steps to north, south, east and west. Then
he announced that this was to be his last incarnation and that he was chief of the
world.
The sage Asita or Kala Devala, the king’s religious adviser, went to examine the
baby. He said that prophetic signs on his body revealed that he was to become a
buddha. Although this delighted him, he was very sad, because he knew that he was
too old to see the fulfilment of his prophecy. The king was alarmed by the sage’s
conflicting emotions, but Asita explained his smiles and tears and restored the king’s
confidence in Siddhartha’s future. The king and Asita then worshipped the child.

26.5 The judgement of the Brahmans

● 108 brahmans were invited for the name-giving ceremony.
● Eight of them were specialists in bodily marks.
● Seven of them predicted two possibilities:
(1) if Siddhartha remained at home, he would become a universal monarch;
(2) if he left home, he would become a buddha.
● Kondanna, the youngest of the eight, said that he would definitely become a buddha.
● Kondanna was to become one of the Buddha’s companions and one of the first five
disciples.

26.6 The Buddha’s first jhana under the jambu

tree
The boy was taken to a ploughing festival, where he and his nurses waited in a tent
under a jambu tree. The nurses left him on his own while they went to enjoy the festiv-
ities. On their return they found him sitting cross-legged, absorbed in a trance (jhana).
When the king saw this, he worshipped him for a second time.

210 BUDDHISM
26.7 Gautama’s transformation
At the age of 29 he had a spiritual crisis. He left his family, property and class privileges to
become a wandering holy man wearing only rags. He had come into contact with old age,
illness and death and was shaken by the impermanence and uncertainty of life on earth.
He was out driving one day with his charioteer when he saw an old man tottering
along. Gautama asked the charioteer what was wrong with the man. He explained that
the man was old and that everyone had to face the problem of aging. Then they saw a
sick man fallen and lying in his own excreta. As before, the charioteer explained that
this was a sick man and that all men are subject to sickness. In a third incident, they
saw a funeral and Gautama was touched by the sorrow of the mourners. The charioteer
explained that death comes to everyone. Then he saw a man with a shaven head and
yellow robe. His calmness impressed Gautama, who decided to discover the reason for
such serenity in the midst of such wretchedness. It was on the way home from seeing
the yellow-robed man that he heard of the birth of his son.

26.8 The Great Renunciation or Retirement

Gautama decided to abandon his privileged life. This has become known as ‘The Great
Renunciation’. He went to find teachers to show him the truth. A sage called Alara
Kalama taught him until he had to admit that Gautama was his equal. He invited him
to help teach the community of his disciples. He then went to another teacher called
Uddaka and made further progress.
Then he moved on to a woodland grove at Uruvela where five ascetics joined him
(ascetics are people who give up the pleasures of this world). One of them was Kondanna,
the brahman who had predicted that he would become a buddha one day. For six years
he practiced extreme asceticism, but realised that it would not achieve enlightenment so
he began to eat proper amounts of food again. His companions were outraged by this and
left him. He remained at Uruvela and pursued enlightenment alone.

26.9 The Great Enlightenment and the struggle

with Mara
Gautama sat under a banyan tree considering the meaning of life and the causes of suf-
fering. He spent the day in a grove of sal trees, and in the evening sat beneath a pipal
tree (now called a bodhi or bo tree). He would not move again until he had reached
enlightenment.
Mara, the evil Tempter, tried to prevent his enlightenment, but Gautama sat in
meditation, supported by the ten Great Virtues (paramitas) that he had achieved in
his past lives as a bodhisattva (buddha-to-be). These ten virtues are essential to attain
enlightenment and become a buddha.

The ten virtues

● charity
● morality
● renunciation

ORIGINS 211
● wisdom
● effort
● patience
● truth
● determination
● universal love
● equanimity.
Mara tried to persuade him to abandon his quest but Gautama made it clear that he
intended to defeat Mara’s ten ‘armies’.

Mara’s ten ‘armies’

(1) lust
(2) dislike for higher existence
(3) hunger and thirst
(4) craving
(5) torpor and sloth (laziness)
(6) fear (cowardice)
(7) doubt
(8) hypocrisy and obduracy
(9) gains, praise, honour, false glory
(10) exalting oneself while despising others.

The result
Mara was defeated and disappeared. Gautama spent the rest of the night in meditation
to gain knowledge of his former lives and to gain the super-human divine eye or ‘third
eye’, which would give him the power to see the passing away and rebirth of all things.
Then he realised the Four Noble Truths.
So, at the age of 35 he had achieved enlightenment; he had become the Buddha.

26.10 The death of Buddha

At the age of 80, with his life’s work done, the Buddha set out with a group of monks
from Rajagaha. They went north and reached Vesali, the capital of the Licchavis. The
rainy season was spent in the village of Beluva, where Buddha became very ill.
However, he overcame the illness because he wished to prepare his disciples before he
died. Ananda, his most devoted disciple, asked for instructions for the order of the
Sangha. Buddha replied: ‘dwell by making yourselves your island, making yourselves,
not anyone else, your refuge; making the dhamma your refuge, nothing else your
refuge.’ Then he announced that he had decided to die in three months, and told his
followers to live by what he had taught them. They were told to spread this abroad for
the benefit of mankind and out of compassion for the world.
They then moved on to Pava where the Buddha ate his last meal, after which he
became very sick. Then they set out for Kusinara (Kusinagara) now called Kasia.
Ananda wept because he knew that Buddha was about to die, but Buddha told him not
to weep because ‘separation is inevitable from all near and dear to us. Whatever is
born, produced, conditioned, contains within itself the nature of its own dissolution. It

212 BUDDHISM
cannot be otherwise.’ A wandering ascetic named Subhadda came to see Buddha, and
after talking he joined the order that night, and so was the last direct disciple.
Buddha said: ‘What I have taught and laid down, Ananda, is dhamma and as
vinaya, this will be your master when I am gone…’. To the monks he said: ‘transient
are all conditioned things. Try to accomplish your aim with diligence.’ These were his
last words.
After cremation, his relics were divided into eight portions for various kingdoms.
Stupas were built over these relics and commemorative feasts held.

26.11 Buddha and doctrine

Buddha said ‘After me your master will be the doctrine itself.’ No one has ever
attempted to become universal spiritual leader in the same way that the Pope is for
Roman Catholicism; it has never been thought necessary. That is why diversity and
opposition have developed within Buddhism over various doctrines, practical devo-
tions, and the large number of schools and observances. There are local groupings of
monasteries who appoint leaders. There is a widespread wish to be true to the basic
doctrine which now takes the Buddha’s place.

ORIGINS 213
27 The spread of Buddhism

27.1 The spread of Buddhism in India

In India, Buddhism continued for over a thousand years before it almost disappeared.
During Buddha’s time (520–480 BCE) it was most successful in the north-east of the
country and was one of the many sects flourishing at that time. What was special about
it was that it appealed to all castes. Buddha said that virtue, not birth, makes a man
‘spiritual’ or ‘brahman’. Buddha’s second caste of nobles or kshatriyas were enthusiastic
converts.
There were three influences in the distinctive nature of Indian Buddhism:
(1) the internal influence of the Theravada and Mahasanghikas
(2) the establishment of councils
(3) the conversion of Emperor Ashoka.

27.2 The internal influence

There were two main types of believer.

The Ancients – Theravada

● This is the Southern School found in South East Asia.
● These were very conservative and the traditions kept by them can be found in the
canon of scriptures.
● Their name is Sthavira (Thera in the Pali language; hence Theravada).
● Followers see their way as purer and more authentic.
● This school was to be called the Theravada or ‘Hinayana’, a term of contempt used
by followers of the Mahayana. It means the ‘Lesser Vehicle’ or lower way.

Theravada – basic views

● It demands loyalty to the dhamma and vinaya (teaching and discipline)
● The Three Refuges (see Chapter 29) must be performed.
● There must be loyalty to the Tripitaka or ‘Three Baskets’ (see below, section 27.5)

214 BUDDHISM
● There is support for spiritual leaders and emphasis on the sangha (‘assembly’ or
monastery).
● Theravadins are enthusiastic about spreading the faith and in being an example to
others.

Mahayana – basic views

● Followers believe that all Buddhists are working their way towards enlightenment
and that Buddha is the ideal to follow in this respect.
● It is believed that bodhisattvas remain in the world to help others in their quest. They
have achieved enlightenment but renounce full nibbana to do this. They show love
and compassion to everyone and this helps to spread the message.
● Mahayana emphasises scriptures not in the Tripitaka, and the Three Bodies of
Buddha, which are:
(1) The Body of Truth
(2) The Body of Bliss
(3) The Body of Appearance.
● There will be a future Buddha (metteya) who will restore the teaching where necessary.

Great Assembly (Mahasanghikas)

● This is the Northern School found in North Asian countries.
● This was the less traditional school.
● Their doctrine was more open to development and was written in Sanskrit, a more
scholarly language than Pali.
● Here the influence of the Buddhist laity was significant.
● It is from this second type that a form of Buddhism called the Mahayana or ‘Greater
Vehicle’ emerged.

Summary
Each school came to be dominant and formative in its own area. The growing
gap between the two vehicles led to moves to re-establish pure doctrine, which led
to the setting up of councils to confirm discipline and rules and decide the basic
content of the scriptures. These councils were the second influence.

27.3 The establishment of Councils

The First Council, at Ragjir or Rajagaha
The problem was that the Buddha did not nominate a successor and he wrote nothing
down. His view had always been that the dhamma would show the way. The difficulty
arose over interpretation, especially when training monks.
500 arhats (those who had fully trained themselves in the development of their
mental powers), met to debate the problem. Two monks with astonishing power of
memory were called on to lead the monks in reciting the vinaya (discipline) and the
dhamma (law). The monk Upali was the authority on vinaya, and Ananda knew the
dhamma.
After some discussion, agreement was reached. Then 500 more monks arrived.
Their leader explained that they wished to preserve the dhamma as he had personally

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM 215

heard it from Buddha. So the council was divided between the liberals who followed
Kasyapa, and the more traditional party.

The Second Council of Vesali

700 monks from the Vajji territory met. Some wanted a relaxation in the 10 points of
discipline. Their movement, known as the Great Assembly (Mahasangha), separated
itself from the First Council of Rajgir.
They believed that a man who had become enlightened could still fall into error,
ignorance and doubt. This caused a split.
Yasa, an elder monk, called a council made up of monks from the ‘Western
Country, the Southern Country, and the Eastern Country’. Discussion achieved
nothing so a committee was formed and ruled that the Vajjians were unlawful on all
10 points. This was confirmed by the full council. The defeated group refused to
accept the judgement and held their own council. They came to be known as
Mahasanghikas.
From these events emerged the two major schools: the Theravada or Hinayana,
the Lesser Vehicle; and the Mahayana or Great Vehicle. The term ‘vehicle’ is used
because the dhamma or doctrine is seen as a raft or boat that carries the follower
across the ocean of this world to salvation on the far shore. It was accepted that differ-
ences of opinion were likely to develop, but that the sangha had to be undivided by
controversy. If it should arise then the dissenting group should leave and set up their
own sangha.
This ‘Law of Schism’, as it was called, preserved unity of the sangha and allowed
for honest differences of opinion.

27.4 The conversion of Ashoka

The third factor in the development of Buddhism emerged at this time. It was the
conversion of the Emperor Ashoka to Buddhism. He ruled the Magadhan Empire,
covering north and central India, from 272 to 232 BCE.
Buddhism was a growing social and intellectual movement, and it was clear that he
would have to take it into account. Ashoka’s rule is outstanding for his adoption of the
social principles of Buddhism.
He took the role of a pious layman, which was to help other religious groups as
well as Buddhism. The Third Council was held at the Imperial capital, Pataliputra
(Patna). Ashoka supported opposition to the doctrine of the Pan-realists
(Sarvastivadins) which was contradictory to orthodox Buddhism.
As a result, the Pan-realists migrated westwards, eventually settling in Kashmir
and Gandhara. At this conference the monks agreed on the contents of the Pali canon
of scripture or Tripitaka.

27.5 The Three Baskets, or Tripitaka

They are:
(1) Vinaya Pitaka (discipline)
(2) Sutta Pitaka (themes)
(3) Abhidhamma Pitaka (analysis).

216 BUDDHISM
Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline)
This is the oldest part and holds the purest collection of Buddha’s teaching. It derives
from the questions put to the monk Upali by Kassapa regarding discipline for monks
and nuns in monastic life.

The main points

● It deals with the need to live peacefully.
● There must be care for those who are ill.
● There must be the giving of charity.
● There must be instructions for teachers and pupils.
● There is a detailed explanation of various points of the Public Confession
(uposatha) used in the sangha.
● There are rules governing ceremonies.

Sutta Pitaka (Themes)

This contains the Dhammapada, which is a vital part of the Pali Canon and is made
up of 423 verses of sayings of the Buddha in 26 chapters, in which there are five col-
lections of teachings (nikaya):
● long expositions or commentaries (digha nikaya)
● medium expositions (majjima nikaya)
● joined together expositions (samyutta nikaya)
● expositions classified by a numerical system (anguttara nikaya)
● minor expositions (khuddaka nikaya).
(Note: exposition includes explanation, discussion and clarification.)

Abhidhamma Pitaka
This explains the teachings of the Sutta Pitaka. It is an analysis of psychic and mental
phenomena, the essence of life and the source of higher knowledge. It was added last as
an explanation to accompany earlier teachings. Some of it is set out in question and
answer form. The most important parts are those of the two ancient schools of the
Theravadin and the Sarvastivadin.

27.6 The expansion of Buddhism outside India

There were two possible routes for Buddhism to expand. It could go north and east
over the mountains, or south and east by sea. Westward expansion was limited to
border regions between India and Afghanistan and the countries beyond, which had
experienced Hellenism from Alexander the Great and his successors. A good example
was King Milinda’s dialogues with Buddhists in his lands.

Northern expansion
● China

This was mainly by the Mahayana and it spread along the silk road to China and over
the high desert plateaux. Central Asian towns were important in the spread of Buddhist

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM 217

ideas. In the first century CE it had reached Kiangsu. In the second century CE
Emperor Han became a Buddhist. This was important because it led to the setting up
of an office of translations, for texts, mostly in Sanskrit and Chinese. Buddhism
adapted to the Chinese way of thinking, which was practical, moralistic and tolerant of
diverse opinion. Two important religious groups developed:
(1) the T’ien T’ai sect
(2) the Amida cult and the Pure Land cult.
(1) The T’ien T’ai sect This practised transcendental meditation. The chief focus is on
Sakyamuni (the historical Buddha) who is transcendental (or beyond normal
human experience). The movement was founded by Chih I (538–97). Its chief
scripture is the Lotus Sutra, and it has a system of meditative exercises consisting of:
(1) correct posture
(2) correct breathing
(3) contemplation of the breathing
(4) compassionate, friendly, joyful and detached thoughts
(5) Buddha contemplation
(6) contemplation of sentences from the Lotus Sutra.
(2) The Amida cult and the Pure Land cult In Mahayana this is the transcendent
Buddha of Infinite Light. It is believed that faith gives a measure of enlightenment
through Amitabha’s grace.* This is known as the ‘Easy Road’ through ‘other-
power’ as opposed to the ‘Saintly Road’ through ‘self-power’ (normal in traditional
Buddhism). Sometimes it is called the Lotus School. Mahayana taught that those
unable to achieve enlightenment alone could do so through faith that buddhas and
bodhisattvas could help them. Some buddhas had created Buddhalands, that of
Amida being the Pure Land in the West. By calling the name of Amitabha, and
having faith in him, a person is assured of rebirth in the Pure Land. This captured
people’s imagination and provided a simple faith for those who had to work daily
and were too poor to study and carry out elaborate rituals.
* Transcendent Buddha, i.e. when he left this earthly life.

● Development in China
In the sixth and seventh centuries CE the Chinese began to show interest in philoso-
phical and religious questions, so more religious texts from India were translated.
Buddhism became one of the three religions of China, with Confucianism and Taoism.
There was a saying: ‘The three religions are one religion’. Other features of Buddhism
in China included new rites and observances. There were statues of Buddhas in the
temples everywhere because each age has its Buddhas. People went on pilgrimages to
sacred mountains, monks guarded the ashes of ancestors in cemeteries, and there were
rosaries with 108 beads for reciting praises to the name of Amida.

● Korea
Chinese Buddhism spread into Korea and merged with the local religion, holding a
very important position under the protection of a number of rulers. Korea acted as a
bridge for the spread of Buddhism to Japan.

● Japan
Buddhism was taken to Japan by Korean scholars in the sixth century CE. In 600 CE
Prince Shotoku, the regent, was converted and Buddhism became the official religion

218 BUDDHISM
of Japan. Japan was divided into feudal clans and was backward at this time. The pro-
gressives used Buddhism, which they regarded as the modern doctrine, as a weapon
against Shinto, which was the traditional religion favoured by the conservative feudal
leaders. Shotoku took the side of the progressive Soga clan, which was Buddhist.
Twelve sects developed, with further internal divisions and interaction between
the various sects. Alliances and compromises were made with Shinto, and they shared
temples. Shinto gods were represented as avatars (other forms) of the Buddha. In the
following centuries important people became monks as in India and China, and monks
influenced the conscience and policies of the rulers. Monasteries owned estates
employing thousands of people. They became such a problem that the shogun (regent
of the Empire) had to break their power by war. Monasteries also held poets, artists,
builders, administrators and military tacticians!!
Buddhism was the state religion until 1860, when Shinto became the national reli-
gion again, as a sense of national identity grew in Japan. Some of the important sects
include:
(1) Pure Land (Jodo), a pietist or devotional sect
(2) Zen (from the Chinese Ch’an), a meditational sect
(3) Tendai (from T’ien Tai), a philosophical sect
(4) Chen-yen
(5) Shingon
(6) Hosso
(7) Soka Gakkai
(8) Nichiren.

● Tibet
Here Buddhism developed in a quite unique way, merging with old beliefs and tradi-
tions. It has a mixture of Theravada and Mahayana. Tantras (sacred texts) are used
for their magical powers and to reveal the path to nibbana. Tantras are taught to
Tibetan children, and monks have to recite them daily. Monks have played an import-
ant role in national and political life. Their leader is the chief monk, the Dalai Lama,
who ruled Tibet until Red China took over. He is the traditional ruler of Tibet and the
highest Buddhist monk in Tibet and Mongolia. This is not a hereditary or elected posi-
tion because it is believed that is held by the same individual in successive incarnations.
He is sometimes called the ‘Grand Lama’. The name Dalai Lama is from Tibetan:
Mongolian ‘dalai’, or ocean, plus Tibetan ‘bla-ma’, superior one; a Buddhist monk,
lama.

