Development Studies Full

LECTURE ONE
DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS & THEORIES
Development is a multifaceted concepts which have different meaning for different people or
countries. Different countries have different priorities in their development policies. There is no
universal acceptable definition of what exactly development mean. According to Cherry (2008)
there is no consensus to what development means or requires, since World War II the ability to
conceptualized development has become increase relevant.
In most cases, development is related to growth from one stage to another, therefore,
development is inevitably treated as a normative concept, as almost a synonym for improvement
from one stage to another,
 In the direct post-war period, development was usually defined in terms of economic
growth focuses on the Growth National Products (GNP). It was argued that economic
growth would lead to a trickle-down effect, meaning that economic growth was a
necessary conditions and requirement for social improvement.
 Development as economic growth too often commodity output as opposed to people is

emphasized measures of growth in Growth National Products. However, there is
differences between human development and economic growth as the country can have
economic growth/development but still majority of the population remain poor,
unemployed, poor health services and high inequality gap.
The modern scholars of development, criticize the idea of economic growth as direct related to
development. They focus indicators such as social indicators such as welfare and poverty which
result to create UNs Human Development Index (HDI) include life expectancy, education and
income.
Njunwa, K.M (Msc. Development Management University of Agder, Norway) Page 1

 They argue that development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a
multidimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic
and social system. According to Njunwa (2010) development is the process of improving
the quality of all human lives with the quality important aspects.
 United Nation (UN) documents emphasis on Human Development measured by life

expectancy, adult literacy, access to education as well as peoples average income. The
concept of human development incorporate all aspect of individual well-being from their
health status to their economic and political freedom.
 According to the Human Development Report (1996) published by United National

Development Program (UNDP), Human development is the End- economic growth as
Means. Economic growth by increasing a nations total wealth and enhance its potential
for reducing poverty and other social problems.
Therefore, the government have to ensure balance between economic growth and human
development to ensure sustainable development.
- Conditions for enabling economic growth incudes:

1. People knowledge and skills (human capital)
2. Efficient use of natural resources i.e land, mines etc.
3. Stable government and good governance
4. Sound Economic Policies
- Conditions for enabling human development includes:

1. Good health services
2. Education services
3. Employment opportunities
4. Democracy and participation
5. Environment protection
Kholi (2005) provide for political dimension of development by focusing on democratization

process. The country will only be considered as develop based on the extent it provide

participation and involvement of citizens as a major stakeholders in development process. The
government should secure property rights and favorable investment climate generating higher
economic growth.
OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT
According to Todoro and Smith (2005) provide for major three (3) objectives of development as
follows:
1. Raising peoples living levels i.e. incomes and consumption food, shelters, health
services and education. It aimed at increasing the availability and widen the distribution
of basic life sustaining good.
2. Creating condition conducive to the growth of peoples self-esteem through the

establishment of social, political and economic which promote human dignity and
respect. Ie. Construction of roads and peace.
3. Increase peoples freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choices variables.
Freedom of movement, trade, association, political participation. It aimed at expand the
range of economic and social choice available to individual by freeing them from
servitude and dependence not only in relation to other people and non-state but also to the
force of ignorance and human miserly.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES

The following features distinguish developed and underdeveloped countries:
1. 3rd world countries economies are distinguished from developed economies on the basis
of per capital income. Those countries with less than 500000 dollar per year considered
as underdeveloped countries
2. The difference is underequipped with capital relation to its population and natural
resources. The rate of growth employment and investment behind the rate of growth
population

3. Industrial development. Developed countries possess high level of industrial development
particularly mafucturing industries
4. Developed countries characterized by high technology compare to third world
5. Developing countries are characterized with poor provision of social services such as
education and health services
6. Stable government is main characteristic of developed countries with high adherence to

principles of good governance.
7. Standard of living op the people including their income, food and other basic needs.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
A theory is a set of interrelated statement that provide an explanation for chain of invents, it is a
way to binding together a multitude of fact so that may comprehend them all at once (Kelly,
1955). A theory serve as a guide to certain action by formulating a theory, one attempt to make
sense of experiences.
A theory as interconnected logical system of concepts that provide a framework for organizing,
understanding and observation of social facts. Theories allows us to understand and predict the
behaviour of some aspects of the world.
In discussing development theories, there are various theories that try to explain the ways
society develop from one stage to another. These theories provides for the strategies to be used to
improve economic situation of a given countries.
- There is major three (3) theories of development namely:
i. Modernization Theory
ii. Dependency Theory
iii. Marxist Theory

MODERNIZATION THEORY
It is a transformational process which enables traditional societies to become modern societies.

