MODULE IV

DATASTRUCURES IN PYTHON
Python Strings
Strings Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Shortcut Description

add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() - Returns a set containing the difference between two or more sets

difference_update() -= Removes the items in this set that are also included in another, specified set

discard() Remove the specified item

intersection() & Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets

intersection_update() &= Removes the items in this set that are not present in other, specified set(s)
 isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not

issubset() <= Returns whether another set contains this set or not

< Returns whether all items in this set is present in other, specified set(s)

issuperset() >= Returns whether this set contains another set or not

> Returns whether all items in other, specified set(s) is present in this set

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() ^ Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets

symmetric_difference_update() ^= Inserts the symmetric differences from this set and another

union() | Return a set containing the union of sets

update() |= Update the set with the union of this set and others

Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation
marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print('Hello')
output:

Hello
Hello

Quotes Inside Quotes

You can use quotes inside a string, as long as they don't match the quotes surrounding
the string:

Example
print("It's alright")
print("He is called 'Johnny'")
print('He is called "Johnny"')

It's alright
He is called 'Johnny'
He is called "Johnny"

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign
and the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

output:

Hello

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

Note: in the result, the line breaks are inserted at the same position as in the code.

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays of bytes
representing unicode characters.

However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is simply a
string with a length of 1.

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])
output:

Looping Through a String

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with a for loop.

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

output:
b
a
n
a
n
a

String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))
output:

13

Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the
keyword in.

Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)

output:

true

Use it in an if statement:

Example
Print only if "free" is present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")

output:
Yes, 'free' is present.

Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can use the
keyword not in.

Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)
output:

true.

Use it in an if statement:

Example
print only if "expensive" is NOT present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "expensive" not in txt:
print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")

output:

No, 'expensive' is NOT present.

Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.

Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part of the
string.

Example
Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])

output:

llo

Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start
By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:

Example

Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"

print(b[:5])

output:

Hello

Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:

Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])

output:

llo, World!

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Upper Case
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

HELLO, WORLD!

Lower Case
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())

hello, world!

Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you want to
remove this space.

Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Hello,World!

Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

Jello, World!

Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator becomes
the list items.

Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

['Hello', ' World!']

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description

capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

Python Lists mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other
3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example
Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and
that order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.

Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of
the items will not change.

Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list
after it has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example
Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'apple', 'cherry']

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]
['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
[1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
[True, False, False]

A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

['abc', 34, True, 40, 'male']

type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':

<class 'list'>
Example
What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))
<class 'list'>

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thislist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No
duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate
members.

Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])

banana

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[-1])

cherry

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the
range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:5])

['cherry', 'orange', 'kiwi']

#This will return the items from position 2 to 5.

#Remember that the first item is position 0,

#and note that the item in position 5 is NOT included

Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Example
Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

['apple', 'blackcurrant', 'cherry']

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new values,
and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the new values:

Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

['apple', 'blackcurrant', 'watermelon', 'orange', 'kiwi', 'mango']

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'orange']

Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

['apple', 'orange', 'banana', 'cherry']

Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.

Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'mango', 'pineapple', 'papaya']

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object
(tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'kiwi', 'orange']

Remove Specified Item

The remove() method removes the specified item.

Example
Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

['apple', 'cherry']

If there are more than one item with the specified value, the remove() method removes
the first occurrence:

Example
Remove the first occurrence of "banana":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "banana", "kiwi"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

['apple', 'cherry', 'banana', 'kiwi']

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.

Example
Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)

['apple', 'cherry']

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.

Example
Remove the last item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop()
print(thislist)

['apple', 'banana']

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

Example
Remove the first item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

['banana', 'cherry']

Loop Through a List

You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)

apple
banana
cherry

Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending, by
default:

Example
Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

['banana', 'kiwi', 'mango', 'orange', 'pineapple']

Example
Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

[23, 50, 65, 82, 100]

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:

Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

['pineapple', 'orange', 'mango', 'kiwi', 'banana']

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

[100, 82, 65, 50, 23]

Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key
= function.