Southern expansion
● Sri Lanka
In the third century CE, Buddhism was taken to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) by Ashoka’s son
Mahinda, who had become a Buddhist monk and achieved Nibbana. He converted
King Anuradhapura. It was here that the Pali canon of the Ancients were preserved by
reciting the scriptures. Ancient chronicles reveal the increasing influence of Buddhism
on all aspects of life for all classes of society. Older rituals were accommodated; for
example, pirit, the chanting of holy texts against demons. Local Buddhist councils
were held and large temples built; the most impressive being at Kandy and
Anuradhapura. The sangha has thrived as shown in monasteries, universities and festi-
vals such as the great procession from the temple of the Buddha’s Tooth. This is a
Theravadan country.

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM 219

● Burma
In 250 BCE the Emperor Ashoka sent the first missionaries Sona and Uttara to
‘Suvanna-bhumi’ the Golden Land. Again, Buddhism existed alongside Hinduism and
older beliefs, but eventually became the official religion. Theravada is followed here,
and there is a strong monastic tradition. Most notable is the emphasis on
Abhidhamma of the canon of scripture. Throughout the period up to 1000 CE,
Buddhists made their way from India to Burma.

● Thailand
Thailand lies on the western side of the Indo-China peninsula and was open to Indian
influences. Archaeologists have shown that Buddhism was practised in the area west of
Bangkok from the first century CE. Discoveries have included fine pieces of sculpture,
sancturies, Buddha-rupas and the typical symbol of the Dharma-cakra or ‘wheel of
the law’. Thai Buddhism has basically the same characteristics as Burmese Buddhism.

● Indo China
This consists of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Because of its position, its Buddhism
has become a mixture of Mahayana from the north and Theravada from the south and
west. Other influences include the developments in China and the animism of the
mountain peoples of the area. (Animism believes that spiritual beings live in moun-
tains, trees and other natural objects.)

● Indonesia
The influence of Buddhism was great for 1000 years until the arrival of Islam. Probably
the greatest centres of Buddhist learning and culture in South East Asia between the
seventh and eleventh centuries CE were the islands of Sumatra and Java, where the
influence of eastern India, especially Bengal, was strong. The Chinese pilgrim I Tsing
travelled throughout India and Indonesia in the late seventh century, and wrote that
the rulers supported Hinayana Buddhism. Later, the Sailendra Dynasty that ruled
Malaya and most of Indonesia promoted Mahayana. They also had close contacts with
eastern India, especially the great centre at Nalanda. From North East India the
Tantric form arrived and became predominant until Buddhism gradually disappeared
within a form of religion dominated by Brahman priests and Hindu cults.

27.7 Buddhism in the West

It is only in the last hundred years or so that Buddhism has really become known in the
West (Figure 27.1). In the early 1960s there were a number of scriptures in translation
plus a few scholarly works, but few serious practitioners. Then in 1967 Sangharakshita,
and Englishman born in London in 1925, founded the Friends of the Western
Buddhist Order. The FWBO, as it is known, has taken a different approach to the
other attempts to establish Buddhism in the West.

Adapting Buddhism to modern conditions

Before the FWBO, Buddhism was taught on traditional lines, with teachers from the
East conveying their own form of Buddhism, say from Japan or Thailand. FWBO pre-
sents its faith in a way that is relevant to the modern West without losing its essence.

220 BUDDHISM
 Figure 27.1 A shrine in a Buddhist Vihara, Chiswick, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

221
They also draw freely from the whole of the Buddhist tradition for development and
inspiration, unlike the other Buddhist groups in the West – nearly all of which are
devoted to the study and practice of just one school. At the same time they draw on
sources of inspiration outside Buddhism if they are helpful.
This means that Westerners do not have to abandon their cultural roots to become
Buddhists. So artists and poets from the West whose work reflects some aspect of the
dharma act as a bridge between the two cultures. This approach has proved popular
outside the West, including the slums and villages of India. There are 18 main centres
in the UK, with others throughout Europe, America, Australasia, and Asia.

222 BUDDHISM
28 Buddhist teachings

28.7 The Truth

This can be simplified as follows:
● Buddha realized that Mankind cannot see the Truth that he could now see. Because
of this problem, he was unsure whether or not to teach his findings to the rest of the
world.
● The brahman Sahampati persuaded him to accept the challenge of teaching the
world. He did this by presenting the Buddha with an image of a lotus pond, which
naturally will have some lotuses still under water because they are still un-
developed; others will be at the surface; and there are those which are above
the water and quite untouched by it. This analogy also applies to the human
world.
● The Buddha understood the point and took up the challenge (Figure 28.1). He
decided to teach his five former companions first. He sent to see them and told
them that he was now an arhat (‘perfected one’) and wished to teach them the
dhamma.
● They would not accept this at first, because when he had given up extreme ascet-
icism they assumed that he had given up the quest for enlightenment. Then they
realised that his transformation had taken place, and so he preached his first sermon;
the Benares Sermon, known as the ‘Sermon on Setting in Motion the Wheel of
Truth’.

28.2 The Benares Sermon

This is Buddha’s analysis of the problem of human life and how it can be solved. The
sermon is traditionally presented as the first preaching of the Buddha, in the Deer
Park. It contains the basis of the doctrine (dhamma) in two parts.

(1) The dhamma is the middle between two extremes, being based on reason.
(2) The reality of life is diagnosed as a doctor diagnoses illness with a cure or
prescription for it.

BUDDHIST TEACHINGS 223

 Figure 28.1 The Buddha in the teaching position
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

224 BUDDHISM
28.3 The Four Noble Truths
The first two are the problem; the last two are the answer to the problem.
(1) Suffering is universal.
(2) The cause of suffering is universal.
(3) The remedy for suffering is universal.
(4) The path of release from suffering is universal.
From The Four Noble Truths Buddha formulated the Law of Dependent Origination: by
this law, each condition that we find ourselves in arises out of another, which in turn
depends on the conditions which come before; in a methodical chain.

Suffering
Buddha said that the noble truth of suffering is:
(1) birth
(2) decay
(3) illness
(4) death
(5) the presence of objects we hate
(6) separation from objects we love
(7) not to obtain what we desire.
‘Briefly, the fivefold clinging to existence is suffering.’

The fivefold clinging to existence

The five clingings are :
(1) material existence
(2) feeling
(3) perception
(4) mental formation
(5) consciousness.
Everything that we accept as making up solid realities is impermanent, insubstantial
and a source of sorrow. These are the three characteristics of human life.

The cause of suffering

Buddha defines this as the ‘thirst that leads to rebirth, accompanied by pleasure and
lust, finding its delight here and there.’ Thirst has three aspects:
(1) thirst for pleasure
(2) thirst for existence
(3) thirst for prosperity.

Desire (Tanha)
● The cause of suffering is desire.
● It is caused by selfishness and attachment to this life and everything associated with it.
● There is nothing permanent in this existence, and our desires change continually.

BUDDHIST TEACHINGS 225

● Everything is subject to natural law or, to put it another way, the only certainty in
this life is that none of us will get out of it alive. We came into this world with
nothing and just as surely as we will go out with nothing.

The ending of suffering

Buddha said that this comes about with the complete ending of ‘thirst’, which consists of:
(1) the absence of every passion
(2) abandoning this thirst
(3) doing away with it
(4) deliverance from it
(5) the destruction of desire (tanha).

Extremes to avoid
The Buddha warned that there are two extremes to be avoided:
(1) Passions and luxury – which is low, unworthy, vulgar and useless; and
(2) self-mortification – which is painful, unworthy and useless.

The ‘Lotus of the True Law’

This is Buddha’s prescription; a middle way between the extremes of selfish desire and
self denial. This is the way to personal enlightenment and Nibbana. It leads to wisdom
and knowledge giving true insight and inward calm.

28.4 The Eightfold Path which ends suffering

(1) Right understanding
● This requires an understanding of the meaning of the Four Noble Truths, and the
true nature of the self.
● This means seeing the world the way it really is, and looking at life from the right
viewpoint.

(2) Right intention

This means to follow the middle way and for the right reasons.

(3) Right speech

● This means not to lie, slander or boast.
● Base and disgusting speech should be avoided.

(4) Right conduct or behaviour

● This comes from right thoughts.
● It involves acting morally, and being kind and considerate to all people and creatures.
● No stealing and wrong doing amid the senses.
● Buddha said ‘let a man overcome evil by good’.

226 BUDDHISM
(5) Right occupation or living
● Do not choose a livelihood that will cause bloodshed.
● Do not sell alcohol.
● There must be no trafficking of slaves or women.
● People should work to the best of their ability in a useful occupation.

(6) Right endeavour or effort

● Know yourself and pursue the noble eightfold path at your own pace.
● Seek the truth and reject lies.
● Seek the good and avoid evil.
● Pursue that which gives merit, such as concentrating on good things, love, and
tranquility.

(7) Right contemplation or mindfulness

● Work for freedom from unnecessary wants.
● Avoid extremes of self denial or self indulgence.
● There are five hindrances to get rid of:
(1) sense-desires or covetousness
(2) malevolence
(3) sloth and torpor
(4) restlessness and worry
(5) doubts and questionings.

(8) Right concentration or contemplation

● Concentrate the mind completely on the achievement of Nibbana.
● There are seven limbs of awakening:
(1) mindfulness, investigation of dhamma, or of things
(2) mental states
(3) energy
(4) rapture of mind
(5) impassibility of body
(6) concentration and
(7) even-mindedness.

28.5 The self

There are five points to remember:
● Buddha said that there is no eternal or permanent self.
● The self (atta) changes continually; our thoughts, feelings and ideas continuously
change.
● He taught the concept of anatta or ‘no self’.
● This is because the five elements (skandhas) of the self change constantly and can
dissolve at any time, so they create only illusion. The five elements are :
(1) the physical body (rupa)
(2) feelings (vedana)

BUDDHIST TEACHINGS 227

 (3) sight or perception (samina)
(4) consciousness (samskara)
(5) thought (vijnana).
● So, any individual is only a collection of these illusory elements, and therefore there
can be no permanent self.

Rebirth
When a person dies these five elements, the self, are reborn in another body. This is a
state of ‘impermanence’ (anicca). As long as a person is bound by desire, the cycle of
rebirth will continue by the Law of karma (or kamma). It is cause and effect. To
escape, end desire and follow the middle way.

28.6 Karma
Karma and salvation
There are three points to note.
(1) No state of being is final, because all things age, die and suffer rebirth. This is an
endless process because all existence has consequences. Some are experienced in
the life in which they come into existence, others in the very next life; some in
more remote future lives.
This ‘wheel’ of rebirths is set to turn endlessly. What Buddha offered was a
method to enable people to break the circle and stop this process for themselves.
(2) No death is final. Sooner or later every living creature is born again, and, sooner
or later, will die yet again.
(3) Any being may not necessarily be reborn as the same life form. For example, a
demon could become human; or a man could become a deva or an animal.

Karma and the mechanism of destiny

Whether a human being is reborn in a higher or lower form is determined by merits or
demerits collected during the particular incarnation just ended.
Each action has consequences carrying a future of happiness or unhappiness. The
wise man Nagasena explained this to King Milinda, who asked him the meaning of
transmigration or rebirth.
The sage told him that a being that is born here, dies here, springs up elsewhere
and repeats the process endlessly. When the king asked the reason for human inequali-
ties such as wealth, power, health and intelligence, the sage explained by asking the
king why some vegetables are salty, some bitter, some sweet and so on. The king
realised that it was because they came from different kinds of seed. Nagasena explained
that the differences in men could be explained the same way.
In other words, we all have our own karma, which we have inherited from previous
lives; that is, the seed we sowed then has grown and borne fruit in this life, and the
seed we sow now will do the same in a future life.

228 BUDDHISM
The nature of humankind
Human beings have two parts.

A three-dimensional physical body

● This has six senses: the five normally accepted, and a sixth sense called manas,
which groups the other five to give a complete picture of anything that is being
perceived.
● In Buddhism the body, especially sexual activity, is seen as a danger that drags
people down to the material sphere.
● This body has no real substance, as can be seen by how quickly it decomposes after
death.

A mental component
● In this is found all activities not limited to the senses; for example, intellectual facul-
ties. Buddhism puts them into groups of main activities.
● In the west we would assume that because there are mental activities, there must be a
mind, an ‘I’, as a permanent reality. Buddhism believes this to be an illusion, a group
of accidental, disconnected acts.
● Humans are dominated by illusions, infatuation and stupidity. They think that things
are real and belong to them.
● People believe that they are a permanent and substantial reality, but they are really
an accidental assembly of elements. When people realise this, they will lose their
desire for possessions – including personal experience, their own body or spiritual
elements.

28.7 General behaviour

The cornerstones of Buddhist conduct are right thinking, effort and action. Buddhists
must not harm other people or living creatures. They must avoid jobs involving danger
or harm to others, such as alcohol, drugs, tobacco and weapons. They must be consid-
erate and help those in need. Injustices such as stealing, fighting, wars and telling lies
are forbidden.

Employers and employees

Workers have to be respected and not exploited, being paid a fair wage. The worker
must be honest, respectful and work willingly.

BUDDHIST TEACHINGS 229

 29 The three jewels or refuges

Every meeting of Buddhists opens with the recitation of the Three Refuges, which are:
(1) I go to the Buddha for my refuge
(2) I go to the teaching as my refuge
(3) I go to the order for my refuge.

29.1 The first refuge: the Buddha

Buddha’s authority
There are six points to note.
● Buddhism developed from the experience of Buddha’s life journey.
● He was given the status of an infallible and authoritative master.
● He earned this status through the confidence he inspired in his disciples.
● His teachings are preserved in texts universally accepted as authentic.
● They appear in several languages, especially in Pali Canon of the monks of Sri Lanka
and southern Buddhism generally.
● The literal interpretation of the canon (sacred books) rests on the acceptance of
Buddha as infallible.

29.2 The second refuge: the teaching, life’s

quest and personal achievement
Buddha said that the seeker of enlightenment should verify the teaching through
personal experience. The approach should be to respect the findings of one who
‘having succeeded thus’ (Tathagata) speaks of his experiences so decisively, but not
with unquestioning faith.
The seeker should accept:
(1) the basic principles set out in the Benares Sermon and the first three Noble
Truths; and
(2) the practical Path with its eight parts; and the practical precepts ordered by
Buddha which are binding for monks.

230 BUDDHISM
The message is proven if it leads the seeker to what was promised, that is the ending of
desire and the attainment of Nibbana. The seeker must be the one who makes the
effort; no one can do it for him or her. He did not want others to submit uncondition-
ally to his teaching.

29.3 Discipleship
This is vital in the pursuit of enlightenment. The person who wishes to be a Buddhist
states that (s)he is committing him/herself to Buddhism, the Buddha, the dhamma and
the sangha. It is essential that (s)he commit him/herself to the exercises which lead to
Nibbana.
These fall into two groups:
(1) abandon all passions and
(2) strive for final concentration.

29.4 The third refuge: the order (sangha)

This was the assembly of five monks (bhikkus) who were Buddha’s first disciples and
who formed a community or order. Buddhists say that they go to the order for refuge,
because for anyone in a position to devote their life to the search for enlightenment, it
offers ideal conditions. Discipleship could take several forms.
Not everyone could, or would want to, abandon the life of the world completely,
so they would become lay disciples obeying the five moral precepts:
(1) No violence or taking life
(2) No stealing
(3) No sexual activity outside marriage
(4) No lying
(5) No alcohol.
They make offerings of food, clothes and other basic needs to the monks, so that desire
and worry would not distract them from the pursuit of spiritual liberation. There are
devotional activities such as meditating in the temples, listening to monks read scrip-
ture, and veneration of the Buddha’s relics.

Becoming a monk
The outward symbol is a yellow robe, which stands for wisdom, knowledge, concentra-
tion and morality. It shows that the wearer has recognised the way to escape desire and
pursue Nibbana.
Monks in the sangha have no property, they renounce worldly goods. They are
celibate and even give up their own individuality in order to end desire. A strict self-
discipline is adopted, helped by meditation.
The alms bowl and the shaven head are other outward signs of the monastic life
(Figure 29.1). Apart from the five precepts already mentioned, there are five more which
bind monks and which can be followed by lay people. The last two only apply to monks.
● Not eating at forbidden times – they should take only a very light breakfast and the
main meal before noon.
● No dancing, singing or watching shows.

THE THREE JEWELS OR REFUGES 231

 Figure 29.1 The London Peace Pagoda, Battersea, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

232 BUDDHISM
● Abstaining from garlands, scents, and ornaments.
● No high or broad beds.
● No acceptance of gold or silver (money)
Such a retreat from the world could start as early as the age of eight. Full acceptance
into the sangha could not occur until the age of 20.
Monastic life can be temporary. Many still seek a spiritual period to help them to
reach enlightenment or to make spiritual progress. Monasteries are centres of organised
study as well. A person might spend weeks, months or even years in a monastery to
receive education, plus other refinements and merit for himself and his family. Those
making a permanent commitment face a long hard road. The quest for liberation may
take several lifetimes. It is only in another life that present disciplined effort can be
rewarded by escape from the endless wheel of rebirth.

The procedure
● The applicant (known as a naag) joins for a trial period before what is called the ‘period
of study’. This is before the rainy season, when the monks do not travel outside their
monastery. At the end of this time he can leave if he wants to. Should he wish to
continue, then he will prepare for ordination.
● All debts must be cleared and he must show that he can live in poverty. He visits his
family and the friends who will support him when he has become a monk, and they
gain merit by supporting him.
● On the eve of ordination, the naag and his friends process through the streets, and a
bell is rung to show that he is about to become a monk. He wears a white robe which
symbolises purity, and the music played creates a joyous atmosphere. Family and
friends will give him gifts.
● On the day of the ceremony, his head and beard are shaved, and he sets out for the
monastery dressed in expensive clothes because Gautama was dressed this way when
he set off from home to pursue enlightenment.
● On the way to the monastery, the naag carries a wax candle, a joss stick and a flower.
He removes his fine clothes at the monastery door and enters in poverty.
● Then his father presents him to the seated elders and monks. Holding a yellow robe,
he sits and asks for ordination.
● When approval is given, he goes out, puts on his monk’s garb and then returns to
request instruction in the ways of the monastery. If he answers the monks’ questions
satisfactorily, then he is admitted to the sangha.
● Then his training begins under a tutor whose quarters he shares. He also becomes the
pupil of a spiritual master (acarya).
● He is now a novice (shramanera) and spends his time in the study of religion, some
secular studies, and instruction for life in the sangha.