This theory can be related to the theory of evolution that humanity is moving from the primitive
to more advanced state.
- The theory aimed to articulate the problem of development in term of the need to
transform the backward traditional of the 3rd World countries economy into modern
economy. i.e. encourage import substitution, foreign aids, technology and others.
- The theory state that, given the relatively low level of new capital formation in most of
the 3rd world countries, they requires massive capital investment through foreign aid for
them to develop.
- The theory advocate that the source of underdevelopment in poor countries is internally
oriented that external ones. These include corruptions, good governance and political
instability.
- Modernization is associated with the development aid from developed countries. This
idea borrowed from the Marshal Plan of the post World War II. The Programs such as
Structure Adjustment Program (SAPs), Millennium Development Goal (MDGs), PSRP,
LGRP are the product of modernization theory.
- Modernization theory is an irreversible process, once started modernization cannot be

stopped.
- It is evolutionary change and not revolutionary change as dependency theory. It will take
years and generation to complete.

NURKES VICIOUS CIRCLE OF POVERTY
The vicious circle of poverty introduced by Prof. Ragnar Nurkes, wrote a book in 1952 analyze
the cycle of poverty and possible way to break the deadlock. According to poor the country is
poor because is poor.
 Vicious Circle it is a situation in which one problem causes another problems that then
cause the first again, so that the whole process continue to be repeated.
 According to Ragnar poor countries will never developed without the assistance of the
developed countries. They have to get resource from outside.
 He suggest that poor countries invest in human capital
 Transfer of technology from developed countries to poor countries is essential.
 A country/society in developing countries characterized with low income, and therefore,

due to low income have both low level of saving and level of consumption.
 The low level of savings mean that the country possess low level of investment due to
lack of capital
 Low investment in turn means little ability of that country to expand to its productive
capacity.
HOW TO BREAK VICIOUS POVERTY CYCLE
1. Proper use of Natural Resource: Proper use of natural resource increase the production
and per capital income
2. Establish for Self Reliance Policy to reduce dependency from developed nations
3. Encourage private sector development: private sector will increase the rate of investment
4. Application of capital must be made to a wide range of different industries
5. Increase saving: the government of less developing countries should provide incentives
to encourage the rate of saving.

6. Reduction of Import: The country should produce substitute in order the country to save
foreign exchange.
7. Invest in Technology
8. Control Population in order to balance the population and available natural resources.
WEAKNESS OF RAGNER THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
1. The theory ignore the root causes of underdevelopment of the poor nations such as
colonialism.
2. The theory create the dependency economy to the developing world. The theory create
an environment for massive investment and balance of growth.
3. The theory ignore current and ongoing exploitative relation between developed and
developing countries
ROSTOWIAN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
The theory introduced by Walt Rostow in 1960s who postulate various stage of development
with his famous book The Stage of Economic Growth. Rostow argued that for any
country to achieve economic growth must pass through five (5) stages.
This model assume that country is able to develop economically by focusing on resources
that are short supply in order to expand beyond local industries to reach global market
(Todaro, 2005). It is evolutionary theory of development
 Traditional Society Stage:
The first stage is known as traditional society which is associated with the country that has
yet developed. The investment level is less that 5 per cent of national income
- Majority of the population under this stage engaged in substance agriculture

- The society is characterized by using barter system as the system of monetary are not
developed
- The manufacturing sectors and industries in traditional society grow by limited by

inadequate scientific knowledge (low productivity)
- The society characterized massive concentration of political power in the hand of land
owners
- The social structure is feudalistic in nature
 Pre-condition for Take Off Stage:
This is second stage of development as proposed by Rostow, under this stage the country
undergo a process of change for building up of condition for growth and take off. Under this
stage society characterized by specialization, production of surplus good. The investment
level is above 5 per cent of national income
- The change in this stage, the society and the economy are fundamental in nature in the
political structure and production technique.
- Trade and other commercial activities are broadened to reach not only local market but
also international market.
- It is characterized by massive development of mining industries
- Increase in capital use in agriculture and become commercialized
- Invest in transport infrastructure is developed to support trade
- The stage encourage saving and investment and entrepreneur emerge.
- The economy shift from agrarian to industrial or manufacturing industry

 Take Off Stage:
Sometime is commonly known as economic take off Stage. It characterized by dynamic

economic growth which is due sharp stimulate of economic, political and technological in
nature.
- It is characterized by self-sustained economic growth
- Industrialization increase and increase and economy switches from agriculture to

manufacturing. Decline in the number of employees in agriculture sector
- New political and social institution are involving to support industries
- Dramatic technological development in both industry and agriculture
- Significant increase in investment
- Increase urban population due to industrialization
Note: Once the country take off will take as long as fifty (50) years to hundred (100) years to
rich to maturity as it was the case of industrial revolution.
 Drive to Maturity Stage:
This stage of development concerned with the extension of modern technology over other
sectors in the economy/society.
- This stage refer to the period when a country has effectively applied the range of modern
technology to bulk of its resources.
- At this stage economy diversifies into new areas and become self-sustain
- Economy find its place in the international economy (imported good began to be produce
locally. i.e. cars
- Less reliance on import much emphasis in export