The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest number
first):

Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:

def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

[50, 65, 23, 82, 100]

Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters being sorted
before lower case letters:

Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

['Kiwi', 'Orange', 'banana', 'cherry']

Python - Copy Lists

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be
a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.

Use the copy() method

You can use the built-in List method copy() to copy a list.

Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

Use the list() method

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

Use the slice Operator

You can also make a copy of a list by using the : (slice) operator.

Example
Make a copy of a list with the : operator:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist[:]
print(mylist)

['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

Python - Join Lists

Join Two Lists

There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Example
Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)

['a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2, 3]

Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1, one by
one:

Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)

['a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2, 3]

Or you can use the extend() method, where the purpose is to add elements from one list
to another list:

Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)

['a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2, 3]

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

 copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other
3 are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.

Tuples are written with round brackets.

Example
Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

('apple', 'banana', 'cherry')

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.

Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and
that order will not change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after
the tuple has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:

Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

('apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'apple', 'cherry')

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple))

Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the item, otherwise
Python will not recognize it as a tuple.

Example
One item tuple, remember the comma:

thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

<class 'tuple'>
<class 'str'>

Tuple Items - Data Types

Tuple items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:

tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)

('apple', 'banana', 'cherry')

(1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
(True, False, False)

A tuple can contain different data types:

Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:

tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

('abc', 34, True, 40, 'male')

type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type 'tuple':

<class 'tuple'>

Example
What is the data type of a tuple?

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(type(mytuple))

<class 'tuple'>

The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thistuple)
('apple', 'banana', 'cherry')

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No
duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate
members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type.
Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it
could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Python - Access Tuple Items

Access Tuple Items
You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square brackets:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Print the second item in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])

banana

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

cherry

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the
range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:5])

('cherry', 'orange', 'kiwi')

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi":

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[:4])

('apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'orange')

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the tuple:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:])

('cherry', 'orange', 'kiwi', 'melon', 'mango'

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple:

Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[-4:-1])

('orange', 'kiwi', 'melon')

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove items once
the tuple is created.

But there are some workarounds.

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable,
or immutable as it also is called.

But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and
convert the list back into a tuple.
ExampleGet your own Python Server
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)

("apple", "kiwi", "cherry")

Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a built-in append() method, but there are
other ways to add items to a tuple.

1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you can convert it
into a list, add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.

Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)
('apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'orange')

2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you want to add
one item, (or many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and add it to the existing tuple:

Example
Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)
('apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'orange')

Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a comma after the
item, otherwise it will not be identified as a tuple.
Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.

Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can use the
same workaround as we used for changing and adding tuple items:

Example
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)

('banana', 'cherry')

Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "demo_tuple_del.py", line 3, in <module>
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists
NameError: name 'thistuple' is not defined

Python - Unpack Tuples

Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called "packing" a tuple:

Example
Packing a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

('apple', 'banana', 'cherry')

But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables. This is
called "unpacking":

Example
Unpacking a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

apple
banana
cherry
Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if not, you
must use an asterisk to collect the remaining values as a list.

Loop Through a Tuple

You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.

Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)

apple
banana
cherry

Join Two Tuples

To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:

Example
Join two tuples:
tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")
tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)

('a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2, 3)

Multiply Tuples
If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can use
the * operator:

Example
Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2

print(mytuple)

('apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'apple', 'bana

Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it was found

Python Dictionaries
❮ PreviousNext ❯
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

Dictionary
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.

Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

Example
Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 1964}

Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.

Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using the
key name.

Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])
Ford

Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.

When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order,
and that order will not change.

Unordered means that the items do not have a defined order, you cannot refer to an item
by using an index.

Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items after
the dictionary has been created.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:

Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 2020}

Python - Access Dictionary
Items

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square
brackets:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]
Mustang

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")
Mustang

Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the keys:

x = thisdict.keys()

dict_keys(['brand', 'model', 'year'])

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.keys()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "white"

print(x) #after the change

dict_keys(['brand', 'model', 'year'])

dict_keys(['brand', 'model', 'year', 'color'])

Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the values:

x = thisdict.values()

dict_values(['Ford', 'Mustang', 1964])

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.

Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs

x = thisdict.items()

dict_items([('brand', 'Ford'), ('model', 'Mustang'), ('year', 1964)])

Python - Change Dictionary Items

Change Values

You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {

"brand": "Ford",

"model": "Mustang",

"year": 1964

thisdict["year"] = 2018

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 2018}

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given argument.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.

Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 2020}

Python - Add Dictionary Items

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning a value
to it:

Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)
{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 1964, 'color': 'red'}

Python - Remove Dictionary Items

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)

{'brand': 'Ford', 'year': 1964}

Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a random
item is removed instead):

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang'}

Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)

{'brand': 'Ford', 'year': 1964}

Loop Through a Dictionary

You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the dictionary, but
there are methods to return the values as well.

Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

thisdict = {

"brand": "Ford",

"model": "Mustang",

"year": 1964

for x in thisdict:

print(x)

brand
model
year

Python - Copy Dictionaries

❮ PreviousNext ❯
Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will only be
a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary method copy().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 1964}

Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.

Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:

myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}
{'child1': {'name': 'Emil', 'year': 2004}, 'child2': {'name': 'Tobias', 'year': 2007}, 'child3':
{'name': 'Linus', 'year': 2011}}

Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:

Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other three
dictionaries:

child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

{'child1': {'name': 'Emil', 'year': 2004}, 'child2': {'name': 'Tobias', 'year': 2007}, 'child3':
{'name': 'Linus', 'year': 2011}}

Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.

Method Description

clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary

copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary

 fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value

get() Returns the value of the specified key

items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair

keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys

pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair

setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert the key, with the specified value

update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Example
Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)

{'banana', 'apple', 'cherry'}

Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will appear.

Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.

Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be
referred to by index or key.

Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has
been created.

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add
new items.
Duplicates Not Allowed
Sets cannot have two items with the same value.

Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)

{'banana', 'cherry', 'apple'}

Note: The values True and 1 are considered the same value in sets, and are treated as
duplicates:

Example
True and 1 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", True, 1, 2}

print(thisset)

{True, 2, 'banana', 'cherry', 'apple'}

Note: The values False and 0 are considered the same value in sets, and are treated as
duplicates:

Example
False and 0 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", False, True, 0}

print(thisset)

{False, True, 'cherry', 'apple', 'banana'}

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() function.

Example
Get the number of items in a set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))

Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}

{'cherry', 'apple', 'banana'}

{1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
{False, True}

A set can contain different data types:

Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:

set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

{True, 34, 40, 'male', 'abc'}

type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type 'set':

<class 'set'>

Example
What is the data type of a set?

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(type(myset))

<class 'set'>
The set() Constructor
It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thisset)

{'banana', 'cherry', 'apple'}

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No
duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate
members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type.
Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it
could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.

But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value is
present in a set, by using the in keyword.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Loop through the set, and print the values:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:

print(x)

banana
apple
cherry

Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)

True

Example
Check if "banana" is NOT present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" not in thisset)

False

Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

Add Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

To add one item to a set use the add() method.

Example
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)

{'orange', 'apple', 'cherry', 'banana'}

Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.

Example
Add elements from tropical into thisset:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)

{'apple', 'mango', 'cherry', 'pineapple', 'banana', 'papaya'}

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any iterable
object (tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a list to at set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)

{'banana', 'cherry', 'apple', 'orange', 'kiwi'}

Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)

{'apple', 'cherry'}

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)

{'apple', 'cherry'}

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove a
random item, so you cannot be sure what item that gets removed.