Questions asked of applicants to join the sangha

The Buddha had simply said ‘Ehi’ (Come!) in the early days, but as numbers and
diversity of applicants increased, so it came about that a selection process had to be
established. A group of five to ten monks ask the following questions:
● ‘Are you afflicted with the following diseases: leprosy, boils, dry leprosy, consump-
tion, fits?’
● ‘Are you a human being?’ (There were stories of non-human beings which had taken
human form to be admitted, trained and liberated.)

THE THREE JEWELS OR REFUGES 233

● ‘Are you a man?’ (Buddha agreed to the foundation of a monastic set up for women,
but insisted on complete separation between monks and nuns.)
● ‘Are you a free man?’ (A slave needed his master’s permission.)
● ‘Have you debts?’ (A person could not enter the sangha to escape debt or other
financial obligations.)
● ‘Are you in the royal service?’ (If too many people left military or civil service it
would disrupt the running and safety of the kingdom.)
● ‘Have your parents given consent?’ (Parental authority, even over adult sons was
great.)
● ‘Are you 20 years old?’ (This was the minimum age, not to enter, but to take vows.
Even so, Buddha himself had taken younger candidates from time to time.)
● ‘Are your alms bowl and robes in due state?’ (They had to be offered by the candi-
date, or by his parents or other proposer.)
● ‘What is your name?’
● ‘What is your upajjhaya’s name?’ (The name of this teacher and spiritual instructor
was a guarantee of the right preparation of the candidate.)
Then the chief monk asks the examining monks three times if they think that the can-
didate should be accepted. If they agree they remain silent. Once accepted, the candi-
date can don his monastic robes again. The time and the day are recorded, because
this will dictate his position in the order of precedence in the sangha.

The monk’s life

The bhikkhu is a mendicant monk. This means that he lives solely on alms, the gifts of
others. He is allowed three articles of clothing: an inner and outer garment and a
cloak. He has a bowl for collecting food, a water filter, a fan, a stick, a tooth pick, a
needle and a razor. These are returned to his sangha if he leaves or if he dies. His
food, mostly balls of rice, is sought as alms every morning and has to be eaten by
noon. Butter, ghi (melted butter), oil, sugar and honey are only given to the sick as a
curative treatment. Meat and fish are rarely eaten and only if it is certain that the
animal or fish was not killed specially to provide food for the monk. (This would be
against the first precept.)

The monastery
In the early days, shelter was improvised and temporary. Monks lived in caves, leaf
shelters, or just sheltered under the branches of a tree.
Then, permanent structures of wood stone and brick were erected. These eventu-
ally became large complexes.
Whether to stay in one place or to become an itinerant or wanderer was originally
down to personal preference and the practical consideration of climate. Travel is easy
in the dry months, but during the monsoon it is quite impossible.

Routine
As the number of monks and monasteries grew, there developed the need for a proper
structure to regulate communal life. A set order to the day was organised. A typical day
is as follows.
(1) Rise early and wash before meditation.
(2) Dress before going out to seek food each morning from lay people.
(3) Return to the monastery to wash before eating.
(4) Masters give spiritual instruction.

234 BUDDHISM
(5) Spiritual and physical rest in the hot part of the day which lasts till about 4pm.
(6) Those monks qualified for the task now go out and take part in discussions and
confer with the laity.
(7) Return to the monastery at nightfall and bathe.
(8) Final discussion of the day between masters and disciples.

The ceremony of Uposatha

All monks in an area met every two weeks; at every full moon and every new moon. At
these times they confessed to each other privately any failure to obey the code of
behaviour. This is now neglected but lay people use these days for stricter religious
observance. To a lesser extent the same applies to the other two quarter days of the
month (the days halfway through the lunar fortnight). The full moon day is the most
important day of them all. Uposatha days are similar to the Christian Sunday or the
Jewish Sabbath.

Authority, discipline and harmony

The monastery is a community of ‘solitary monks who live together’. Discipline is vol-
untary and based on long tradition. Authority is applied by a Superior who is helped by
a Council. The entire community will be consulted if necessary.

THE THREE JEWELS OR REFUGES 235

 30 Worship, pilgrimage and
festivals

30.1 Pagodas and stupas

These are called Cho-ten in Tibet. They are mounds of stone built over relics of
Buddha taken from India to countries where his teaching spread. A collar bone was
taken to Sri Lanka, for example. If no relic was available, then a sacred text was buried
under the stupa.
Some of the most superb examples are in Burma. The Shwe Dagon in Rangoon
has a circular central mass of masonry covered in pure gold leaf. It has four shrines,
each with a golden image of Buddha. It is about the same height as the dome of
St Paul’s Cathedral in London. This is turn is surrounded by a circular open
marble pavement, and beyond this are monastic buildings and shrines. People visit
from all over South East Asia. Two other famous pagodas are in Mandalay and
Moulmein.

30.2 Worship at home

There is a shrine room with a Buddha statuette, incense burner, candles and trays of
food offerings. In Japan, ancestral tablets, in which the spirits of ancestors are believed
to live, are found on the family butsudan shrine or altar with copies of the sutras. This
practice dates back to the thirteenth century. Homage is paid to Buddha; the Three
Refuges and Five Precepts are intoned. A rosary or seikbadi may be used.
In Japan, there are great similarities with Shinto. Offerings may be made for easy
pregnancy. A ladle can be offered in prayer for a child, but if the bottom is knocked
out, then an abortion is wanted. A model breast is offered in prayer to ensure that a
mother has enough milk for her baby.

30.3 Temples
● Their structure symbolises the five elements: fire, air, earth, water and wisdom.
There is a square base to symbolise the earth, and the structure has a pinnacle to
represent wisdom.
● The image of Buddha resides in the main part, which is a shrine to him. The faithful
sit barefoot facing it, while chanting a vow of loyalty to Buddha, dharma and sangha.

236 BUDDHISM
● Offerings are left and they raise their hands to their foreheads and then upward,
before bowing three times in homage. They listen to monks chanting sacred texts
and then take tea and socialise.
● Drums, bells and incense are used while sutras and prayers are offered.
● In Japan the temple is always built inside an enclosure, which may contain a number
of temples.
● The entrance has fierce-looking statues to ward off evil. They are normally covered
with paper because the faithful write petitions on scraps of paper, chew them and
throw them at the figures. If they stick, the prayer will be answered.
● The temple will have a pagoda, three to five stories high, with intricate
ornamentation.
● The main sanctuary has an altar with boxes of sutras, lighted candles and images of
buddhas, bodhisattvas and devas.

30.4 Pilgrimage
There are four places which the devoted person should visit. They are:
(1) Where Buddha was born, at Kapilavastu, where Ashoka erected a pillar
(2) Where he achieved enlightenment, at Bodh Gaya
(3) Where the Wheel of the Dharma was set in motion by Buddha when he preached
his first sermon under the Bodi tree
(4) His place of death, Kusinara, where the Nirvana Temple marks the place.
To visit them brings merit, blessings, helps towards a good rebirth, and deepens spirit-
ual power. Gifts are offered and meditation takes place. There is a bodhi tree under
which Gotama sat as he achieved enlightenment. The Mahabodhi temple is nearby.
Also there is a statue of Buddha preaching the Benares sermon. Other sacred places are
those where relics of the Buddha are buried:
(1) the Temple of the Sacred Tooth at Kandy in Sri Lanka
(2) the Shwe Dagon or Golden Pagoda on the northern outskirts of Rangoon, which
has a hair relic
(3) the branch of the bodhi tree planted at Boroburdur in Java
There are souvenirs with the names of those who have given money to the temple.
These are placed on the shrine (butsudan) at home.

30.5 Festivals
These tend to be associated with events in the life of the Buddha. Buddhist calendars
tend to combine lunar and solar elements and naturally chronology varies from country
to country according to tradition. Theravada and Mahayana have their own distinct
festivals.

Asala Puja or ‘Day of Proclamation’

This is held at full moon in July to celebrate Buddha’s first sermon. This is a national
festival in Sri Lanka and in Kandy, the relic of the Buddha’s tooth is carried through
the streets.

WORSHIP, PILGRIMAGE AND FESTIVALS 237

Hana Matsuri: ‘The Festival of Flowers’
This is a Japanese Mahayana festival celebrating Buddha’s birth. His statue is washed
with sweet tea and hydrangea leaves in memory of the time when as a child he was
bathed in a sweet scented lake in the Park of Lumbini. His image is garlanded with
flowers and paraded through the streets, and its path is strewn with paper lotus flowers.

Higan
This is held every Spring and Autumn in Japan to remember the dead. Prayers and
gifts are offered. People go to the temples to hear sermons and give thanks for the
dead.

Hungry ghosts
This is held in China and is also known as ‘All Souls’ Day’, though it lasts for seven
days. It ends on the fifteenth day of the seventh month.
Mu-lien, one of Buddha’s chief disciples, visited his mother in the lowest hell and
saved her by giving all buddhas and monks a feast.
On the full moon day, monks performed the ‘release of the burning mouths’. This
tantric ritual lasts five hours and takes place in the evening when it is easier for hungry
ghosts to move about.
In the first half of the ceremony the monks invoke the help of the Three Jewels to
break through the gates of hell to open the throats of the sufferers and feed them holy
water in the second half. Sins are purged, and the Three Refuges administered. They
take the bodhisattva resolve. Finally the dharma is preached to them, and the ghosts can
be reborn immediately as humans or in the Western Paradise.

New Year
This is in April. The various Buddhist countries have their own traditions: for example,
the Thais buy birds and fish to set free as a mark of compassion to all living things. In
Sri Lanka there is a water festival on the first two days, when people sprinkle each
other with water as a symbol of purification. In the next three days they visit monaster-
ies and give gifts to the monks. There are processions in the streets and in temples,
statues of Buddha are bathed, and the dead receive prayers and offerings. In Tibet
there is a spectacular display of sculpted scenes from the Buddha’s life, all made out of
butter, coloured with various dyes. Some scenes are enacted in puppet shows.

Obon
This is on 13–15 July. During this time the Japanese light lanterns to guide their ances-
tors’ spirits back home. Small fires may be lit for the same purpose, and freshly gath-
ered herbs and flowers are placed before the family altar. The spirits go away again on
the third day. In Hiroshima, the small fires take the form of small lights in tiny recepta-
cles which are floated down the river. Dancers form a circle and priests go round to
recite a short scriptural passage before the family altar.

Magha Puja
This Thai festival is at the time of full moon in February. It is also known as All Saints’
Day or Dharma Day. It commemorates the time when, three months before his death,

238 BUDDHISM
Buddha received 1250 of his enlightened disciples who turned up spontaneously. This
is when he gave them the code of discipline which, ever since, monks have recited
every two weeks. In big temples, 1250 lights are lit to represent each of the disciples.

Parinibbana or ‘The Great Death’

This is a Mahayana festival to celebrate Buddha’s achievement of Nibbana. As he
approached death, Ananda, his favourite disciple, asked for final instructions. He
replied that they had all their instructions in the rules he had already given, and if fol-
lowed, this would lead to enlightenment.

Poson
This celebrates the arrival of Emperor Ashoka’s son Mahinda as a missionary to Sri
Lanka. He first visited Mihintale, and it is that town that is the centre for the festivities.
Some temples organise religious processions called perahara. Holy objects are paraded
through the streets, accompanied by as much noise as possible. A cardboard image of
Mahinda is carted through the streets while children let off firecrackers.

Wesak
Wesak is the Sinhalese name derived from the Indian name Vaishaka, and is the most
important religious festival, because it commemorates Buddha’s birth, enlightenment
and death all of which occurred on the same day of the year.
Lights and decorations are put up in homes and temples and offerings are made.
Wesak lanterns are made of thin paper stuck on to a light wooden frame. People send
Wesak cards to their friends. People abstain from farming and any other occupation
that could harm living creatures. They also visit the temple, feed the monks and listen
to sermons (on radio and television as well these days). Some people will observe the
eight precepts.

WORSHIP, PILGRIMAGE AND FESTIVALS 239

31 Rites of passage and the family

31.1 Birth
● Parents name their child at the local temple.
● A monk sprinkles it with water while blessing it for a happy life.
● A pure wax candle is lit and the molten wax allowed to fall into a bowl of water to
symbolise the union of the four elements. This symbolises the harmony the child
will aim for during this life.

31.2 Marriage
Arranged marriages were once the rule, but this is not so much the case now.
In the ceremony in Theravada lands, a cotton thread is placed round the buddha-
rupa and then links everyone together. Monks read out the scriptures and bless the
marriage couple. Then two pieces of cotton thread are cut. The leading monk ties one
thread round the bridegroom’s wrist, and the groom ties the other thread round his
bride’s wrist. They wear these threads until they fall off.
In Thailand, the ceremony takes place in the home, where monks sprinkle holy
water as a sign of purity. Scriptures are read and the monks are given food. This
ensures a happy future for the newly-weds. They pay homage before Buddha’s image,
candles are lit and incense burnt. Then they bow to receive the gift of a coral crown
and salutations from the groom’s friend.
As he does this, he makes a sign with his thumb on their foreheads. Any married
people at the ceremony must then place a drop of water on the couple’s heads as a
blessing. The bride’s friend gives everyone a flower before they sign a book to express
their good wishes. Everyone then feasts and dances.

31.3 Death
A true Buddhist refers to death as ‘blissful rest’. There is no hard and fast rule regard-
ing the body. Tibetans cremate the Dalai Lama’s body, but others are left in remote
places for birds and animals to eat.

240 BUDDHISM
 In Sri Lanka burial is normal, but cremation is common, and a monk’s ashes are
deposited in a stupa or mound. As death approaches, care is taken to prepare the mind
which must be tranquil and filled with pure thoughts.
Scriptures are read; in China and Tibet this will normally be the Book of The
Dead. It is believed that consciousness continues for three days after the physical body
dies, so sacred texts are read during this time too. The Chinese and Japanese believe
that the bodhisattva prepares the way to the Pure Land or that Amida comes to meet
the dying person.
Theravadin monks recite sacred texts for 12 days after a death.
At the burial, those present pour water into bowls placed one inside the other to
symbolise their desire to transfer their merit to the dead person, to improve the quality
of their rebirth.
Monks do not conduct burials or funerals. This is because Buddha was not
cremated by his disciples but by the Mallas in Kusinara. Monks are present, though,
and will remind people about impermanence and the ever changing nature of
existence.

31.4 Family
Husbands must look after wives, be kind, faithful and affectionate. Wives must love
their husbands and be good at running the home. There are five basic rules for bring-
ing up a son.
(1) Protect him.
(2) Give him instruction.
(3) Guide him in the right way.
(4) See that he gets a good wife.
(5) Give him his inheritance.
He is expected to support his parents because they have supported him. He must
uphold the family’s good name, look after the family inheritance, and be respectful to
dead relatives.

RITES OF PASSAGE AND THE FAMILY 241

 Questions

1. ‘I take refuge in the Dharma (Dhamma).’

(a) Outline the contents of the Tripitaka and state why it is called the three
baskets (8 marks)
(b) Explain the effect on a Buddhist’s daily life of taking refuge in the
Dhamma. (7 marks)
(c) Which of the Three Refuges do you think is the most important for
upholding Buddhist attitudes to life? Give reasons in support of your
choice. (5 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(SEG SYL A Paper 2167/2 June 1995)
2. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.
Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) What does the title Buddha mean? (1 mark)
(b) What is Anicca? (1 mark)
(c) Which section of the Tripitaka gives rules for monks? (1 mark)
(d) List two of the Three Jewels in which a Buddhist promises to take
refuge. (2 marks)
(e) Explain the main features of one method of meditation. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)
(SEG Paper 1480/1, Section A, 1998 Short Course Specimen Questions)
3. (a) How would you recognise a Buddhist monk? (2 marks)
(b) Choose one of the five precepts.
How do Buddhists try to put this precept into practice? (6 marks)
(c) Explain why special rules are observed by monks and nuns. (8 marks)
(d) ‘Everyone needs rules to live by.’
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer, showing you have
considered another point of view. (4 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(London (1479) Specimen Papers for May/June 1999)

242 QUESTIONS
4. (a) What does this symbol represent? [2]
(b) How did the life of Siddharta Gautama (the Buddha) reflect his teachings. [6]
(c) Explain the importance of the Three Universal Truths in the life of a Buddhist. [7]
(d) ‘Buddhism is a more a way of life than a religion.’
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show that you have thought
about different points of view. [5]
(MEG Sample paper, Summer 1998)

5. (a) Explain the meaning of two of the following parts of the eightfold path:
(i) Right Livelihood,
(ii) Right Mindfulness,
(iii) Right Intention. [4]
(b) What is the purpose of meditation within the eightfold path? [6]
(c) ‘The practice of meditation is essential in following the Buddhist path.’ [10]
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer, showing that you have thought
about more than one point of view.
(NEAB SYL A Short Course Paper 1, 21 May 1997)

QUESTIONS 243
 Buddhism: a glossary

Abhidhamma (Abhidharma)
‘Further or Higher Teaching’; the philosophy and psychology of Buddhism in the abstract
Abhidhamma Pitaka (Abhidharma Pitaka)
The third section of the Canon of scripture of the Theravada Buddhists, it is abstract and imper-
sonal, concerned with analysis of psychical and mental phenomena. It is a systematic philosophical
and psychological treatment of the teachings of the first two sections, the Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas
Acanja
Spiritual master in monastic life
Agama
In Mahayama Buddhism, a collection of scripture regarded as authoritative, originally written in
Sanskrit. Also Chinese translations of the Sutras or Sermons as collected by the Sarvastavadin
school of Hinayana Buddhism
Ahara
In a material sense it is nourishment; in a logical sense it is the condition for an object’s existence
Ahimsa
The doctrine of non-violence, harmlessness, respect for life; part of the Eightfold Path that forbids
the taking of life, including the killing of animals for food
Akusala
Pali: ‘unwholesome’, evil, brings about bad karma, and bad reincarnation; the urge towards
greed, hate or delusion
Amida
The Buddha of immeasurable light (see Amitabha)
Amitabha/Amitayus
In Mahayana Buddhism, the transcendent Buddha of Infinite Light (Amida in Japanese)
Anusmrti (Anapanasati)
Mindfulness of the breath, associated with the development of concentration and calm, and in
the training of insight
Anatta (Anatman)
‘No self’ or ‘no soul’; denial of permanent personal self
Anguttara nikaya
Expositions classified by a numerical system (in the Sutta Pitaka)
Annica (Anitya)
The doctrine of the impermanence of all things
Arhat (Arahat, Arahant, Arhant)
‘Enlightened disciple’: the fourth and highest stage of realisation in Theravada tradition, when the
mind is free of hate, greed and delusions
Ariyatthangikamagga
The Noble Eightfold Path
Arupa-dhatu
The world of formless, superhuman activity, the highest meditative world