 High Mass Consumption Stage:
- The leading sector in the society shift toward durable consumer goods and services.
According Preston (1988) it is characterized by high output levels. At this stage the
economy gears not mass production and service sector becomes increasingly dominating.
- Under this stage characterize by high mass consumption of consumer durables
- Increase in employment in the service sectors
- Highly increased in per capital income
- At this stage the society is able to choose between concentrating on military and security
issue. A good example is United State of America
- Equality in welfare issues or developing luxuries for its upper class
CRITIQUE TO ROSTOW STAGES THEORY
1. The theory failed to emphasize that developing countries are politically and economically
diverse (Haynes, 2008). They cant follow similar stage in development.
2. Critique by dependency theorist that, wealthy nation exploit the poor countries and
remain them underdevelopment.
3. The theory focus only on internal causes of underdevelopment and reject external factors
4. The theory is criticized for failing to consider the poor as center peace in poverty
reduction initiatives. Ignoring the involvement of poor countries. Example to introduction
of SAPs
- Eliminate traditional values in development process.
5. Theory failed to recognize the creativity and initiative of the African (Western Oriented).
Ideas of modernization impoverished African by create economy dependency.

DEPENDENCY THEORY
Dependency theory of body of social science theories, it contends that resources flow from a
periphery of poor and underdeveloped countries to a core of wealthy states. It enriches the latter
at the expenses of the former.
Note: This theory evolved around 1950s as reaction to some earliest theories of development
such as modernization theory. But to large extent, this theory was popular in 1960s and 1970s as
reaction to the earliest theories such as modernization. The modernization held that all societies
progress through similar stages of development. Development countries were in situation that is
similar to that faced todays underdeveloped countries.
They argue that for poor nations to develop, poor countries needs investment, transfer of
technology, integrate into world market.
 Therefore, dependency rejects these ideas. Dependency argued that underdevelopment

countries are not merely primitive version of developed countries; rather they have
unique features and structure of their own. They are just weaker members in a World
Market Economy.
TYPES OF DEPENDENCY
There is major two (2) main stream of dependency theory.
i. The Structuralism Stream: These stream include Prebisch, Hans Singer, Furtin and
Smir, they argued that peripheral central relation is a major causes of
underdevelopment in poor countries.
- They argued that this relationship affect negatively self sustain in poor countries and
makes them to depend on rich countries.
- Hans Singer & Prebisch observed that the terms of trade for poor countries, relative to the
developed countries had deteriorated over time. Example, developing countries are able
to purchase fewer and fewer manufactured goods from the developed countries in
exchange for a given quantity of the raw material export. (Unequal trade between

developed and poor countries western countries to control prices for the products
produced.
- In world system, poor countries become only raw material producer of cotton, sisal,
coffee, therefore, provide inputs for advanced nation.
 Singer Prebisch an Argentinian economist at the UN Commission for Latin America

(UNCLA) Suggest that underdeveloped nation must employ some degree of
protectionism in trade if they were to inter a self sustaining development path. They
advocated for regional integrations and unity among poor countries.
 They argued, in opposition to free market and suggest that underdeveloped countries
need to reduce their connection with the world market & pursue their own path.
 They encourage for Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) and not a trade and export
orientation.
- The theory focuses on the Centre Periphery/North South relationships. It state

that poor states are impoverished and rich states are enriched by the way poor states are
integrated in the world system.
- They argued that the major cause of underdevelopment in external oriented. It ignores
institutional structure such as corruption, unproductive land holding, concentration of
wealth, poor political system as the cause of underdevelopment.
ii. The Marxian Theory: This stream includes Gunda Frank, Baran, Swezy and others.
Paul Baran in 1957 wrote a book The Political Economy of Growth.
- They argued that development and underdevelopment are two aspects of economic
structure.
- They show the link between the economy and power, the way international economy
influence or constrained the development process of National economy.

- It argued that it is difficult for wealth nations/states to develop poor nations, therefore
underdeveloped nations would have to create their own economic path (Regional
Integrations)
- Monopoly capitalism had vested interest in maintaining backwardness and dependence in

the periphery.
The Basic Premises of Dependency Theory
 Poor national provide natural resources & cheap labour to strong states. Poor nation are
in disadvantage in their market interact with wealth nations.
 Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various mean such as

financial aids, technological assistances, scholarships, foreign capital flow and others.
 Wealthy nations actively counter all attempts made by dependent nations to resist their
influence by means of Force/war (USA invade Iraq), Economic sanction (Libya)
THE CENTRAL PROPOSITION OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
i) Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different from undevelopment.