The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example
Remove a random item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

print(x)

print(thisset)

banana
{'apple', 'cherry'}

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know which item
that gets removed.
Example
The clear() method empties the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)

Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "demo_set_del.py", line 5, in <module>
print(thisset) #this will raise an error because the set no longer exists
NameError: name 'thisset' is not defined

Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:

Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

cherry
banana
apple

Join Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.

The union() and update() methods joins all items from both sets.
The intersection() method keeps ONLY the duplicates.

The difference() method keeps the items from the first set that are not in the other
set(s).

The symmetric_difference() method keeps all items EXCEPT the duplicates.

Union
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets.

Example
Join set1 and set2 into a new set:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)

{2, 3, 'a', 'b', 1, 'c'}

You can use the | operator instead of the union() method, and you will get the same
result.

Example
Use | to join two sets:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1 | set2

print(set3)

{1, 'b', 3, 2, 'c', 'a'}

Join Multiple Sets

All the joining methods and operators can be used to join multiple sets.

When using a method, just add more sets in the parentheses, separated by commas:
Example
Join multiple sets with the union() method:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = {"John", "Elena"}
set4 = {"apple", "bananas", "cherry"}

myset = set1.union(set2, set3, set4)

print(myset)

{cherry, 1, 2, banana, apple, 'a', 3, Elena, 'c', 'b', John}

When using the | operator, separate the sets with more | operators:

Example
Use | to join two sets:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = {"John", "Elena"}
set4 = {"apple", "bananas", "cherry"}

myset = set1 | set2 | set3 |set4

print(myset)

{'b', banana, Elena, 'a', apple, 3, 1, 'c', John, 2, cherry}\

Join a Set and a Tuple

The union() method allows you to join a set with other data types, like lists or tuples.

The result will be a set.

Example
Join a set with a tuple:

x = {"a", "b", "c"}

y = (1, 2, 3)

z = x.union(y)
print(z)
{'b', 'c', 2, 'a', 3, 1}

Note: The | operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with other data types
like you can with the union() method.

Update
The update() method inserts all items from one set into another.

The update() changes the original set, and does not return a new set.

Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:

set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)

{3, 'b', 'a', 'c', 1, 2}

Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.

Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Shortcut Description

add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

discard() Remove the specified item

intersection() & Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets

isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not

issubset() <= Returns whether another set contains this set or not

issuperset() >= Returns whether this set contains another set or not

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() ^ Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets

 union() | Return a set containing the union of sets

update() |= Update the set with the union of this set and others

Intersection
Keep ONLY the duplicates

The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the
items that are present in both sets.

Example
Join set1 and set2, but keep only the duplicates:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.intersection(set2)
print(set3)

{'apple'}

You can use the & operator instead of the intersection() method, and you
will get the same result.

Example
Use & to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 & set2

print(set3)

{'apple'}
Note: The & operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the intersection() method.

The intersection_update() method will also keep ONLY the duplicates,

but it will change the original set instead of returning a new set.

Difference
The difference() method will return a new set that will contain only the
items from the first set that are not present in the other set.

Example
Keep all items from set1 that are not in set2:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.difference(set2)

print(set3)

{'banana', 'cherry'}

ou can use the - operator instead of the difference() method, and you will
get the same result.

Example
Use - to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 - set2

print(set3)

{'banana', 'cherry'}

Note: The - operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the difference() method.

Symmetric Differences
The symmetric_difference() method will keep only the elements that are
NOT present in both sets.

Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.symmetric_difference(set2)

print(set3)

{'google', 'banana', 'microsoft', 'cherry'}

You can use the ^ operator instead of

the symmetric_difference() method, and you will get the same result.

Example
Use ^ to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 ^ set2

print(set3)

{'google', 'banana', 'microsoft', 'cherry'}

Note: The ^ operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the symmetric_difference() method.