244 BUDDHISM
Ashoka (Asoka)
Emperor of India (273–232 BCE); disliked war, became a Buddhist and called a council to regu-
late monastic order and lay piety
Atta (Atman)
Self, soul, the illusory ego
Avalokitesvara
One of the greatest boddhisattvas, he is ‘the Lord who is seen’, or ‘the Lord who lowers his gaze
towards humanity in compassion and the wish to help’; worshipped as the feminine kwan Yin in
China, or K(w) annon in Japan
Bhikkhu (Bhikshu)
Buddhist monk of the Theravada school (from a word meaning ‘beggar’, emphasizing the poverty
of sangha members)
Bhikshuni (Bhikkhuni)
Buddhist nun
Bo
The tree under which the Buddha was meditating when he found Enlightenment
Bodhi
Enlightenment; the spiritual condition of a buddha, bodhisattva or an arhat
Bodhidharma
The 28th Patriarch in line from the Buddha, he took Zen from India to China around 520 CE;
he was the first Patriarch of Zen in China
Bodhisattva (Bodhisatta)
In Mahayana Buddhism, one who has attained Enlightenment, but renounces entry into full
Nibbana to help others; also, a ‘Buddha to be’ or one on the way to Enlightenment
Bompu Zen
‘Ordinary’ Zen, the first of the five types of Zen
Brahmacariya
Lit: ‘holy living’ term for chastity, sexual abstinence, a life of discipline
Brahma Viharas
The four spiritual abodes, states of mind or sublime states: love or loving kindness (metta), com-
passion (karuna), sympathetic joy (mudita), serenity or evenness of mind (upeksa) Brahmim –
highest or religious/priestly caste
Buddha
‘Enlightened One’ or ‘Awakened One’; Mahayana Buddhism recognizes more than one Buddha
Butsudan
Japanese altar to the Buddha which is set up in the family home. Ancestral memorial tables are
kept there and it is the focus of prayers and offerings
Ch’an
See Zen
Cittamatra
The aspect of Nibbana as Nothing but Thought
Dai jo Zen
The fourth of the five types of Zen; Mahayana Zen
Dalai Lama
‘Great Ocean’; the head of Tibetan Buddhism, leader of the Yellow Hat monks, he is seen as the
reincarnation of the bodhisattva Chenresi
Dana
‘Generosity’, ‘giving’
Deva
The shining ones, superhuman, spiritual beings
Dhammakaya
One of the 3 different aspects of Buddha’s nature in Mahayana doctrine ‘eternal teaching or
essence’
Dharma (Dhamma, Dharam)
‘Path’, ‘Truth’, ‘Right’; teachings of the Buddha
Dhammapada
A scripture of the Pali Canon with 423 verses in 26 chapters

GLOSSARY 245
Dharana
The beginning of meditation, fixing thought on a single object
Dharma-cakra
Wheel of the law
Dharmavinaya
The Doctrine or Discipline which was the basis for community religious life in early Buddhism
Dhyana (Jhana)
More advanced meditation; intense or ecstatic concentration
Digha nikaya
Long commentaries in the Sutta Pitaka
Duhkha (Dukkha)
The first of the Four Noble truths; suffering
Gatha
Hymn or set of verses composed by Buddhist monks who are in a state of spiritual insight
Gautama (Gotama)
Family name of the Buddha
Gedo Zen
The second of the five types of Zen (Lit: ‘the outside way’)
Gompa
Monastery, place of meditation
Hinayana
‘Lesser Vehicle’ or ‘Small Vehicle’: in Mahayana Buddhism this is the doctrine of the Elders or
Theravada Buddhists of Sri Lanka and South East Asia; The conservative interpretation of
Buddhism
Jataka
‘Birth story’: accounts of the previous lives of Buddha
Jhana
Buddha’s trance
Jiriki
Lit: ‘self’ or ‘own power’: how the Pure Land sects describe Zen; the way of salvation by self effort
Kama
Pleasure or desire, the chief obstacle to spiritual progress
Kama-dhatu
The plain of material desire or passion
Kapilavastu
The birthplace of Buddha
Karma (Kamma)
‘Action’: actions that affect circumstances in this and future lives; Buddha said that the effect
depends on deliberate intention in actions
Karuna
Compassion: one of the two pillars of Mahayana Buddhism (the other is Wisdom [Prajna]; the
second of the Brahma Viharas.
Kashaya (Kesa)
The robe of a monk, nun, or priest
Kattandiya
Leaders of Buddhist ritual in Sri Lankan villages
Kaya
The material body; it can also mean the ‘body of the Law’
Khandha
See Skandha
Khuddaka nikaya
Minor expositions in the Sutta Pitaka
Klesa (Kilesa)
Emotional defilement or ‘fire’: greed, hatred and delusion
Koan
Lit: ‘a problem’ or ‘a riddle’: in Zen it is a riddle or paradoxical question which cannot be solved
by the intellect, and which is used to develop intuition

246 BUDDHISM
Kshanti
Patience, forebearance
Kshatriya
Second or warrior class
Kusala
Personal liberation
Kwan Yin (Kwannon)
The name of the Mahayana Bodhisattva of great mercy, represented by a woman with a child;
The protector of women and children
Lama
Tibetan Buddhist priest; teacher or one who is revered
Lotus sutra
Chief scripture of the T’ien T’ai sect
Madhyamika
School of philosophy founded by Nagarjuna in 2nd century BCE, it holds a middle position
between realism and idealism
Magadhi
The language of the community into which the Buddha was born
Mahapara-nibbanasutra
Lit: ‘the sutra of the great final appearance’, an account of the passing of the Buddha
Mahasanghika
The followers of the Great Sangha party of Buddhism; these accepted the findings of the Second
Council
Mahayana
The Great Vehicle, or major part of Buddhism, its main features are the Bodhisattva Ideal, the
‘wisdom’ of the Theravada school, and compassion; it is universalist in appeal
Maitreya
The Buddha who is to come; the friendly, benevolent one
Mala
String of 108 beads (Japanese: Juzu)
Manas
A sixth sense which co-ordinates the perceptions of the other five senses
Mantra
A sacred formula or chant
Marga (Magga)
‘Path’ leading to the end of suffering; fourth Noble Truth
Mara
The Evil one who tried to tempt Buddha away from Enlightenment
Metempsychosis
Lit: ‘the transfer of the soul from one body to another’; the doctrine of the cycle of rebirth
Metta (Maitri)
The subject of the Metta Sutta: the doctrine of good will towards all; also ‘loving kindness’, a pure
love in which there is neither grasping nor attachment
Metteya
A future Buddha
Miccha
That which is false
Middle Way
Buddha’s recommended path between extreme materialism, and sensual indulgence on the one
hand, and severe asceticism on the other
Mudita
The third of the Brahma Viharas: ‘sympathetic joy’, delighting in the good fortune of
others
Mudra
Ritual gesture, as with the hands of Buddha images
Naag
An applicant to become a monk

GLOSSARY 247
Nagarjuna
The founder of the Madhyamika school of philosophy
Naga
Serpents which can change themselves into men, and protect Buddhas and Buddhists
Nama
Lit: ‘name’, it is used for Spirit, a collective term four four of the five Khandas, excluding rupa
(the first)
Nikaya
Collections of teachings
Nibbana (Nirvana)
‘Blowing out’, the extinction of the self, the goal of Enlightenment and religious life
Nirmanakaya
One of the 3 different aspects of the Buddha nature in Mahayana doctrine – the historical
Buddha
Nirodha
‘Cessation’ of suffering and desire, the third Noble Truth
Om Mani Padme Hum
A mantra meaning ‘Hail to the Jewel in the Lotus’
Padmasana
The Lotus or basic position in meditation
Pali
The language of the Theravada scriptures
Pancasila
The five rules for all Buddhists: no killing, theft, luxury, lies and alcohol
Panchen Lama
The Lama who ranks second to the Dalai Lama
Paramita (Parami)
‘Perfection, cultivated on the path
Parinnirvana (Parinibbana)
Final and complete Nibbana at the passing away of a Buddha
Parisad
The four categories of Buddhists: monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen
Patimokkha
The 227 rules followed by a Bhikkhu, and recited in confession
Pirit
Charm, or ceremony of protection from evil in Sri Lanka
Pitaka
‘Basket’ (collection) of scriptures
Posan
Festival commemorating the introduction of Buddhism into Sri Lanka
Prajna (Panna)
Insight, wisdom
Pratimoksha (Patimokkha)
The training rules for monks and nuns
Pravrajaya (Pabbajja)
The renunciation of the world before training to be a monk
Prayer beads
Buddhists use 108 in two parts, each representing the 54 stages of becoming a Bodhisattva
Preta
The shades of the dead, the ‘hungry ghosts’
Puja
A gesture of worship or reverence paid to gods, normally the raising of the hands, palms together;
includes general worship too
Punya
A meritorious act which brings reward in this life or the next
Pure Land
4th century CE school of Buddhism

248 BUDDHISM
Rajas
One of the three fires, dosa and moha are the others
Rinzai
One of the larger sects of Zen
Rupa
Bodily form; one of the five elements which make up the nature of dwellers on the lowest plane
Rupa-dhatu
The plane of forms
Saddha
Confidence or faith
Saddharmapundarika Sutra
The Lotus of the Good Law Sutra in Mahayana Buddhism, which believes it to be the teaching
of the transcendent Buddha
Saijojo zen
The fifth and highest type of Zen
Samadhi
Intense concentration in meditation, the last stage in the Eightfold Path
Samatha
‘Calm abiding’ meditation
Sambhogakaya
In Mahayana doctrine one of the 3 different aspects of the Buddha nature: the transcendental
Buddha
Samjna (Sanna)
Perception, third of the five skandhas
Samma
That which is true, just or exact: this applied to the Buddha, the Eightfold Path and
Enlightenment
Samsara
Transmigration, the continual round of birth, death and rebirth
Samskara (Sankhara)
Fourth of the five skandhas, mental/karmic formation
Samudaya
The second Noble truth: the origin of suffering
Samyutta nikaya
Joined together expositions in the Sutta Pika
Sangha
‘Assembly’, monastic life founded by the Buddha. In Theravadin countries it is used for the
order of bhikkhus; in Mahayana countries there are lay people as well; in Japan, it includes
priests
Sankhara
Intellectural faculties, one of the five elements which are part of the nature of dwellers on the
lowest plane
Sarana
Refuge or entry into the Sangha
Sarvastivadins
Early Buddhist school which split from the Hinayana school
Satori
‘Awakening’, Enlightenment in Zen
Sattva
‘Being’, living beings who live at various levels of this world, and in underworld and heavenly
regions
Satya (Sacca)
Truth
Seikbadi
A rosany
Sesshin
An intensive period of Zen practice in a monastery or temple

GLOSSARY 249
Shakyamuni
Buddha’s historical title: ‘Sage of the Shakyas’ (his tribe)
Shikan taza
‘only sitting’, pure concentration of thought in Zen
Shojo Zen
Third of the five types of Zen; small vehicle, Hinayana Zen
Shramanera
Novice monk
Siddhartha (Sidhatta) (Siddattha)
‘Wish-fulfilled’, Buddha’s personal name
Sila
‘Discipline’, ‘Morality’
Sramanera
A novice in a monastery
Sunya (Sunna)
The emptiness of the Absolute; the denial of all conceptual constructions in relation to ultimate
reality
Stupa (Thupa/Cetiya)
Mound containing relics
Sutra (Sutta)
Text, the word of the Buddha
Sutta Pitaka
The second of the three collections, mainly of teachings that make up the canon of basic scrip-
ture; dialogues of the Buddha
Tanha (Trsna)
Desire or thirst, the cause of suffering (second Noble Truth)
Tantra
Texts revealed by the Buddha: magic spells, descriptions of divinities and instructions for worship
Tariki
In Pure Land Buddhism this means reliance on powers outside oneself, salvation by outside
powers
Tatha
‘Suchness’: the Ultimate and Unconditioned nature of all things
Tathagata
Lit: ‘He who has arrived at Enlightenment’, a title of the Buddha
Theravada (Sthaviravada)
‘Way (or doctrine) of the Elders’, the southern school of Buddhism, found in South East Asia;
Sometimes called Hinayana
Three Bodies
The Mahayana Buddhist doctrine of three different aspects of the Buddha nature: dhammakaya
or the eternal teaching or essence; nirmanakaya or the historical Buddha; sambhogakaya or the
transcendental Buddha
Three Jewels
Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha
Trikaya
See ‘Three Bodies’
Tripitaka (Tipitaka)
‘Three Baskets’: the Pali canon of scriptures acknowledged by Theravadins
Triratna (Trisharana)
The Three Jewels (see above)
Trishna (Tanha)
The cause of suffering (thirst, craving, attachment, desire)
Tulku
Reincarnated Lama
Upasaka (male)/Upasika (female)
Buddhist disciples who practice their religion in the world without retiring to a monastery or
convent

250 BUDDHISM
Upaya
‘Skilful means’: different ways the Buddha uses to teach
Upeksa (Uppekha)
The fourth of the Brahma Viharas, the ability to overcome feelings of pleasure or pain; ‘Evenness
of mind’
Uposatha
Fasting, or it can be public confession, undertaken twice a month by monks
Uppajjhaya
Teacher and spiritual instructor
Vaisakha (Vesakha, Wesak, Vesak)
Buddha Day: the name of a festival and a month
Vajrayana
‘Thunderbolt’ or ‘Diamond Way’: teachings that came later, mainly in India and Tibet
Vedana
The second of the five skandhas or elements that make up the nature of dwellers on the lowest
plane; it is feeling
Vihara
A dwelling place, monastery, also a stage in spiritual life
Vijnana (Vinnana)
The fifth of the five skandhas or elements of the nature of dwellers on the lower plane: consciousness
Vinaya
Monastic disciplinary rules
Vinaya Pitaka
The first of the Three Baskets of scripture containing the Vinaya
Vipashayana (Vipassana)
‘Insight’, meditation
Viraya
‘Energy’, ‘Exertion’
Yogacara
A school of philosophy
Zazan
Sitting meditation in Zen
Zen (Ch’an, dhyana)
A school of Mahayana Buddhism which developed in China and Japan

GLOSSARY 251
PART VI

Sikhism
32 Origins: the Khalsa

32.1 Introduction
● The word ‘Sikh’ is a Hindi word deriving from Sanskrit and means ‘disciple’.
● Sikhism was founded in the Punjab region of India in the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries CE by Nanak.
● Nanak was born in a Kshatriya (warrior class) family.
● He was brought up as an orthodox Hindu in the village of Talwandi where he was
born.
● From an early age, he was interested in religion and devoted himself to the service of
God.
● As a young man, he became a spiritual teacher or guru.
● He bathed in the river before dawn and then meditated. Then he and his followers
would sing hymns before returning for breakfast and the day’s work.
● One day he went to bathe but fell into a trance, remaining in the water for three
days.
● He did not speak for a day, and then said: ‘there is no Hindu nor Muslim’.
● He felt that both religions contained some of the truth about God, but that their
rituals were clouding the truth that they were both trying to teach.
● Nanak believed that the only way to find God was to look into one’s heart and
meditate.
● He went on a number of journeys, his followers being made up of both Hindus and
Muslims, visiting the main religious centres of India, Sri Lanka and Tibet, and later
visiting Makkah.
● Before he died he appointed one of his followers to become guru of the Sikh commu-
nity. This was Bhai Lehna whom he renamed Angad which comes from ang,
meaning ‘limb’. It was a pun meaning ‘part of me’.
● This is important because each succession was a continuation of the Guru Nanak;
the succession was spiritual not physical. That was why he did not name one of his
sons as his successor, but the person most suited.

32.2 The Khalsa

For a century some Sikhs had fought for independence against the Mughal Emperors,
and the Guru now decided to unite the effort. So it was that Guru Gobind Singh (see
section 33.4) called the Sikhs to meet him at Anandpur on Baisakhi day, 1699 CE. He

ORIGINS: THE KHALSA 255

stood in front of his tent with a sword in his hand and asked if any of them would lay
down their life for their guru. A man stepped forward and was taken into the tent from
which the Guru returned alone, his sword covered in blood. This happened five times
until the Guru came out of the tent with all of them unharmed; the blood was that of a
goat.
This episode was to show the Sikhs that they must be loyal and willing to die for the
faith. Those that had stepped forward had proved themselves and were told to cry: ‘To
God be the victory’. The Guru now made a mixture of sugar crystals and water and
sprinkled it on them, gave them some of it to drink, and got them to do the same for him.
That day, most people present had been initiated like this. (Some refused because there
were men and women of inferior castes present and/or they disapproved of the use of
force.) The initiates were called the Khalsa (the pure or dedicated). The men were given
the common name Singh (lion) and women were called Kaur (princess). The men were
to have a common uniform based on five elements known as the five ‘Ks’.

32.3 The five Ks

● These get their name from the first letter of the Punjabi words for them.
● They are a symbol of unity, loyalty, devotion, purity and enthusiasm for God and the
Sikh community.
● Members have to be self-disciplined and uphold the glory of the Khalsa.
● The strict code of conduct bans the eating of meat from animals killed in a Muslim
ritual, having sex with Muslim women, and smoking.
● The Five Ks are as follows:
(1) Kara: the steel bracelet, worn on the right wrists, which shows bondage to God
and the Khalsa
(2) Kirpan: the small sword, which symbolises the courage to defend the faith and
the poor
(3) Kesh: the long hair, which is the symbol of strength, virility and saintliness
(4) Kangha: a comb, which symbolises cleanliness and inner purity
(5) Kach: trousers, which represent alertness, agility and chastity.

Some important points

● The turban was added to the above and is the most important distinguishing
feature of a Sikh (Figure 32.1).
● Women adopted the five Ks as well.
● All decisions are made in the presence of the Adi Granth (see section 35.2).
● Within months, 80 000 had been initiated.
● The Khalsa is the focus of unity in Sikhism.
● Guru Gobind Singh said ‘Where there are five there am I, when the five meet
they are the holiest of the holy’.