Undevelopment refers to the condition in which resources are not being used. i.e
minerals and land not actively cultivated
Underdevelopment refers to the situation in which resources are being actively used
but in a way benefit the dominant states and not the poor.
ii) The theory argued that poor countries they are not poor because they lagged behind
the scientific transformation but they are poor because were coercively integrated into
the capitalist economic system.
iii) Dependency theorist rely upon a belief that there exists a clear National Economic
Interest which articulated by rich countries. The rich interact with the poor to gain
the national interest as advocated by realism theory of international relations.

iv) The power elites in dependant sates maintain dependant relationship because of their
own self interest of dominant states.
v) Underdevelopment is completely different phenomena from non-development. At

some time, the current developed states were undeveloped. The major problem poor
countries fail to exploit their economical potential.
vi) Dependency relationship maintained through a complex network of political, cultural

and economic means and sometimes military measures. Example the overthrow of
Saddam Regime by USA and United Kingdom
COMMON FEATURES SHARED BY ALL DEPENDANCE THEORIES
i) Dependency theory characterized by the international system which comprise of

two sets of states. Example dominant/dependency, center/periphery,
metropolitan/satellites
ii) Both definitions have in common the assumption those external forces of singular
importance to the economic activities within the dependent states.
 External forces include Multi National Corporations (MNSs), international

market, foreign assistance manifest the interest of rich countries.
iii) All indicate that the relation between dominant and dependent states statics are
dynamics. The relationship is always is an going process such pre-colonial period,
colonial period, imperialism and globalization.
CRITICISM OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
 The theory ignore internal factors for underdevelopment such as corruption, political
instability and others
 To improve domestic market by substuting imported manufactured goods with domestic

one.

 The countries on the periphery of development are not destined to stagnation. So
dependency theory is an incomplete & inaccurate description of the social-economic
condition of LDCs.
 There are many dependent countries on the periphery which adopted modernization
change their economic structure and achieve rapid economic development. Example,
India, North Korea, Taiwan
 This theory has no relevance to many nations which are neither in the periphery nor in the
centre such as China, South Africa. They are called Semi-periphery Countries
 The nationalization of key sectors of the economy and do not give to foreigners.
 Full utilization of natural resources for the benefit of poor countries.
Note: With economic growth of India and other five (5) Tigers of Asia dependency theory
has lost its validity.
REFERENCES:
1. Amin, S (1976) Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral

Capitalism, New York, Monthly Review Press.
2. Stiglitz, J (2002) Globalization and Its Discontents, W.W Norton & Company Ltd

LECTURE TWO
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common

Future emphasis on the need for a sustainable development which not only address the
current environmental challenges but endures as secure society well in the future. According
to WCED the environment, economic and social issues are interrelated.
 The change drivers, such as population growth, economic activities and consumption
pattern have place increasing pressure on the environment. Environment concern is a
global phenomenon that is the corner stone of the development process. There is
greater link between environment management and development processes.
According to Brookfield (1990) argued that it is very difficult to achieve sustainable
development without attaining environment management.
Environment
Environment is not a new concept in a modern development and its significance to

development is not inevitable. By definition is all surrounding and everything that affect an
organism during its life time.
 In other words Environment is a sum total of water, air and land and land
interrelationship among themselves and other living organism and property
 Generally, environment includes the physical factors of the surrounding of human

beings including lands, water atmosphere, climate both natural and the build
environment.

Sustainable development
By sustainable development simply the development that meets the goals of the present
without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs (World
Commission, 1987:43)
IUCN (1980:1) defined it as management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield
the greatest sustainable benefit to the present generations while maintaining its potential the
needs and aspirations of future generations.
RELATIONS BETWEEN ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
The concept of development and environment are intertwined concepts, simply mean they
depend each other. Environment can affect development positively or negatively, at the same
time, development may affect the environment positive and negatively.
Before the Brundtland Commission development process was highly associated with
industrialization and not environment management. Environment was not regarded as essential
tool for development. Environment protection and management was considered as obstacle to
development.
 When modern theories of economic growth first began to develop in the 1950s and
1960s, natural resource and environment essentially were absent.
 In order to achieve agriculture development and increase peoples income, the

country have to ensure good climatic condition, protection on environment ensure
good climate.
 Human being need fresh air for their survival and reduce the rate of disease
transmission. Both indoor and outdoor pollution is still causing pre-mature death to
women and children.
 Income generation, majority of the poor people depend on natural resource for
generating income, this include fishing (Water bodies), timbering e.t.c

 Good environment ensure clean water to human and industrial consumptions.
Industrial expansion is also necessity to the development process.
NOTE: The development activities have been causing great harm to the environment and
hindering to attainment of sustainable development.
THE IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGLADATION
 Environment degradation is therefore, undermining development and threaten future

development progress.
 Environmental degradation also threaten all aspects of human well-being. It relates to

human health problems such as cancer, vector-born diseases and respiratory diseases. It
is estimated that about 20 per cent of the total burden of diseases in developing countries
associated with the environmental problems.
 Environmental problems can increase human vulnerability because may results into
human migration and security such as the case of storms and droughts.
 Environmental problem decrease agriculture productivity, resulting to lower income and

reduce food insecurity
POSITIVE IMPACTS/ROLES OF ENVIRONMENT TO DEVELOPMENT
 Environment brought food and shelters to human being. According to UN

Millennium Development Goal No. 7 on Environmental Sustainability. Natural
resources are the basis of economy in the 3 rd world countries. It contributed to 26 per
cent of the wealth of the low income countries
 Environment increase peoples income and development i.e timbering and other
economic activities. In other word empowering poor people and marginalize
communities.
 Good climate conditions such as fresh air, adequate rainfalls e.t.c
 Environment maintaining soil fertility and increase agriculture production

 Environment produce medicine (pharmaceuticals) for human life
 Natural resources is essential for development
 Water bodies (such as rivers, lakes, wetlands) are essential for human consumptions.
 Biodiversity contribute to ecological stability as well as tourism
MAJOR CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENT PLOBLEM
In most case the activities of the human being to large extent affect negatively on environment
sustainability. The following are the impacts of human development to environment.
There are major two causes of environment:
i) Human Factors
ii) Non-Human Factors (Natural Factors)
For the purpose of our studies we will focus on human factors for environment problems.
i) HUMAN FACTORS
 Illiteracy: the ignorance and illiteracy among the people is greater contributor to the
environment problems
 Poverty: In most cases poor are the major contributors of environment degradation. i.e.
cutting tree for charcoal and energy, timbering and building. Poor nation often engage in
land resource stripping just for their survival
 Population Growth: Increasing in population go hand with hand with the environment
degradation. The place with high population like Mbagala will likely to face environment
problem compare to Masaki
 Industrial Development: In most cases, industry development affects negative impacts

on environment. Emission of unwanted gases into atmosphere affects the air and climate.
 Agriculture Activities: Poor agriculture activities resulted to land degradation and

deforestation.

 Infrastructure Development: such as road constructions and buildings affect the
environment
 Mining Activities: The areas with mining activities are highly affected by environment.
 Poor Environmental Policies: The lack of political will and poor policy in environment
protection is major cause of environment degradation.
ii) NATURAL FACTOR
 Earthquake
 Floods and drought i.e. Katrina and Tsunami
 Volcanic Eruptions
ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS/ISSUES
Environmental problems became a global concern when we are talking of development. In order
to achieve development, the international communitys requires addressing the problem of
environmental degradation. As we all know that there is greater link between environment and
development: the followings are environmental issues that require special attention:
i) Climate Change and Global Warming
ii) Land Degradation
iii) Air Pollution
iv) Deforestation
v) Habitat Destruction
vi) Water Pollution

LAND DEGRADATION
WHAT IS LAND DEGRADATION?
Land degradation defined differently by different scholars of development.
 LD refer to the natural and human induces reduction in the capacity of the land to provide
ecosystem functions and service that support society and development (FAO,2010)
 According to Beinroth (1994) define LD as result from mismatch between land quality
and land use.
 According to UNDP LD is of the leading Environment problem in developing countries.
 Approximately, 1.5 billion people, a quarter of the world population, depending directly
on degraded land.
THE CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION
1. Natural Causes
- Earth Quake
- Salinization
- Wind erosion (commonly in arid & semi-arid climate in the period of draught and remove
most fertile soil)
- Floods ( as result of intensify rainfall)
- Volcanic eruptions
- Fertility depletion
- Leaching
2. Human causes:
- Poor Agriculture (monoculture, the use excessive fertilizer pollute the soil)

- Deforestation (i.e. cutting trees erode soil)
- Increase Population (result to land shortage and over cultivating). There are strong
relations between population density and LD.
- Overgrazing (i.e. masai land leave the soil exposed to erosion)
- Urban development without well design. i.e. industries, roads, dams etc.
- Mining Activities
MAJOR IMPACTS OF LAND DEGRADATION
 Loss of productivity (i.e agriculture, food insecurity, Brunt land Report warned that 5.4
Km2 of fertile land be affected by LD )
 Loss of biodiversity (animals and plants)
 Desertification (due to soil erosion)
 Human Health's ( Dust in atmosphere)
 Poverty due to the loss of income
 Climate Change (release of CO2 from the pool of soil organic carbon, drought contribute
to Co2)
 Air pollution (LD result to Persistent Organic Pollutant POP) Loss of soil organic
carbon, nutrients
 Desertification ( Almost half of Africas land is vulnerable to desertification)

SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT (SLM)
SLM can be used to describe the utilization of terrestrial resources (land) for the production of
goods to satisfy changing needs, without detriment to the long term productive potential of those
resources and their environment functions.
As we agree unsustainable land use is a major driving of land degradation.
 SLM is crucial to minimizing land degradation, rehabilitating degraded areas and

ensuring the optimal use of land resources for the benefits of present and future
generation.
 SLM apply Options Analysis for land management where different possible solutions
are explored to address the causes and impacts of LD.
 It includes all measures taken to maintain the productive functions of the land
MAJOR FOUR (4) PRINCIPLES OF SLM
1. Land user driven & participatory approach
2. Integrated use of natural resources at ecosystem & farming system level.
3. Multilevel & multi stakeholders involvement
4. Targeted policy & Institution support (i.e. income generation to local level)
SLM is dealing with the followings:
 Rehabilitation of degraded land (restoration of affected land to become useful)
 Link the relationship between land and development
 Establish good policy and acts to address land problems (i.e. Environment Act)
 Supporting training and education to people by improving knowledge on land

management skills
 Enhance Institutional development and policies issues (i.e poverty reduction efforts)