32.4 Community and brotherhood

Every Sikh must give service to, and be loyal to, the community and its beliefs.

256 SIKHISM
Figure 32.1 A Sikh member of Khalsa, wearing some of the 5Ks, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

ORIGINS: THE KHALSA 257

Its main features
(1) Guru Nanak’s teaching as a guide
These ideas can be found in the Guru Granth Sahib (see section 35.2). They are the
Word of God spoken through Guru Nanak (see section 33.3).

(2) Unity
If decisions are going to affect the community, then they must be made by the whole
community. When the decision is made then everyone obeys. Most decisions are made
by the community of the local gurdwara (see section 36.1).

(3) Equality
Status is man-made and not decreed by God, so there is no caste system in Sikhism.
Everyone is born equal in the sight of God and so has a right to be free.

(4) High morality

This means to be truthful, tolerant, humble and fair. Everyone must work for and
maintain the good of the community. Adultery, stealing, gambling and other forms of
immorality are banned. Everyone should behave honourably towards others.

(5) Good works

God expects this and it brings the community closer to Him. Good works are the
natural expression of sincere religious belief. They bring justice and moral order. Sikhs
must be hospitable. The langar or communal kitchen is open to all.

(6) Work
Service is the key word; self-interest, idleness and immoral livelihoods are wrong. Work
is for the benefit of others and is righteous in the eyes of God, whose name is repeated
while Sikhs work.
● All Sikhs must earn an honest living.
● All work is a vocation no matter what it is.
● Prayers are said after work.
● A tenth of earnings is donated to support the community.

258 SIKHISM
33 Sikh gurus

33.1 Introduction
The Gurus were the men who revealed the Sikh faith. They lived in northern India
between 1469 and 1708 CE. They came from the kshatriya or warrior caste of Hinduism,
and they said that their revelation came straight from God. This gave them the authority
to preach it, even though their caste could study the Vedas but not teach them.

The basis of their teaching

(1) There is only one God.
(2) He has created and sustains all life.
(3) All people, no matter what their caste or class, are cared for equally by God.
(4) Anyone can receive enlightenment and spiritual liberation in this life.
(5) It is God who takes the initiative in bringing a person to spiritual liberation.
(6) All that person has to do is respond with faithful obedience.
(7) The person concerned must:
● serve God through worship
● live a useful existence as a householder
● be honest and hardworking
● be generous to the poor and needy.

33.2 The ten gurus

(1) Guru Nanak (1469–1539)
(2) Guru Angad (1539–52)
(3) Guru Amar Das (1552–74)
(4) Guru Ram Das (1574–81)
(5) Guru Arjan (1581–1606)
(6) Guru Har Gobind (1606–44)
(7) Guru Har Rai (1644–61)
(8) Guru Har Krishan (1661–4)
(9) Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664–75)
(10) Guru Gobind Singh (1675–1708)
See Figure 33.1.

SIKH GURUS 259

 Figure 33.1 The ten Gurus: D daughter; S son
(Source: K. Singh, The Sikhs (London: Allen & Unwin, 1953). Reproduced by
permission of the publishers.

The Ten Gurus

Kalu

NANAK = Sulakhni
(1469–1539)

Pheru

Sri Chand S ANGAD = Khivi

(Founder of (1504–1552)
Udasi subsect)

Tej Bhan D S S

AMAR DAS = Mansa Devi

(1479–1574)

S S D Bhani = RAM DAS

(1534–1581)

Prithi Chand S ARJAN = Ganga

(Founder of (1563–1606)
Mina subsect)
Damodari = HARGOBIND = Gujari
(1606–1645)

S D Suraj Mal

Dhir Mal HAR RAI Gulab Rai

(Founder of (1630–1661) (Founder of Gulab
Dhirmalia subsect) Raia subsect)

Ram Rai HAR KRISHAN

(Founder of Ram (1656–1664)
Raia subsect) TEGH BAHADUR = Gujari
(1611–1675)

Sundari = GOBIND SINGH = Jita

(1666–1708)

Ajit Jujhar Zorawar Fateh

Singh Singh Singh Singh

260 SIKHISM
33.3 Guru Nanak (1469–1539)
Nanak was the first Guru. He was born in Talwandi (now part of Pakistan), and was
brought up as a Hindu and learned Sanskrit. He was living in an area ruled by Muslims
and learned about Islam while working as a local government official, but he was
unable to find spiritual peace, and at the age of thirty faced the crisis that was to make
him a Guru, a spiritual guide to others.

Nanak’s religious calling

Nanak disappeared while bathing, as usual, one morning. He reappeared three days
later, stating that he had been taken to God’s court and had been given nectar to drink.
While there he was told to rejoice in God’s name and teach others to do the same. He
now became a full-time preacher, helping others to learn to know God.

Nanak’s missionary journeys

These occupied the next twenty years (until 1521). Then he established the first Sikh
community in the village of Kartarpur. His disciples were called Sikhs, getting their
name from the Punjabi verb sikhna, ‘to learn’.

The choosing of the second guru

There was a need for someone to take over the leadership when Nanak died, so he
chose Lehna to succeed him. Nanak changed Lehna’s name to Angad, meaning ‘my
limb’. This signified that the new Guru was an extension of himself.

33.4 The other nine gurus

Guru Angad
● He collected the hymns of Guru Nanak.
● He consolidated the Sikh community.
● He had the faith taught to children.

Guru Amar Das

● He assembled the Sikhs at Goindwal three times a year when Hindu festivals were
on. This forced the Sikhs to choose between their Sikh guru or Hinduism.
● He opposed all divisions based on caste.
● He disliked the custom of purdah (keeping women apart).

Guru Ram Das

● He started to build Amritsar, the future centre of Sikhism.
● He broke the remaining links with Hinduism and Islam to secure the independence
of the Sikh religion.

SIKH GURUS 261

Guru Arjan
● He is revered as the first Guru martyr of the Sikhs, having died in captivity after his
arrest by the Mughal Emperor Jehangir.
● He produced the first version of the Sikh scriptures which became known as the
Adi Granth.
● He completed Amritsar and built other towns.
● He built the Harimandir (House of the Lord) in Amritsar.

Guru Har Gobind

● Under his leadership, the Sikhs armed themselves to rebel against Mughal rule.
● He carried two swords; one the symbol of battle, the other of the spirit.

Guru Har Rai

● His 17 year rule was largely uneventful.
● He is remembered for being a man of peace and for being kind and generous.

Guru Har Krishan

● Most of his reign was spent under house arrest where he died of smallpox.
● Before his death, he announced that his successor would come from the village of
Baba Bakala.
● His wisdom, for one who was very young, was astounding.

Guru Tegh Bahadur

● He was the youngest son of Guru Hargobind.
● He was a pious soldier who fought against Mughal rule.

Guru Gobind Singh

● He brought the line of gurus to an end.
● He founded the Khalsa.
● He introduced the rite of initiation and gave men the surname Singh (lion), and
women the surname Kaur (princess). They also adopted a uniform, part of which is
the turban.
● He installed the scripture which Guru Arjan had put together and which he had
revised.
● He enthroned the Adi Granth as the sole Guru.

33.5 The importance of the gurus to Sikhism

They were the messengers through whom God revealed himself. They belong to a
special group of men and women whose birth is regarded as non-Karmic. They were
perfect men who did not have to be reborn under the law of karma but came back
because God wanted them as his messengers.

262 SIKHISM
 For this reason Gurus had nothing to learn when they were born, which is why
they are described as being able to speak at birth and were cleverer than the priests
assigned to educate them.
Gurus are revered but not worshipped: only God is worshipped. Sikhs recognise
that Christ, Buddha, Muhammad, Moses and Gandhi are similar men, sent into the
world to reveal the message of God. They do not accept that God can be born, which
is what Christians and Hindus believe.

SIKH GURUS 263

 34 Life and the path to God:
Sikh beliefs

34.1 Introduction
● God created all life.
● Everyone is born equal, and everyone has a spark of God in them.
● Every living thing is subject to reincarnation or rebirth after death, in what is called
transmigration. The main aim of humanity is to escape from this. This is impossible
without the help of God.
● Every human being has a body, mind and soul which have unity. All three must be
developed in harmony. This is achieved by finding harmony with God.
● The consequences of actions in this world follow us into the next. All actions are
important.
● God gave humankind free will to choose his course. He also gave people the power
of reason and the ability to know right from wrong. He had endowed humanity with
the wisdom to make the right decisions.
● The laws of good health and proper work keep the body healthy.
● True religion affects every aspect of life. It also shows the way for right living.

34.2 God
There are three main aspects of God.
(1) He is One.
(2) He is the Truth.
(3) He is Eternal and Self Existent.
● His symbol is the number one and the letter O.
● He is the Waheguru (Lord of Wonder).
● He is the ‘True Name’ and ‘There is no corner without His Name’. The True Name
is the Sat Guru or the True God, God Himself. Nam (Name) is another name for
God.
● God is the Creator and is everywhere in all things.
● He reveals Himself to humankind, but He has no incarnations (earthly forms).
● He cannot be described in any way. Even so, He is referred to by Sikhs in personal
terms.
● God hates no one.
● He has no fear.

264 SIKHISM
● The Mool Mantar, composed by Guru Nanak (see section 33.3), conveys all the
basic beliefs about God.
● Sikhism teaches that because there is only one God there cannot be different gods for
different religions.

34.3 The three Hs

(1) knowledge of the Hand – the dignity of labour
(2) knowledge of the Head – the search for truth
(3) knowledge of the Heart – the higher self
Guru Nanak set these out so that harmony can be achieved in human life. This leads to
perfect freedom.

34.4 The five virtues

They are:
(1) truth
(2) contentment
(3) service
(4) patience and
(5) humility.
To follow these virtues means obeying God’s Will and achieving union with Him.

34.5 The five cardinal vices

They are:
(1) lust
(2) anger
(3) greed
(4) worldliness and
(5) pride.
Combined with egoism they exclude God. Vice makes people selfish and deforms their
existence. It is a wall or barrier preventing knowledge of God. Egoism (haumai) is the
fruit of self-love and owes loyalty to no one; personal glory is all that matters. Vice
causes self-delusion and exerts an endless pressure on anyone in its grip. Constant spir-
itual warfare is needed to remain free of it.

34.6 Grace
This is the gracious gift of God. Personal effort cannot achieve it. Grace (nadar)
allows us to achieve personal inner harmony. With God’s grace, salvation can be
achieved. There are five stages on the road to union with God.

LIFE AND THE PATH TO GOD: SIKH BELIEFS 265

34.7 The five stages
(1) Dharam Khand (religious duty) – living by God’s Law and providence, which
are the symbols of His grace and mercy
(2) Saram Khand (effort) – maintaining a right relationship with God through self-
discipline and personal effort; it is vital to respond to the will of God and rely on
Him for guidance.
(3) Karam Khand (grace) – This is a state of bliss from developing divine virtues
and achieving the spiritual graces.
(4) Gian Khand (knowledge) – Obedience to God’s law leads to the wisdom that
reveals knowledge of the world.
(5) Sach Khand (truth) – Becoming one with God through knowledge of the truth;
it is a state of bliss from being in harmony with God.

266 SIKHISM
 35 Sikh scriptures

35.1 Some basic beliefs

● The scriptures are the Word of God (the Guru) (gurbani).
● The words of God (the Guru) come to Sikhs through the Guru Granth Sahib.
● These are the scriptures of the Lord God.
● God’s Word is enshrined in them but the Guru is the Word.
● God revealed His Word and it will lead to Him.
● The revealed Word leads to the revealer, who is God.
● The Guru Granth Sahib inspired by God is the Guru.
There are two books of scriptures:
(1) the Adi Granth (or Guru Granth Sahib)
(2) the Dasam Granth.

35.2 The Adi Granth (or Guru Granth Sahib)

Adi Granth is the earliest title of the first book. It means ‘first collection or
compilation’.
Guru Gobind Singh gave the scriptures guruship just before he died. It became
known as the Guru Granth Sahib.
The Adi Granth originates from the poetic compositions or hymns of Guru
Nanak; there are 974. They were put into writing towards the end of his life and
shortly after.
These were then added to by his successors and included some by Hindu
and Muslim holy men. In 1604 Guru Arjan had an authoritative collection put
together and kept in a new building in Amritsar called the Harimandir or ‘God’s
House’.
Development continued in the following years until 1708, when the scripture was
declared to be the Guru of the Sikhs. It contained the writings of:
(1) six Gurus
(2) twelve non-Sikhs
(3) several bards from the court of Guru Arjan
(4) three other Sikhs; Satta, Balwand and Mardana.

SIKH SCRIPTURES 267

Composition
In the Guru Granth Sahib there are 13 divisions made according to musical regulations.
They cover the whole range of human experience. Some can be used for the
morning, others for evening. Subjects covered include theology, philosophy, ethics,
advice on personal and social matters, and mysticism.

The authority of the Guru Granth Sahib

Its content has been unaltered since 1708. There is a copy in every gurdwara
(Figure 35.1). Every copy has the same number of pages – 1430. It is written in
gurmukthi (or written Punjabi). The hymns are set music which is kept simple
because it is only an aid to worship and should not distract from the words. It must be
seen by everyone in the gurdwara because it is a visible sign of God’s presence. It must
be opened every day, and is closed when it is not read. Before it is taken from the dais
in the gurdwara a prayer is said; everyone must stand when it is carried.
The book is not worshipped, although the faithful bow before it. Only God can be
worshipped and the Word conveys who is God. When it is read, God is present. It is
the source of knowledge, truth and wisdom.
It is read at rites of passage such as the naming of a child, initiation, weddings and
burials.
All the knowledge and guidance necessary to be a disciple is contained in the Guru
Granth Sahib.

35.3 The Dasam Granth

This is the collection of the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh (‘das’ means ten in Punjabi),
who wrote enough poems to fill a 1428-page book. It was put together in 1734 (almost
30 years after his death). Gobind Singh did not allow any of his verses to be included
in the Adi Granth.
The script is in gurmukthi or written Punjabi but the language of the poems varies,
because he was fluent in Sanskrit, Persian or the kind of Punjabi used by the other
Gurus, thus making it difficult to read.
Few Sikhs and not all gurdwaras have a copy. It is never installed in the gurdwara.
It is not given the honour and respect accorded to the Adi Granth.

35.4 Mohan Pothi

This is the earliest collection of Sikh writing. It was produced by Guru Amar Das.
This was at the time when Sikhism was spreading and guidance and instruction were
needed for new members, so it was necessary to pass on the teaching of the first three
Gurus. As a new religion, Sikhism had to be protected from attack by those who
opposed it. The Mohan Pothi was made up of hymns composed by Guru Nanak and
his two successors, plus warnings against useless practices and false teaching.

268 SIKHISM
 Figure 35.1 Reading Guru Granth Sahib Gurdwara, Shepherd’s Bush, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

269
 36 The gurdwara and worship

36.1 The gurdwara

In simplest terms, a gurdwara is any place – a room, a converted house, or a large
purpose-built building in which a copy of the Sikh scriptures is installed (Figure 36.1).
‘Gurdwara’ means ‘The Guru’s door’ or simply ‘God’s house’. In 1604 Guru Arjan
installed a book he had compiled (containing hymns and other compositions) in a spe-
cially constructed building in Amritsar, the Harimandir or ‘house of God’. Copies of
the book were given to Sikh communities for use in their places of worship, and these
places came to be known as gurdwaras. The last of the 10 Gurus died in 1708, having
installed the book of scriptures as Guru (God is the true Guru and He speaks through
the scriptures). The internal details of the gurdwara emphasise this.

36.2 The appearance of the gurdwara

● External appearance are of no importance.
● All gurdwaras have one common feature, the Sikh flag showing the Sikh emblem
(Figure 36.2). This contains the following:
(1) a khanda or two-edged sword, which symbolises that Sikhs are prepared to fight
for the truth with the spirit as a weapon and if necessary, physical force;
(2) two kirpans or scimitar-like cutting swords to represent the spiritual and earthly
powers that the Gurus had;
(3) a chakra or circle to remind that God is one and that Sikhs are inseparably
united with Him through the faith.
● Another symbol to be seen outside gurdwaras is formed by two Punjabi letters,
ik onkar which means that ‘God is the one being or eternal reality’.

36.3 Inside the gurdwara

● Here can be found the Guru Granth Sahib under a canopy. Sixteenth and seven-
teenth-century Gurus sat in a special place to teach, while one of the faithful held a
parasol over their head as a mark of respect. Now the scripture itself is a Guru and
has the special canopy for the same reason.

270 SIKHISM
 Figure 36.1 Serving Langar food at a Sikh Gurdwara, Shepherd’s Bush, London
(Carlos Reyes-Manzo Andes Press Agency)

THE GURDWARA AND WORSHIP

271
 Figure 36.2 The Sikh emblem: the whole emblem is called the Khanda, after the
double-edged sword in its centre; it is composed of 3 symbols which represent
Sikh beliefs about God:
1 The Khanda – the doubled-edged sword that represents the Supreme Truth
who is the One God.
2 The Chakra – the circle which represents the infiniteness of God because
both have no beginning and no end; a circle marks the limit within it and this
reminds Sikhs that they must live within God’s rule.
3 The Kirpans – these two swords symbolise peeri, or spiritual power, and
meeri, or political power; this tells Sikhs that they have to defend the truth.

3 3

● The Guru Granth Sahib can occupy any position in the gurdwara but it tends to be
opposite the entrance set a little way from the wall so that the reader and marriage
parties can walk round the back.
● When the scripture is not in use, it is covered with a silk cloth called a romalla.
● The book may be put in a special room at night and replaced on the dais in a special
ceremony every morning. In Amritsar the scripture is placed on a palanquin and is
carried in procession by its bearers from the Golden Temple to its nightly resting
place, it having been read throughout the day.

272 SIKHISM
● The Sikhs have two names for the dais:
(1) palki, meaning palanquin (a covered litter on poles carried by four men).
(2) takht, meaning throne.
● There are no seats and the worshippers sit on the floor. There are two reasons for
this:
(1) the scripture has unique status raised up on its throne
(2) the worshippers sitting before it are all equal.

36.4 The function of the gurdwara

It is a place where Sikhs gather to praise God and meditate on the words of the Guru
Granth. Travellers can get accommodation there. The poor can get a free meal. There
can be clinics and dispensaries in its precincts.