 Improve sustainable agriculture, pastoral management and sustainable forest
 Reforestation of degraded land (i.e. planting trees)
 Ensuring local people participation in Land management includes their indigenous

knowledge's.
AIR POLUTION
WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION?
National Institute of Environmental Health Science (2010) defined air pollution as a mixture of
natural and man- made substances (solid particles and gases) in the atmosphere.
The gaseous pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NO2), carbon dioxide
(CO2), ozone (O3) and others.
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION
1. Indoor pollution: This type of air pollution is originated from domestic use at family
level. It include cooking and heating with solid fuels on open fire or tradition stoves
which result to high level of indoor pollution
 It refers to toxic contaminants that we encounter in our daily lives in our homes,
school and workplaces.
 This is a serious problem in underdeveloped countries especially in rural areas.
2. Outdoor pollution: can be defined as the presence of solid, liquid, or gases in outdoor
air in the amounts that are injurious or detrimental to human health and the environment.
 Outdoor pollution is largely caused by human activities such as industrialization,

transportation and others.

MAJOR CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
The source of air pollution can be categorized in two major groups namely as human factors
and natural factors. For the purpose of our subject as social scientist, we will focuses on the
human factors.
Note: Pollution from natural occurrence are not very often.
1. HUMAN FACTORS:
 Industrial Activities: Manufacturing activities i.e manufacturing industries and

power plants emit high level of carbon monoxide and chemical into the air.
Example, Cement industries.
 Poor Waste Disposal: These in most cases originate from the household. Ie. The
dumping of waste product and dusts, poor burning of waste.
 Population Growth: there is greater link between population growth and air
pollution. The higher the number of the population the more environment
degradation. The burning of fossil increases, mote vehicle increase
 Agriculture Activities: this include farming chemicals i.e crop dusting, fertilizer
dusts and others
 Transport Sector: It is originates from car and heavy duty track, train, shipping
vessel and air planes all burn lots of fossil fuel to work. Example, increase of
vehicular fleets 40% is either second hand or reconditioned vehicles
 Mining Activities: include the eruption of dust e.t.c
 Domestic use of Coal, stoves and cookers produce carbon monoxide

2. NATURAL CAUSES
 Volcanic Eruption
 Evaporation of Organic Compound
 Natural Radio Activity
 Wind Erosion
IMPACTS OF AIR POLUTION TO HUMAN & DEVELOPMENT
 Health Problem: Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are associated by with abroad
range of acute and chronic impacts on health such as respiratory diseases and cancer.
(Most of them result to premature death.
 The health impacts of air pollution are closely linked with poverty and gender issues.
Example, in poor families bears a disproportionate burden of the impacts due poor
cooking.
 It affect Agriculture: regional scale impacts on crop yields caused economic losses for
23 arable crop in Europe
 Air pollution cause damage to plants and animals, affecting biodiversity and crops yield.
 Climate Change: by producing greenhouse gas

CLIMATE CHANGE
WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?
Climate Change can be defined as a long term shift in weather conditions identified by
change in temperature, precipitation, wind and other indictor (IPCC). Climate change is
currently a global phenomenon and requires global efforts to reduce it as its impact cut across
different countries regardless of its borders.
 The good indicator of the climate change and global warming is the increase in
temperature and melting of ice like Mount Kilimanjaro.
MAJOR CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Most climate scientists agree that the main causes of the current global warming trend is the
human expansion of the Greenhouse Effect which is directly associated with the emission of
greenhouse gases in atmosphere.
Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Long-lived gases, remaining semi-
permanently in the atmosphere, which do not respond physically or chemically to changes in
temperature are described as "forcing" climate change whereas gases, such as water, which
respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are seen as "feedbacks."
Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include:
 Water vapor. The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback
to the climate. Water vapor increases as the Earth's atmosphere warms, but so does the
possibility of clouds and precipitation, making these some of the most important
feedback mechanisms to the greenhouse effect.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2). A minor but very important component of the atmosphere,
carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano
eruptions and through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and
burning fossil fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO 2 concentration by a third

since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the most important long-lived "forcing" of
climate change.
 Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human
activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially
rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with
domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a far more active
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant in the
atmosphere.
 Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices,

especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric
acid production, and biomass burning.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic compounds of entirely of industrial origin used

in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and release to the
atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction of the
ozone layer. They are also greenhouse gases.
FACTOR THAT INFLUENCE THE CLIMATE CHANGE
The factors that influence the climate change are associated with their contribution to the
emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These factors can be categorized into two as
follows:
1. Human Factors: which is largely caused by burning fossil fuel and conversion of land
for agriculture?
 Industrial Activities: The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon
have raised atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to 379 parts per
million in the last 150 years.
 Agricultural Activities: Poor agriculture farming and burning fossil result to greenhouse
gases

 Transport Sector: The transport facilities such as plane, buses and old cars contributes
to the emission of greenhouses gases
 Mining Activities
2. Natural Factors: These are natural factors that are external to the climate system, it
includes:
 Volcanic Eruption
 Solar Output
 Earth Obit and the Sun
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
1. Spread of Diseases: To large extent climate change in most case contributed to

respiratory infections, tropical diseases such as malaria. This has great impact to
underdeveloped countries.
2. Negatively affect agriculture production: Climate change results to the change the
pattern of rainfall. Most developing countries that largely depend of seasonal rainfall for
farming are largely affected by climate change.
3. Natural Disaster: Such as Katrina in United States, Tsunam in Sri Lanka e.t.e
4. Increase World Temperature: On average, Earth will become warmer. Some regions
may welcome warmer temperatures, but others may not. Warmer conditions will
probably lead to more evaporation and precipitation overall, but individual regions will
vary, some becoming wetter and others dryer.
5. Warm the Oceans and Melt Glacier: A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the
oceans and partially melt glaciers and other ice, increasing sea level. Ocean water also
will expand if it warms, contributing further to sea level rise.

LECTURE THREE
GLOBALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
The concept of globalization is not a new phenomenon to the people around the world. It is
common to hear a person claim the children are nowadays misbehave simply because of the
increasingly globalization. There is no single/universal definition of what is globalization.

Globalization is currently a popular and controversial issue though often remaining a loose and
poor define concept.
In a modern development is very difficult to separate between globalization and development.

The globalization process may faster or hindering development processes. Therefore, the study
of globalization and its impacts to development is essential.
 Globalization is a powerful real aspect of the new world system and it represent one of
the most influential force in the determining the future course of the planet.
 It increases the worldwide trade and exchanges in an increasingly open, integrated and
borderless international economy. The process increase openness in the international
economy, integrate the world market and move toward borderless world by increasing
global flows.
According to Carney (2002) redefine globalization as redefines the relationship between

territoriality and authority, shifting authority from the level of state to supranational (such as
IMF & World Bank) and sub national units.
Globalization is the process that encompasses the causes, course, and consequences of
transnational and trans-cultural integration of human and non human activities (Jones, 2010)

Larsson (2001) define globalization as the process of world shrinkage of distances getting
shorter, things moving closer. The globalization increases trade liberalization which reduces
trade protection and movement of people easer.
 According to Njunwa (2010) defined as a process that, based on international strategies

aims at expand business operation on worldwide (global) level.
 According to Friedman (1999) globalization defined as an increasing and deepening

interaction between individual & organization across the global.
Other scholars of development scholars define the concept of globalization in a negative ways.
They focus on the negative impact of globalization to the development of the third world
countries.
 According to Khor (1995) stated that Globalization is what we in the third world have
for several centuries with the name of colonialism. As Kwame Nkrumah refers
imperialism as the highest stage of colonialism, therefore, there is no differences between
imperialism and the current globalization.
 According to Steingard (1995) define globalization as an ideological construct devices to

satisfy capitalisms need for new market and labour source and propelled by uncritical
Sycophancy of the international academic business community.
THE FOCUSES OF GLOBALIZATION
The globalization focuses on the followings areas/issues:
 Growth of capitalist market economic worldwide and reduce barriers to trade and
investments. i.e. increase Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and capital flow
 Growing interconnection between firm/companies, government and individual

worldwide. i.e. use of internet buying used car in Japan
 Advancement in information & communication technology and transport
 Globalization is irreversible process, once it started you can stop it

 Qualitative change in organizations and societies as consequences of new global
interactions.
 Political development, including democratization and good governance
 Social development including western civilization worldwide, the concept of Clash of

Civilization”? By H. Torrington.
 Note: Globalization increase economic openness, growing economic interdependence and

deepening economic integration between countries of the world.
THEORIES/VIEWS OF GLOBALIZATION
Various theories/perspectives try to explain on the concept of globalization and its relation to
social, economical development. As we discussed earlier, the interpretation of the concept of
globalization is complex, and has different perception/views. Some perceive it positively while others
perceive its negatively.
The following are major perspectives:
1. HYPERGLOBALISTIC PERPECTIVE
Some time is commonly known as Liberal perspective, famous scholars of this approach is
Olimae J and Thompson. Hyper globalist argued that what distinguishes the present era from
the past, is the existence of single global economy transcending and integrations the worlds
economic region.
 It is approach which sees globalization as new epoch of human history
 This new approach is characterized by the declining relevance & authority of National
State control.
 Demise the role of government/state. It aimed at de-nationalization of strategic economic

activites.