The gurdwara in Britain

It is the Sikhs’ social centre. Sikh children are sent there to learn Punjabi, receive
religious education, and learn how to read the Guru Granth Sahib properly. Weddings
are held there, often during Sunday service; this is because of the unpredictable nature
of British weather compared with that of the Punjab, where weddings are often held in
the open air. Funeral services are held here before going to the crematorium (in the
Punjab they are held at the cremation ground the day after the death).

36.5 Sikh worship

In the days of the 10 gurus worship took place in their presence and with them
leading. They would teach and hymns composed by them were sung. Today the
same principles are followed with hymns, lectures on their meaning and scriptural
readings.

36.6 Worship at home

● If a family has a copy of the Guru Granth Sahib, it effectively has a gurdwara in the
house, and can therefore offer worship there.
● For morning worship, the Sikh rises early to bathe and then meditate on God.
● Guidance about which hymns to use is taken from the Rehat Maryada (‘The Sikh
Way of Life’):
(1) Japji Sahib (composed by Guru Nanak for personal use) and Ten Swayyas
(poems) of Guru Gobind Singh (morning)
(2) Sodar Rahiras (a prayer to focus the mind on the ‘holy path’) in the evening
(3) Sohilla (a vesper prayer) before sleep.
● Worship can take place at any time, and a family may invite others to join in.

THE GURDWARA AND WORSHIP 273

36.7 Worship at the gurdwara
● Services are informal and can last from one to five hours. There is no specified time
to begin.
● The hymns of Guru Nanak are sung and there are lectures and sermons to explain
them. Prayers are offered at any time of day.
● The Guru Granth Sahib is installed on the manji (stool) in the morning and a verse
read from it at random.
● Musicians sit near the scripture and sing verses from it. The congregation join in,
and someone will explain the significance of the passage (anyone may do this).
● Throughout worship, members of the congregation will continue to enter and leave.
Anyone entering must bow and kneel in front of the Guru Granth Sahib until the
head touches the floor; they make an offering of money, a romalla (square of silk
cloth) or food for the gurdwara’s kitchen.
● After duly paying respect, the person sits on the floor with the rest of the congrega-
tion. Men sit on side, women the other, with a gap between them.
● The head is covered; women wear a muslin scarf and men and boys not wearing a
turban tie a handkerchief on their heads. No one wear shoes, because to come into
the presence of the Guru Granth Sahib is to come into the presence of God.
● Worship finishes with a set prayer called Ardas.

Ardas
The congregation stands and one of them steps forward to address God on their
behalf. There are three parts:
(1) the prayer to remember God and the ten Gurus
(2) the prayer for faithfulness to the scriptures
(3) the prayer for the blessing of God on the Sikh community and all humankind.
There are specific prayers after this – for example for the sick, the dead, newly-weds,
thanksgiving for success and so on. The scriptures are covered with a silk cloth and
removed from the dais. During Ardas, one of those present puts the blade of his kirpan
(sword) into a container containing karah parshad, which is made of flour or semolina,
water, sugar and butter. The khara parshad is given to everyone while notices are read by
the secretary. This food is eaten with the right hand and is important because:
(1) eating together shows that everyone is equal before God
(2) no one leaves His presence hungry
(3) it shows that God blesses mankind (sweet food is chosen to emphasise this).

Langar
After worship a full meal is served in the dining room of the gurdwara. This langar
(‘free kitchen’) has been an important part of the Sikh way of life since the time of
Guru Nanak. Sometimes it spreads to the street outside. It has the same meaning as
the sharing of karah prashad. Passers-by are invited to join in.

36.8 Private devotion

Sikhism teaches that God is present in every human being. Faith and meditation bring
the discovery of God within the soul. This is called Nam simran (calling God to

274 SIKHISM
mind). In simple terms, the more a person thinks about God, the more that person will
be filled by His presence. This allows God-centredness to replace self-centredness.

Procedure
● A person should rise before dawn and bathe to symbolise washing the soul in God.
● At sunrise the 38 verses of the Japji, composed by Guru Nanak, the Jap (the 10th
Guru’s hymn) plus some other verses by Guru Gobind Singh, the Swayyas.
● In the evening two other hymns should be meditated on:
(1) Rahiras (the Holy Path) at dusk
(2) Sohilla (the vesper hymn) before bed.
● A mala or rosary with 108 knots is used to help meditation.
● The knots are passed through the fingers as the person repeats the word Waheguru,
which means ‘Wonderful Lord’.

36.9 Sikh worship in the UK

The family gets together in the evening to listen to passages of scripture and to pray
(morning worship is difficult because of the pressure of work and school). It also serves
the purpose of passing on the Sikh way of life to Sikh children born in Britain. Sikhism
has no fixed holy day so most Sikhs go to the gurdwara on Sunday which is a public
holiday. Gurdwaras train the young to sing the gurbani (scripture).

THE GURDWARA AND WORSHIP 275

 37 Sikh festivals and pilgrimage

37.1 Introduction
The Sikhs share the same calendar as the Hindus, but their religious new year falls on
the first day of Baisakhi. This is the only fixed festival in Sikhism, and it takes place
on 13 April. There was no interest in special holy days until the leadership of Guru
Amar Das. He ordered the Sikhs to assemble before him at Baisakhi and Diwali,
which are the two most important festivals in the north Indian Hindu calendar. The
consequence was that the Sikhs had to choose where their allegiance lay; with the ways
of the village or in the service of the Guru.
Guru Gobind Singh added a third gathering, Hola Mohalla, which coincides with
the Hindu festival of Holi. These three celebrations, known as melas, are still observed
by the Sikhs.

37.2 Baisakhi mela

Baisakhi marks the Sikh new year and is first in importance of all the melas. It is
held on the Sunday nearest to the date of the initiation of the first members of the
Khalsa. At that time, on 30 March 1699 CE, Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth leader,
ordered the Sikhs to meet him at Anandpur. It was there that he introduced them to
his new concept of loyalty and initiation as seen in the Khalsa code. Baisakhi has three
aspects.

(1) Baisakhi is a religious occasion

● The day starts with bathing in a river, in the sarowar which is a pool found at most
gurdwaras or temples in India, or by having a shower at home.
● Then there is private meditation, individual or family.
● Sikhs next go to the gurdwara, where there is a service and talks about the events in
question.
● The cloth around the flag pole and the flag itself (nishan sahib) are ceremonially
renewed.
● New members of the Khalsa are initiated.
● Any newly elected gurdwara committees take office.

276 SIKHISM
(2) Baisakhi is a memorial festival
● In 1762 CE, after consulting the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikhs responded to the plea
of a Hindu brahmin whose wife was abducted by Usman Khan, an Afghan. The
Sikhs took up arms to help him.
● The Amritsar massacre of Jallianwala Bagh took place in 1919 CE during the
Baisakhi mela.
So the speeches at Baisakhi are not only spiritual in content but political as well.

(3) Baisakhi has an Animal Fair

● A large animal fair is held at Amritsar where the main Baisakhi festival has been held
since the eighteenth century. This has been despite being banned by both Mughal
and British rulers.
● Sikhs visit the Golden Temple to enjoy the fair and attend political rallies as well as
selling animals.

37.3 Divali
This is held at the end of October and early November to coincide with the new moon.
Houses are Autumn cleaned to remove mosquitoes and other insects before moving the
beds indoors after the Summer. This is a festival of light so candles and devas (lamps)
light the gurdwaras to signify the coming of light to the natural world and of inner light
to direct Sikhs to union with God. Children enjoy sweetmeats and fireworks and are
given gifts, and are told stories from Sikh history. Both friends and families exchange
gifts as well. Three events in particular are associated with this festival.

(1) The foundation of Amritsar

In 1577 CE Guru Ram Das laid the foundations of the city of Amritsar. Its Golden
Temple is lit up by hundreds of electric lights.

(2) The release of Guru Har Gobind

Har Gobind was the sixth guru, and was released from prison on the orders of the
Mughal emperor, Jehangir. He had been put there because his father, Guru Arjan, had
been fined for rebellion, but the fine remained unpaid. Har Gobind refused freedom
unless the 52 Hindu princes, innocent of any crime, and also held in the Gwalior Fort,
were released with him. The emperor said that as many prisoners as could hold on to
the guru’s cloak while passing through the narrow passage on the way out would be
allowed to go. This was clearly impossible so the guru sent for a cloak with long tassles
for them to hold on to. Thus, they were able to pass to freedom.

(3) The martyrdom of Bhai Mani Singh

Bhai Mani Singh, the custodian of the Golden Temple, was martyred at Divalitide in
1738 CE. He had asked permission for Sikhs to celebrate the festival at the temple, but
this would only be allowed if a large sum of money was paid to the authorities. It was
hoped that the sum could be met from the offerings of pilgrims but they were fright-

SIKH FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 277

ened off by the presence of a Mughal army in the vicinity. Bhai Mani Singh was unable
to pay the sum but was offered his life if he became a Muslim. He refused and was
tortured and executed as a result.

37.4 Hola Mohalla

This festival is held in February and March.
● It dates from the time of Guru Gobind Singh.
● It was first celebrated in the year after the formation of the Khalsa (1700 CE). In
that year the Khalsa assembled at Anandpur, divided into two armies and engaged in
mock battles.
● It is thought that the Hindu festival of Holi was chosen for the time of the gathering
because assembly would be easier in a holiday, and it would keep the Sikhs from
joining in a Hindu festival.
● Today Anandpur is still the centre of the main festivities.
● There are wrestling and fencing tournaments, and fairground sideshows.
● An important event is the gathering of the Nihangs, the order of Sikhs set up by
Guru Gobind Singh and who were the greatest warriors of the Sikh armies in the
eighteenth century.
● Not surprisingly, the literal meaning of ‘Hola Mohalla’ is ‘attack and place of attack’.

37.5 Minor festivals

Sangrand
This is when the Sun leaves one sign of the Zodiac and enters another.

Puranmashi
This is the full moon day which ends every Hindu month, celebrated because Guru
Nanak was born on a full moon. There are all-night vigils and hymns are sung.

Lohri
This takes place in January at the time of the sugar cane harvest in northern India. The
homes of children born in the last year are visited by friends and neighbours, though
there is no religious significance to this festival.

37.6 Gurpurbs
This is the other form of Sikh festival.
● They celebrate the birth or death anniversary of a guru. There can therefore be 20 of
them.
● The main feature of a gurpurb is the continuous unbroken reading of the Guru Granth
Sahib, known as an akhand path. A relay of readers begins at page 1 and times the
recital to reach page 1430 at the time the festival is to start. This takes about 48 hours.

278 SIKHISM
● Near the end, the bhog ceremony takes place, involving reading the Guru Granth
Sahib from page 1426 to the end, followed by the first verse of the Japji, six verses of
the Anand Sahib, the saying of the prayer Ardas, and the sharing of karah parshad.
● A service is held next.
● There is also a meal shared by anyone while the proceedings take place.

37.7 Pilgrimage in Sikhism

Sikhs are sceptical about suggestions that something is gained from visiting a holy
place, although they do believe that any journey taken with devotion can become a pil-
grimage. The Sikh gurus condemned much of what they saw at Indian places of pil-
grimage as mere superstition. They believed that a renewed approach was needed and
therefore recommended meditation on the inner presence of God.
In fact, Guru Nanak said that God’s name is the real pilgrimage place. He said
that it consists of the contemplation of the word of God, and the cultivation of inner
knowledge.
Amar Das, the third guru, made his headquarters at Goindwal and ordered his fol-
lowers to assemble there at three festival times of the Hindu calendar: Magha, Divali
and Baisakhi. A pool was made there with 64 steps leading down to the water. Visitors
bathed there, but Sikhs say this is for cleanliness, not purification. Even so, it would
help any half-hearted Sikh who still had some belief in the value of bathing at holy
sites.

Amritsar
This is the centre of the Sikhism and its Golden Temple is visited by the faithful. Some
regard it as a pilgrimage and bathe there, and then cross the causeway to the Temple
itself. Inside, they file past the Guru Granth Sahib, which is taken early in the morning
from the building where it is kept for the night into the Temple, and listen to the read-
ings which continue from before dawn until late at night. Whether or not this is seen as
a pilgrimage depends on the individual.

SIKH FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGE 279

 38 Rites of passage

38.1 Introduction
Children’s first lessons about Sikhism are taught at home. Guru Nanak and the gurus
that followed called upon parents to pass on the beliefs and practices of Sikhism to
their children. Guru Gobind Singh said that parents should educate children in the
faith and baptise them. This would give society a moral foundation and ennoble
people’s lives. Education begins by learning the name for God (Waheguru) and the first
hymn of the Adi Granth.

38.2 Birth and naming

● Children are named in the presence of the Adi Granth soon after birth.
● The first letter of the child’s name is decided by opening the book and taking the first
letter of the first word on the left-hand page.
● Water and sugar (amrit) are placed on the child’s lips.
● Prayers are offered from the Japji and Ardas to:
(1) commit the child to God’s Grace
(2) pray that he/she lives as a true Sikh
(3) hope that the child will serve other people
(4) be loyal to the Sikh homeland.
● The sharing of prashad signals the end of the ceremony and marks the entry of the
child into the the Sikh community.

38.3 Initiation into the Khalsa

This ceremony dates from the time of Guru Gobind Singh. It is simpler today than in
times gone by. Some Sikhs would prefer the full ceremony to be revived as a way of
keeping the faith alive and ensuring devotion. It takes place in front of five members of
the Khalsa.

280 SIKHISM
The main points
● The five assemble before the Adi Granth and explain the faith.
● Then the initiate makes acceptance of the principles set forth.
● One of the five now says a prayer for God’s protection.
● Then the five sit round an iron container full of fresh water.
● The initiate is then given five handfuls of holy water (amrit), which are placed on the
eyes and ears.
● The five members recite the Mool Mantra five times.
● This is repeated by the initiate.
● Greeting are given and then the initiate is received as a son/daughter of Guru
Gobind Singh.
● They are now called singh (lion) or kaur (princess).
● Lastly, everyone shares prashad from the same container.

38.4 Marriage
Sikh weddings are simple and must be public. They can be held anywhere. There is no
formal betrothal. There is no child marriage. Marriage can only take place between
members of the community. A Sikh man can have only one wife.

The ceremony
● Friends gather round the Adi Granth and pray.
● Because the marriage is witnessed by a guru it is a sacrament.
● The couple bow to the Adi Granth and then make their vows.
● The person in charge speaks to them separately about the duties of marriage.
● The groom promises to protect his bride; she promises to accept her role.
● The groom’s scarf (palla) is handed to the bride.
● They hold the scarf and walk clockwise round the Adi Granth four times, pausing
while four verses of a hymn are sung to music.
● Everyone is given prashad and prayers are said.
● Then there are presents and greetings.

38.5 Death
The soul (jiva) leaves the body at death for eternal life. It ends the cycle of rebirth or
transmigration. The soul lives for ever as part of God through His grace. It is God’s
reward for the good deeds which have brought merit in this life.
● The body is washed and dressed in clean clothes before being put in the coffin.
● For members of the Khalsa, the five Ks are left on the body and there are no lamps
or candles.
● Hymns are sung as the body goes for cremation.
● A relative lights the funeral pyre.
● Relatives go home and hear readings from the Adi Granth for the next 10 days.
● The period of mourning ends with the reading of the four final passages, after which
the Adi Granth is covered with a silk cloth.
● All present then share prashad.

RITES OF PASSAGE 281

 Questions

1. (a) Divali is an annual Indian festival.

Explain the event which Sikhs remember on this day. (8 marks)
(b) During Divali, Sikhs are reminded of their responsibility to all people.
Explain Sikh teaching on wealth and poverty. (4 marks)
(c) ‘Someday the Sikh goal of a world without poverty will come true.’
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer, showing that you have
thought about more than one point of view. (8 marks)
(NEAB SYL A Paper 6, 16 June 1997)

2. (a) Name two things from Islam which Sikhism rejected. (2 marks)
(b) Describe Sikh beliefs about the nature and attributes of God. (6 marks)
(c) Explain what Sikhs believe about the original destiny of human beings. (8 marks)
(d) ‘Men and women are equal in Sikhism.’
Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer showing that you have
considered another point of view. (4 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(London (1479) Specimen Paper May/June 1999)

3.

(a) This picture shows a Kangha (comb). Name another three of the
Five Ks. [3]
(b) How did the Khalsa come into being? [5]
(c) Explain why the Five Ks are still important for Sikhs today. [7]

282 QUESTIONS
 (b) ‘Sikhism is a peace-loving religion.’
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show that you have
though about different points of view. [5]
(MEG sample paper for Summer 1998)

4. (a) Describe the Amrit ceremony when Sikhs are initiated into the religion (7 marks)
(b) Explain the extent to which the Sikh marriage ceremony is similar to and
different from an ordinary Sikh service of worship. (8 marks)
(c) ‘Couples will have a better chance of a happy married life if they come from
the same religion.’
How far do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer (5 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
(SEG SYL A Paper 2 June 1997)

5. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) Who is the founder of Sikhism? (1 mark)
(b) Which guru set up the Khalsa? (1 mark)
(c) Give one belief contained in the Mool Mantar. (1 mark)
(d) Name one of the 5 Ks and explain its symbolic meaning (2 marks)
(e) Explain how and why the Guru Granth Sahib is given respect during
worship. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)
(SEG Paper 1480/1, Section A, 1998 Short Course Specimen Questions)

QUESTIONS 283
 Sikhism: a glossary

Adi Granth
Lit: ‘first book’, or ‘primal collection’, or ‘primal book’, it is the Sikh scripture compiled by Guru
Arjan, 1604 CE. It comprises the work of six Gurus and other non-Sikh bhagats (also known as
the Guru Granth Sahib)
Akal Purakh
A name used for God by Guru Nanak, it means ‘The Eternal One’
Akal Takht (Akal Takhat)
Throne of the Eternal or ‘Throne of the Timeless One’, it is a building facing the Golden Temple
of Amritsar where the Sikhs have political gatherings
Akhand Path
The continuous reading of the Adi Granth holy book from start to finish; it takes
48 hours
Amrit
Sanctified sugared water used in the infant-naming ceremony. Also used at the initiation into the
Khalsa
Amrit ceremony
This is known by a variety of names: Amrit sanchar, Amrit sanskar, Amrit pahul, Khande di pahul.
It celebrates the founding of the Khalsa each April
Anand karaj
Anand is the Bliss of Marriage; this is the ‘Ceremony of bliss’
Ardas
Formal prayer at a religious service
Baisakhi
See Vaisakhi
Bani (Vani)
Speech, hymn, it describes the compositions of the gurus in the Adi Granth
Bhagat
Used by Sikhs and Hindus for a devotee, a person who practices Bhakti
Bhog
Ceremony involving reading from scriptures and sharing the karah parshad, held near end of a
gurpurb
Chakra
Circle to signify that God is one
Chanani (Chandni)
The canopy over the scriptures used as a mark of respect
Chauri (Chaur, Chowri)
The symbol of the authority of the Adi Granth, it is a fan waved over the scriptures, and is made
of yak hairs or nylon
Darbar Sahib
The Golden Temple of Amritsar, the chief centre of Sikh pilgrimage

284 SIKHISM
Dasam Granth
Lit: ‘book of the Tenth’; the collected hymns of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru Devas lamps
Dharam Khand
Guru Nanak taught that this is the first of five stages towards human liberation, being the stage of
religious duty, the acknowledgement of God’s law and providence
Divali
Hindu festival important to Sikhs because it was when the sixth Guru, Hargobind, was released
from Gwalior Fort
Diwan
Lit: ‘a royal court’, Sikhs use this term for an act of public worship
Gian Khand
Guru Nanak taught that this is the second of five stages towards liberation. It is the attainment of
knowledge, the understanding of the hidden qualities of Creation
Granth
The accepted scriptures, especially the Adi Granth or Guru Granth Sahib
Granthi
This is the ‘reader of the Adi Granth’ who officiates at ceremonies
Grihastha
For Hindus, the second of the four stages of life (being a householder, and having a family),
Sikhs use it because they believe that salvation can be achieved within the context of everyday life
Gun
An attribute or virtue; it is a gift from God which people do not possess in themselves
Gurbani
The total expression of the word of God revealed by the gurus, and to be found in the Adi Granth
Gurdwara
Lit: ‘the doorway to the Guru’, it is the Guru’s or God’s house. It is a place of worship, a temple
Gurmat
Living according to the will of God as revealed through the gurus
Gurmukh
A person who has heard the word of the Guru (God) and obeys
Gurmukhi
The name given to the script in which the scriptures and the Punjabi language are written (Lit:
‘from the Guru’s mouth’)
Gurpurb
The anniversary of a guru’s birth or death; can be used for other anniversaries
Guru
A holy man, a spiritual instructor; sikhs also use it as another name for God (Lit: ‘the venerable
one’)
Gyani
A religious teacher attached to a Sikh gurdwara
Haumai
Egoism or self-centredness, the cause of doubt, violence and sorrow: it is the major spiritual
defect and must be defeated for there to be hope of salvation
Hola Mohalla
A gathering that coincides with the Hindu festival of Holi
Hukam
God’s will, the cause of the creation of the world
Hukam (Vak)
A random reading from the Adi Granth, taken for guidance
Ikonkar
‘God is One’, this is the affirmation with which the Adi Granth opens
Jamadut
The angels of death
Jamapuri
The ‘city of the dead’
Janam Sakhi
Lit: ‘birth evidences’ these are the life stories of the gurus

GLOSSARY 285
Japji
The long hymn with which the Adi Granth begins
Jiania
The soul (from Punjabi) Jiva – human soul
Jivan Mukt
A spiritually enlightened person who has achieved this state while in this life
Kabir
One of the leading exponents of bhakti; some of his hymns are in the Adi Granth. It is possible
that he influenced Guru Nanak
Kach (Kaccha, Kachhahira, Kachh, Kachera)
Undergarments or breeches which are one of the five Ks
Kakkar (Kakka)
See panj kakkar
Kam
Lust, one of the five weaknesses that attack the human soul
Kangha
Symbolic wooden comb worn in the hair; one of the five Ks
Kara
Steel bangle worn on the right wrist; one of the five Ks
Karam Khand
This is the stage of grace, the fourth of the five stages towards liberation in Guru Nanak’s
teaching
Kaur
The name given to all Sikh women and girls, it means ‘princess’
Kesdharis
Lit: ‘those who keep their hair uncut’, referring to members of the Sikh community, one of the
five Ks
Kesh (Kes)
The uncut hair, one of the five Ks; it is tied in a special knot
Khalsa
Lit: ‘the community of the pure’, it is the Sikh brotherhood, founded by Guru Gobind Singh in
1699
Khanda
Two-edged sword representing power and divinity, it is used in the amrit initiation ceremony
and is on the Sikh flag
Khara parshad (Karah prasad)
Sanctified food distributed at Sikh ceremonies
Kirpan
A sword, one of the five Ks, it is a symbol of the active resistance to evil
Kirtan
Devotional singing of the hymns found in the Adi Granth
Krodh
Wrath, one of the five weaknesses that attack the human soul
Langar
The gurdwara dining hall and the food served there. (also Guru ka langar: ‘the Guru’s
kitchen’)
Lobha
Avarice, one of the five weaknesses that attack the human soul
Manji
The small platform on which the scripture is placed
Manmukh
A person who has failed to see the nature of the divine order, and who listens to his or her own
wayward impulses instead of the Guru
Mela
A fair; this is used of Sikh festivals which are not gurpurbs
Moha
Worldly love, one of the five weaknesses that attack the human soul

286 SIKHISM
Mul Mantar (Mool mantar)
Lit: ‘Basic teaching’ or ‘essential teaching’, it is the statement of belief found at the beginning of
the Adi Granth
Nadar
Lit: ‘The favoured glance or look’, hence ‘God’s gracious glance’ or ‘grace’
Nam
For Sanskrit, it means ‘name’: Sikhism uses it as another name for God
Nam japan
A term meaning meditating on the Name, repeating the Name, as a way of achieving knowledge
of God
Nam simran (Nam simaran)
To meditate on the name of God using passages of scripture
Nihangs
Order of warrior Sikhs set up by Guru Gobind Singh
Nishan sahib
The Sikh flag flown at gurdwaras
Nit nem
Reciting specified daily prayers
Pac Khanda
The five stages leading to spiritual liberation
Pagri (Padri)
Sikh headdress
Palki
A palanquin or covered litter on poles carried by 4 men
Palla
A scarf given during the wedding ceremony as an essential element in the ritual
Panj kakkar
The five Ks, the symbolic marks of an initiated Sikh
Panj piare
Lit: ‘the five beloved ones’, they were the five companions of Guru Gobind Singh, who with him
founded the Khalsa. They are symbolically represented at every amrit ceremony
Panth
The Sikh community
Parmesha
A title of God as the Supreme Being
Patashas
Sugar bubbles or crystals used to prepare amrit
Pattit
Lit: ‘fallen ones or apostates’. These are Sikhs who have abandoned the Sikh way of life
Prasad
The holy food distributed at the end of a diwan, it is made of equal amounts of ground wheat,
sugar and ghi (clarified butter)
Punjab (Panjab)
‘Land of five rivers’: this is the area of India where Sikhism originated
Rehat Maryada (Rahit Maryada)
A source of instruction in ethics and religious practice, it contains the Khalsa disciplinary code
Romalla
A silk cloth used to cover the scripture when not in use
Sac
Truth: one of the six concepts for the divine Self-Expression
Sach Khand
The last of the five stages towards liberation, this is when a person achieves Truth, when he/she
sees what God sees and can enjoy the whole of Creation
Sadhsangat(Sangat)
Congregation or assembly of Sikhs
Sarowar
A bathing pool at the gurdwara

GLOSSARY 287
Sahaj
A state of oneness with God Sangat – a congregation of Sikhs espec. when gathered for public
worship
Sahajdharis
Members of the Sikh community who have not been initiated
Saram Khand
The third of the five stages towards liberation, it is the stage of spiritual endeavour
SatGuru
A synonym for God
Sangrand
A minor festival held when the Sun moves from one zodiac sign for another
Sewa
Service directed to the sangat and gurdwara; also to humanity in general
Shabad (Sabad, shabd)
‘Word’; a hymn from the Adi Granth; the divine word
Siddha
84 Legendary figures who achieved bliss through the practice of yoga, and who live in the wilder-
ness of the Himalayas
Sikh
Punjabi word for ‘disciple’, a follower of Guru Nanak
Singh
Sanskrit word for ‘lion’; name given to all male initiates of the Khalsa
Sodar
An evening prayer
Sohila (Sohilla)
A bedtime prayer
Takht
Throne
Tankhah
Reinstatement into the Khalsa of someone who has broken his vows or the rules
Vaisakhi (Baisakhi)
The name of a month, and a festival that celebrates the formation of the Khalsa in 1699 CE
Vak
A random reading taken for guidance from the Adi Granth
Waheguru
‘Wonderful Lord’; a name for God

288 SIKHISM
 General questions

1. (a) Draw the symbol for each of the two religions you have studied (2 marks)
(b) In which country or region did each of these two religions begin? (2 marks)
(c) When did each of these two religions begin? (2 marks)
(d) What name is given to a religious leader, teacher or holy person in each
of these two religions? (2 marks)
(e) (i) Name one festival or fast from each of these two religions. (2 marks)
(ii) What does each celebrate or commemorate? (2 marks)
(f) (i) Name one sacred writing from each of these two religions. (2 marks)
(ii) In which language was each of these originally written? (2 marks)
(g) Briefly describe the main beliefs about life after death in each of these
two religions. (4 marks)

(Total 20 marks)

2. Pilgrimage

Buddhism Kandy
Christianity Lourdes
Hinduism Varanasi (Banares)
Islam Makkah (Mecca)
Judaism Jerusalem
Sikhism Amritsar

(a) Choose the two places, from those listed above, which you have studied
and explain why they are centres of pilgrimage. (10 marks)
(b) What religious activities are people likely to take part in whilst on
pilgrimage to these places? (10 marks)
(c) Read what the people in the illustration below have to say about pilgrimage.
Do you agree with them? Give reasons for your opinions. (10 marks)

GENERAL QUESTIONS 289

 (Total 30 marks)

3. Principal beliefs and teachings

Buddhism Anicca (impermanence); Anatta (no self); Dukkha (suffering).

Christianity Beliefs about Jesus in the Apostles’ Creed.
Hinduism Brahman (the supreme being); Avatars (gods in human or animal form).
Islam Tawhid (the oneness of God); Shahadah (declaration of faith).
Judaism The Shema; the Covenant.
Sikhism The nature of God and the Mool Mantar.

(a) Explain the beliefs and teachings, from those listed above, of the two
religions you have studied. (10 marks)
(b) How are these beliefs and teachings reflected in either worship
(meditation) or festivals in these two religions? (10 marks)
(c) ‘People who have a religious faith lead better lives than people who have
no faith, because they see life differently.’
How far do you think this is true? Give examples and reasons for your
opinions (10 marks)
(Total 30 marks)

290 GENERAL QUESTIONS

 General glossary

Agnosticism
Genuine doubt, open-mindedness about whether God or any supernatural domain really exists
Altar
An elevated surface prepared for the offering of sacrifices to deities; often the slaughtered animals
were burned on the altar
Amulet
A protective charm, worn to ward off evil, misfortune, or illness, may be inscribed with magical
formulae
Anima
Latin: ‘soul’: the non-bodily aspect of humans
Animatism
A pre-animistic stage in human development when the world was ‘animated’ by impersonal forces;
there was no clear distinction of spiritual beings, and magic and religion were indistinguishable
Animism
‘The deep lying doctrine of Spiritual Beings’ (Tylor, 1871). These are thought to live in trees,
mountains and other natural objects
Anthropomorphism
From two Greek words meaning ‘human’ and ‘form’: the attribution of human form and charac-
teristics to gods
Apotropaic
see magic
Archetype
Primordial image or pattern that recurs in literature and dreams, for example, heroic rescue, sea-
sonal decay and rebirth
Asceticism
Ascetic practice and discipline; the belief that the ascetic life releases the soul from bondage to
the body and the earthly physical life, to permit union with the divine
Astrology
The calculation of the movement of the heavenly bodies in the belief that their relative positions
influence a person’s character and destiny
Atheism
The denial of the existence of God
Augury
Divination (foretelling the future) based on the flight and behaviour of birds
BCE
Before the Common/Christian Era
Belief
The acceptance as true/real of what goes beyond intellectual proof
CE
Common Era

GENERAL GLOSSARY 291

Charismatic
A person or object possessing spiritual gifts: religious leaders or those who have received religious
insight or inspiration
Cosmology
A comprehensive view of the world that finds structure and order (cosmos) in the universe
Divination
Interpretation of the past or insight into the future; also the discovering of the future by magic or
supernatural means
Diviner
A person who attempts to predict or control the future by inspiration, intuition or magic
Dualism
The belief in the existence of two principles, Good and Evil, in the Universe
Eschatology
Beliefs concerned with ‘last things’, the end and purpose of existence
Ethics
The moral rules and principles that ought to govern human behaviour; these may be laid down
by a religion or independently. Also, the study of moral beliefs and practices of different peoples
and cultures
Evil
The force or power that gives rise to wickedness, the morally wrong, or wicked
Faith
A basic life stance associated with belief in God, it is the act of trust that holds a person in being,
by relationship with God, gods or another person. Also, another word for a religion
Fast
Abstinence from usual activities such as food, drink, sex, work, play and so on; this is often in
connection with a particular season or festival
Festival
A special day(s) celebrating some religious event; ‘Holidays’ were once ‘holy days’
Fetishism
The worship of an object because it is believed to have magic powers, or because it is thought to
have a spirit in it
Gnosticism
Greek: ‘knowledge’: systems of belief that impart special knowledge of God, of his relation to the
world and humanity, and of redemption, only to those who are initiated in special ceremonies
God
The Supreme Being: most religions have a God or gods who are the source and purpose of the
universe, and who are deeper, greater and higher than life itself
Haruspicy
Divination through the observation and interpretation of the entrails of an animal previously
sacrificed
Henotheism
Belief in one God considered worthy of worship, while accepting that there may be other gods
Holy
That sense of ‘otherness’ and overpowering greatness before which humans may find themselves
in awe
Humanism
Belief in the ability of human beings to understand, sympathise, be responsible and solve the
problems of this world, it rejects the idea of any supernatural Power, Creator or after-life.
Religious humanism believes that God uses the value of humanity and human thought, work and
life
Ideology
A set of beliefs that provide a rationale for a way of life
Immortality
The doctrine that the soul survives the death of the body, and continues in an afterlife
Initiation
The induction of new members into a religion, community or organization, it also refers to rites
of passage

292 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Intercession
Prayer on behalf, of others; also, the use of an intermediary to reach God or gods – this person,
living or dead, is seen as influential because of his/her sanctity
Judgement
The time when each person is judged for their thoughts, words and deeds
Laity
The people in a religious tradition, in contrast to its leaders and specialists
Libation
An offering of drink as part of a sacrifice to God
Life stance
The style and beliefs of a person’s or community’s relationship with that which is most important
in their lives, it includes the consequences that come from it
Magic
There are four main headings for this:
(1) Apotropaic: The use of occult (hidden) powers to turn away evil, for example knocking on
wood
(2) Black: The use of occult powers involving the powers of darkness and Satan and
so on
(3) Contagious: The passing on of occult power through contact, for example rubbing a weapon
with a similar weapon that has already killed an enemy
(4) Sympathetic: The use of occult powers in one sphere to produce similar results in another,
for example acting out the killing of an animal before going out to hunt
Mana
An impersonal power that takes possession of an object which is then revered and
worshipped
Mandala
A symbolic diagram surrounded by a circle representing wholeness and perfection: also, it can
represent the Cosmos and its inhabitants, superhuman, human and sub-human
Meditation
Deep thinking, often in the light of an ultimate reference point and prayerful reflection, it can
also be the concentration of the mind with the exclusion of all thoughts
Monism
Greek: ‘One’: the belief that only one Being exists; also, that reality consists of one basic substance
Monotheism
Belief in one Divine Being or God; Belief in a Creator God
Mysteries
Forms of religion where doctrines are closed secrets revealed only to the initiated
Mysticism
The attainment through contemplation or self-surrender, of truths inaccessible to understanding;
direct intuitive experience of God; sense of unity with the divine or transcendent realm
Myth
A traditional story containing basic insights into life, death and the universe, ancient religious and
supernatural ideas; it is not a fictitious story
Necromancy
Predicting the future by communicating with the dead
Numen
Lit: ‘nodding’: spiritual power that is inherent in a particular object; some of these godlings
became gods and godesses, but most were not personified
Numinous
A sense of awe-inspiring mystery: Rudolf Otto introduced the concept in his book, The Idea of the
Holy to describe human feelings when faced with the Holy or ‘the wholly other’
Oracle
A shrine for the consultation of spiritual powers or deities for advice or prophecy; the medium of
response or the response given
Panentheism
Greek: ‘Everything exists in God’: the concept of God being immanent in the Universe, but also
transcendent; differs from pantheism which holds that everything is divine

GENERAL GLOSSARY 293

Pantheism
The doctrine that God is all and all is God, merging all things in the divine and denying personal-
ity to God
Paradise
Iranian: ‘Walled garden’: the condition beyond death where justice, truth and beauty are given to
all
Phenomenology
A method which selects and compares universal or common manifestations of religion, rather
than dealing with religious traditions one by one
Pilgrimage
A journey to a sacred site, sometimes to achieve religious merit
Polytheism
Belief in more than one god; also refers to different forms of divine being: supernatural powers,
gods and demons who are worshipped or warded off
Religion
Originates from a Latin word meaning scrupulousness or superstitious awe; later came to mean
religious scruples or conscientiousness, religious feeling and worship of the gods, leading to the
cult of sacred things or persons, and then to a religion
Sacrifice
The offering to God of oneself or of something or someone precious; this is to express thanksgiv-
ing, or to seek blessings or favours. It often involves the killing of an animal or person to give
back life, represented by blood to the deity. The animal may be totally burned as a total offering;
or part may be retained to be eaten, symbolizing a meal shared with God. There may be other
gifts of food such as fruit and cereals
Salvation
Saving the soul by deliverance from sin, and, admission to a state of blessedness expressed as
heaven, eternal life, paradise and so on
Scripture
Revered texts seen by a religion as the authoritative basis of its faith; they are often attributed as
revelations from God to humans
Sect
A group who share particular interests with a strong binding community ethos/belief within a
wider religious tradition; they are often sharply divided from general society
Secular
Excluding and rejecting religion; also, to put all religions and alternative life stances on an equal
footing
Secularization
The decline in the influence of religion and religious affairs and institutions in human thought
and affairs
Soteriology
A branch of theology which deals with human salvation
Soul
The non-material aspect of humans; the Greeks distinguished between the soul and the body.
Plato said that a human being is a soul (psyche) trapped in a body. Hebrew theology says that the
body is vitalized by the soul
Spiritual
What relates specifically to God; the highest expression and activity of the human person
Theism
Belief in God or gods, supported by appeal to rational experience
Theodicy
An account of the Universe and the ordering of it, vindicating the justice of divine government;
the search for religious meaning in the face of inequalities and the unending problems of human
existence
Theology
The systematic setting out of religious belief, the science of the study of religion or God
Theosophy
Various cults that seek direct knowledge of God by intuition of the divine essence

294 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Totem
A natural object, usually an animal, taken as the symbol of a tribe or individual
Tradition
The customs, beliefs and practices that shape the views of societies and religions; a reference
point for defining what is essential in a given religion
Ultimate questions
Concerning the meaning of life and death
Worship
The humble adoration and appreciation of the faithful to God or gods, in appreciation of their
dependence on him/them

GENERAL GLOSSARY 295

 Appendix

1. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or

sentence. Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) What is Kashrut? (1 mark)
(b) What is a covenant? (1 mark)
(c) Who received the Ten Commandments from God on Mount Sinai? (1 mark)
(d) Write out the first sentence of the Shema. (2 marks)
(e) Explain the meaning and importance of Shabbat for Jews. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)

2. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) Give one other name for the eucharist. (1 mark)
(b) Name one of the four gospels. (1 mark)
(c) What is the word for the Christian belief that God is three persons in one? (1 mark)
(d) Name two people who visit Jesus’ tomb and find it empty according to
Luke chapter 24. (2 marks)
(e) ‘Any set pattern for worship will always end up being lifeless and boring.’
How far do you agree with this statement? Give reasons to support your
answer and show that you have thought about different points of view. (5 marks)
(Total 20 marks)

3. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) During which month should Muslims obey the command to fast? (1 mark)
(b) What is Tawhid? (1 mark)
(c) What does the word Qur’an mean? (1 mark)
(d) Name two groups of people who are excused from making the pilgrimage
to Makkah. (2 marks)
(e) Explain the importance of prayer in Islam. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)

296 APPENDIX
4. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.
Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) What name is given to the Ultimate Reality (Supreme Being) worshipped
by all Hindus? (1 mark)
(b) Which is the earliest of the Vedas? (1 mark)
(c) What special name is given to the ‘eternal self’ by Hindus? (1 mark)
(d) Name two avatars of Vishnu. (2 marks)
(e) Explain, using examples, the importance of symbols in Hindu worship. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)

5. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) What does the title Buddha mean? (1 mark)
(b) What is Anicca? (1 mark)
(c) Which section of the Tripitaka gives rules for monks? (1 mark)
(d) List two of the Three Jewels in which a Buddhist promises to take refuge. (2 marks)
(e) Explain the main features of one method of meditation. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)

6. Questions (a)–(d) can be answered in a single word, phrase or sentence.

Question (e) requires a longer answer.
(a) Who is the founder of Sikhism? (1 mark)
(b) Which guru set up the Khalsa? (1 mark)
(c) Give one belief contained in the Mool Mantar. (1 mark)
(d) Name one of the 5 Ks and explain its symbolic meaning (2 marks)
(e) Explain how and why the Guru Granth Sahib is given respect during
worship. (5 marks)
(Total 10 marks)

APPENDIX 297
 Index

A Arti 180
Aaron 53 Asala Puja 237
Ab, month of, 17 Ascension 55, 57, 79
abd 138 Ash Wednesday 77
Abdullah 138 Ashoka 214, 216
Abhidhamma Pitaka 216, 217, 220 Assyria 7
Abram/Abraham 3, 4, 6, 13 Astika 175
absolution 76 astrology 166
Abu Musa 138 Athanasian Creed 63
Acts of the Apostles 71 atman 159
Adar 25, 26 Atonement, Day of 6
adhan 126 Atta 227
Adi Granth 256, 267, 280, 281 Aum 192
Advent 74, 137 Av 25
Aidan 58 Avatara Doctrine 168
Aleinu 21 Avatars 155
Alexander the Great 8
al fatihah 119 B
Al-isra 135 Babylon 8, 10, 16
Allah 115, 122, 138 Baisakhi 255, 276, 277
altar 91 Balwand 267
Amida cult 216 baptism 94–7
Amidah 18, 20 Baptist Church 87
Amritsar 267, 277 Bat Chayil 36
Ananda 255 Bat Mitzvah 36
anata 227 Benares 184
Antiochus Epiphanes (IV) 30 bet din 23
Apostles’ Creed 63, 64 Bet ha Knesset 22
Apostolic Succession 83 Bet hamidrash 22
Aqd Nikah 138 Bet t’filah 22
Aqiqah 137 Bethlehem 54
Arafat 132 Beytza 27
Aramaic 67 Bhagavad Gita 161, 174
Ardas 274 Bhai Lehna 255
arhats 213 Bhai Mani Singh 277
Ark 23 Bhajans 180
aron hakodesh 22 bhakti 159, 162
Arian Heresy 62 bhikkus 231
Arianism 63 bhut 165
Arius 62 Bhutapati 167
Arjuna 174 bimah 21, 22, 23

298 INDEX
birth control 101 confirmation 97
Bismillah 119, 138 Congregationalist Church 87
Board of Deputies 12 Corpus Christi 80
bodhisattva 211 creeds 62
Booth, William 87 Cromwell 12
Booths 6 Crucifixion 55, 70
brahm 166 curail 166
brahmachari 163 Cyrus of Persia 8, 16
Brahman 155, 159
Brahmins 209
D
Brit Milah 35
decalogue 6
British Council of Churches 88
Dalai Lama 219
Buddha 214
Daniel 17
burial 101
Darshanas 156
Dasam Granth 267, 268
C
Dassehra 186
Calvin 58, 85
David 53
Canaan 3, 6
Day of Atonement 26
caste 156
death 101
Chaldea 3
Deepavali 185
chancel 90, 91
derasha 36
cheder 35
Deuteronomy 16, 21
Cheshvan 25
devata 166
Children of Israel 3
dhamma 214
chrism 96
Dhammapada 215
Chronicles, Book of 17, 20
dharma 156, 159–60
chuppah 38
Dharma-cakra 218
chrismation 96
Dhul-Hijjah 132
Christian 53
Diaspora 9, 11
Christmas 75
Digambara 167
Church of England 85–6
Divali 157, 185, 275
Church of the Holy Sepulchre 56
Diwali 274
churches, Anglican
Durga 155, 167, 171
circumcision 4, 35
Durga puja 186
Columba 58
Dussehra 184
commandments 12
Constantine 58
Corinthians 71 E
Cosmogony 176 Eastern Orthodox Churches 92
Councils Easter 76, 79
Chalcedon 64 Ecclesiastes 17
of Christians and Jews 12 Ecumenical Movement 88
Constantinople 63 Edward I 12
Ephesus 64 Edward VI 85
choir 90, 91 Egypt 4, 8, 13
covenant 4, 6, 7 Eid 130, 134
Chakra 272 Eightfold Path 227
Ch’an 219 Elijah 28
Chen-yen 219 Elizabeth 1 85
Christian Calendar 74 Ephesians 72
Christology 62 Epiphany 76
Church of North India 89 erusin 38
Church of South India 89 Esau 4
Colossians 72 Esther 17, 26
communion 97 ethics 15
confession 76, 97 Eunl 25
confessional 92 Evangelists 66

INDEX 299
Evil Eye 166 list of 259–10
Exodus 6, 16 gurpurb 278
Ezra 17
H
F
Hadith 120
fairs (Hindu) 188
halal 136
festivals
hallot 31
Buddhist 237–9
Haman 26, 27
Judaism 24
Hana Matsuri 238
Christian 74
Hanukkah 9, 30
Hindu 185–8
Hanuman 169
Islamic 130
Hare Krishna Movement 157
filioque clause 83
Hari Hara 171
Final Solution 32
Harijans 164
First Buddhist Council 215
Harimandir 270
five elements (skandhas) 227
harmetz 27
Five Ks 256
Hasan 121
Five Pillars of Islam 122
haumai 265
Five Stages, The 266
Havan 180
font 92
havdalah 3l
Four Noble Truths 225–6
Heaven 61
Fox, George 87
Hebrew 15
Free Churches 86–8, 93
Hebrews 3, 6
Friedlander, David 10
Hell 62
Friends of the Western Buddhist Order
Henry VIII 85
218
heresy 58
Higan 238
G
Hijrah 120
Galatians 7l
Hinayana 212
Ganesha 155, 169
Hola Mohalla 274, 276
Ganga 172
Holi 157, 186
Ganges river 172
Holocaust 11, 28, 32
Gautama 207
Holy Innocents 75
Genesis 16
Holy Land 14
Judaism 12, 14
Holy Rivers 172
genizah 19
Holy Saturday 78
ghat 167
Holy Spirit 57, 79
ghi 178
Holy Week 77
ghosts 165–6
Hoshana Raba
Goindwal 279
Hosso sect 219
Golden Temple 277, 279
House Churches 88
Good Friday 78
Hungry Ghosts (festival) 238
Gospel writers 56, 57
Gospels 53, 66, 67
Gotama 209 I
grace 97 Iblis l22
Great Assembly 213 Id 130
Great Schism 58, 83 ihram 133
Greeks 8 ik onkar 270
grihastha 165 Indra 159
gurdwara 258, 270 initiation (Hindu) 189
gurpurb 278 Inquisition 58
guru 162 lona 58
Gurus Isaac 4, 6
Gobind Singh 255 Isaiah 14
Granth Sahib 267 Ishmaelites 4
Nanak 255, 262 Islam 115

300 INDEX
Islamic Cultural Centre 118 L
Israel 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13 Laban 4
Israelites 3, 6 lady chapel 92
Iyar 24 Lailat-ul-Bara’t 135
Lakshmi 172
Lakshmi puja 186
J lama 219
Jacob 4, 6 Lamentations 17
Jacobson, Israel 10 langar 274
Jaganmatri 171 Last Judgement 60, 62
jahannam 123 Last Supper 55, 70
Japji 275 latke 31
Jerusalem 7, 8 Law 13, 15
Jesus Christ 53, 72 lectern 91
Jews 3, 7, 9 Lent 76
Job 17 Letters, New Testament 72
Jodo sect 219 Leviticus 16
John’s Gospel 70 Lindisfarne 58
Joseph 4, 6, 54 lingam 167
Joseph of Aramathea 56 Lohri 278
Joshua 6, 7 London United Synagogue 11
jubn 123 Lot 3
Judah 7 Lotus of the True Law 226
Lotus sutra 218
Luke’s Gospel 69
KF lulav 29
Kabbalah 10 Lumbini 238
Kabbalet Shabbat 31 Luther, Martin, 58, 85
kach 256
Kaddish 18, 40
Kalama 209 M
Kali 167, 172 Maccabees 30
kalpa 167 Madinah 116
kamma see karma Magha Puja 238
kangha 256 maghrib 130
Kapilavatthu 209 magic 166
kara 256 Mahabarata 171
Karbala, Battle of 135 Mahamaya’s dream 208
karah parshad 274 Mahasanghikas 214–15
karma (kamma) 158, 160, 226 Mahayana 214–15
Karpas 27 mahr 139
Kasia 212 Maimonides 10, 18
kaur 256 Makkah 116
ketubah 38 Mala japa 181
khalsa 256, 280 Malkhuyot 25
khanda 272 mandala 178
kiddush 20, 31 Mara 209
kirpan 256, 272 Mardi Gras 76
Kislev 25, 30 margs
kittel 26 Maror 27
Knox, John 85 marriage 98–9
Kol Nidrei 26 Mary 54
Kondanna 211 Mary I (queen) 85
kosher 23 Masada 34
Krishna 155, 159, 169 masjid 128
kshatriya 164, 209 Mattathias 30
Kusinagara (Kusinara) 212 Matthew 54

INDEX 301
Matzah 27 O
Maulid an Nabi 135 Obon 238
Maundy Thursday 78 oil of catechumens 96
Mazel tov 38 Old Testament 54
mela 188, 276 omar 30
Messiah 14, 55 Om 192
Methodists 87 Orthodox Jews 14
Mezuzah 22 Orthodox Tradition 84–5
Midrash 18
mihrab 128 P
mikreh 23 pagodas 237
Milinda 217 Palestine 57
minaret 128, 129 Pali 214
miracles 68 palki 273
Mishnah 17 palla 281
mishteh 26 Palm Sunday 77
mitzvot 6, 13, 36 parables 55, 68
Mohan Pothi 268 Paranmashi 278
mohel 35 paramitas 211
moksha 159 parinibbana 239
Mool Mantar 265, 280 Paschal 79
Moses 6, 7, 15, 54 Pashupa 167
mosque 118, 128 Passiontide 55, 77
Mothering Sunday 77 Passover 6, 27, 28, 70
Mount Sinai (Horeb) 13 patriarchs 83
Mount Hira 116 Paul’s Letters 71
muezzin 126 penance 97
Muharram 134 Pentateuch 15, 16
muslim 115 Pentecost 6, 57, 79
mysticism, Jewish medieval 10 Peniel 4
perahara 239
Persia 8
N Pesach 27
naag 233 pesah 27
nadar 265 Philippians 72
Nagasena 228 phylacteries 21
Nam simran 274 pilgrimage
Nanak 255 Buddhist 237
Nandi 167 Christian 81, 82
Nastika 175 Hindu 181–4
Nataraja 167 pollution 164–5
National Council of Hindu Temples 157 Pontius Pilate 55
nave 90 Pope 83
Nehemiah 17 poson 239
Neilah 26 prashad 178, 280, 281
ner tamid 22 Presbyterian 85, 86
New Testament 54 Promised Land 6, 7, 12
nibbana 215, 219 Prophets 17
Nicene Creed 63 Protestantism 85
Nihangs 278 Proverbs, Book of 17
nikaya 217 Psalms 17, 20
Nisan 24 Ptolemies 8
nishan sahib 276 pujari 179
niyyah 124 pulpit 91
Noahide Code 19 puranas 156, 175
Nonconformist Churches 86–8, 93 Pure Land Cult 218, 219
Numbers 16 purgatory 61

302 INDEX
Puri 184 sanctuary 90
Purim 17, 26 sandek 35
Purim rabbi 27 Sangha 231
Sangrand 278
Q Sangharakshita 220
Qadhf l23 sannyasin 158, 163
qadi 138, 139 Saqim 121
Qatl 123 Sarasvati 172
qiblah 126, 128, 129 Sarvastivadins 214
Quakers 87 Sat Guru 264
Qur’an 115, 119, 122 Satan 122
sati 192
R saum 124
rabbis 10 scripture 16
Rabbi Amran of Susa 18 Second Vatican Council 59, 84
Rachel 4 seder 27
Ragjir 215 Sefer Torah 36
Rahula 210 seikbadi 236
Rajagaha 215 Seleucids 8
Rama 155 sendah 36
Rama Krishna Movement 157 shabbat 25, 36
Ramadan 130–1 shahadah 124
Rameshwaram 184 Shakti 155
Rebekah 4 Shavuot 29
Reform Jews 14 Shaytan 122
Reformation 58, 59 Shingon 219
Rehat Maryada 273 Shehina 12
Resurrection 56, 57, 101 Shema 12, 20, 22
revelation 53 sheol (hell) 15
riba 123 Shevat 25
Rig Veda 173 Shfarot 25
rishis 174 Shi’ah 121
romalla 272 Shinto 219
Roman Catholic Church 58 shirk 123
Roman Empire 54 Shiva (Siva) 155, 159, 167
Romans, the 9 shiva 40
Rosh Hashanah 25 shofar 25, 26
ruku 126 Shpeel 27
Rule of Faith 62 Shrove tuesday 76
rupa 227 Shwe Dagon 236
Ruth 17 Siddur 18
Simhat Torah 29
S sihr 123
Sabbath 20 Sikh 257
Sacred Heart of Jesus 80 Sivan 24
Sahih 121 skandhas 227
Sailendra Dynasty 220 Society of Friends see Quakers
saints’ days 81 Sodar Rahiras 273
Sakyamuni 209 Soga clan 219
salat 124 Sohilla 273
salvation 73 Soka Gakkai 219
Salvation Army 87 Solomon 7
Samaria 7 Song of Songs 17
samina 228 Spy Wednesday 78
samsara 158, 160–1 Sri Lanka 219
samskara 228 St Alban 58
sanatan dharma 156 St Augustine 58

INDEX 303
St Patrick 58 U
Sthavira 214 Ummah 137
stupas 236 United Reform Church 87
Sudra 164 upajjhaya 234
sujud 126 Upanayana 189
sukkah 29 Upanishads 173
Sukkot 17, 28, 29 Uposatha 217
Sunnah 120
Sunni 121
surah 115, 119, 120 V
Susah 8 Vaishya 164
Sutta Pitaka 216 vanaprasth 163
Suttee 192 vedana 227
Swami Nariyan movement 157 Vedas 173–4
synagogue 10 vijnana 228
Synoptics 56 vinaya 214
Syria 8 Vinaya Pitaka 216–17
Virgin Mary 60, 80
T Vishnu 155, 159, 168
Tabernacles 6, 28 Vrindavan 184
Tacitus 53
tallit(h) 20, 29, 36
Talmud 10, 17, 18 W
Tammuz 24 Wailing Wall 32
tantras 217 Wahaeguru 264
tanzil 119 Wesak 239
Taryag 6 Wesley, John 87
tashlikh ceremony 25 Western Wall 32
tathagata 230 Whitsun
tefillin 21, 22, 36 World Council of Churches 59, 88
Temple, the 8, 9, 17, 29, 31, 32 wudu 126
Ten Commandments 6, 14
Tendai 219
Terah 3 Y
Tevet 25 Yad Vashem 32
Theravada 214 Yajur Veda 173
Theravadin 241 yamulkah 20
Thessalonians 71 Yasodharo 210
Thirteen Principles 19 yatra 157
Three Baskets 214 Yom Kippur 26
T’ien T’ai sect 218
Timothy 72
Tishri 25, 28 Z
Titus 72 Zakat 124
Torah 6, 10, 15, 29, 57 Zam Zam 139
transcendental complex 158 Zealots 9, 34
Transfiguration (of Christ) 80 Zechariah 31
transmigration 160 zemirot 31
Trimurti 168 Zeroa 27
Trinity 60, 62 Zikhronot 25
Trinity Sunday 80 Zionism 34
Tripitaka 214, 216 Zionists 12

304 INDEX