 According to them, globalization encourage for Non-state actors in development process.
Such as MNCs, TNCs such as Coca Cola, Tigo, Barrick Ltd.
 Transnational governance organization become increasingly important and national

government loose influence. i.e. people can buy car via internet without government
involvement.
 This perspective hold, the autonomy and sovereignty of nation-states have been eclipsed
by contemporary process of economic globalization.
Note: SAPs asked the government to exclude from service provision, trade and others
economic issues
2. SCEPTICAL PERSPECTIVE
It is more much cautious about the revolutionary character of the globalization (Thompson,
1999)
 View current international processes as more fragmented and regionalize than

globalization. Dismissing the ideas of the unified global economy, the skeptical position
concludes that the world is breaking up in several major economical and political blocs.
 Under these political blocs different forms of capitalism continue to flourish.
 According to them the golden age of globalization occurred at the end of 19 th century
but now is regionalize
 This perspective is commonly known as Realist approach & always against globalization.
 It criticize that, the growth of MNCs/TNCs does not mean that National State are no
longer relevant for governing the flow of economic benefits
 It criticize hyper globalist as Political Naïve since it underestimate power of National

government in regulate international economic system.

 Argue that, Multinational Corporation (MNCs) is still tied primary to their home states or
regions and financed by state. i.e in Arab nations most of MNCs has direct link with USA
government.
 According to this view, states exploit the developing countries with an umbrella of
globalization and gain the national and economic interests.
3. TRANFORMATIONAL APPROACH
This approach is fundamentally differing with other two perception based on the followings:
i. There is no single cause (that is the market or economic logic) behind globalization
ii. The outcome of processes of globalization is not determined
 It argues that world in which development in one region can come to shape the life
chances of communities in distant parts of the globe.
 Globalization has contributed to remarkable politicization of social life whilst also

creating new modalities and institutional arenas through which its imperative are
contested.
Note: Hyper globalist believe that power of national state is wining, Skeptic argued that the
power of national government is growing, Transformational, however, view the nature of
national state as changing (being reconstructed & restructured.
 The transformation list, range of factors influencing processes of globalization is much

greater than the outcome are much less certain.
 Globalization is a central driving force behind the rapid social, political and economical
change that reshaping modern societies and world order.

IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION
Globalization has adverse effect to both developed and developing countries, the process either
negatively or positively effects social, economical and political situation. In discussing the
impacts we will focus on its impact to North and South.
ITS IMPACTS TO GLOBALIZATION TO THE NORTH
 Access to New Market: A Globalization process to large extent positively helps the
developed countries to get their market in developing countries. Example, China sells a
lot of product in Africa. Globalization leads to free trade between countries
 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Through FDI developed countries invest their capital
in other countries such as Tanzania. Example, Barrick Mining Company Ltd, Tigo
 Economic Growth: Through free trade and foreign direct investment result to income
and economic growth.
 Transfer of Technology: through globalization, developed countries sell their

technology to developed countries. Such as cars, computers, mobile phone
 Increase employment rate: Through FDI, transnational organizational and INGOs,

citizens in developed countries got employment in developing countries.
 Address global problems such as Nuclear weapons, climate change etc.

 Cheap Labour from developing countries i.e. local experts paid very low compare to
outsiders. Tigo Company Limited employ an individual and give cars
ITS IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO THE SOUTH
The globalization process impacts negatively and positively in development process.

According to former UN Secretary Kofi Annans Millennium report argued that
Globalization is an extra ordinary powerful force offering both unique challenges and
opportunities for developing countries.
1. POSITIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION
 Increase economic development: The East Asia Tiger (Taiwan, China, North Korea,
Philippines and India) gained economic development from globalization processes.
 Technological transfer and technological innovations: The developing countries

adopting positive technology from west and used it for economical development. i.e.
agriculture machines, industrial machines, internet
 Financial Aids and Loans: Through Globalization process, international financial

institutions such as IMF, World Bank provide financial assistances via grants or loans for
development projects.
 Democratization process: Globalization opened the door for democratization, free and
fair elections, etc.

 Free Movement of People: Globalization allows for movement of labour. Many people
in developing countries are now working in developed countries in USA, UK and
international experts are now working in development countries.
 Maintenance of Political Stability: via globalization helps in peace making processed in

developing countries especial through mediation. International Court of Justice protect
rule of law, and democratization.
2. NEGATIVE IMPACTS
 Deindustrialization Process: The most profound consequences of SAPs & liberalization

in Africa is weakening of manufacturing sector. (Depend on imports)
 Marginalization of African Economy: prices determine by West by North. Inequality in

global economic structure affect the South, transfer several 100 of dollars of economic
resource to the North annually in terms of trade loose, debt serving and profit outflow.
 Increase the gap between the poor and rich countries: World Bank (2006) the income
between rich and poor countries increased. Poor people/countries falling to compete with
North. I.e. LDCs only share 0.4% of global export & 0.6% of importation.
 Slow growth, poverty & development: due to globalization Word Bank argued that
process increase poverty in Africa which estimate that 384 million of people from Africa
live in absolute poverty (more than half of population)
 .Political instability: example in middle east, DRC Congo fighting over resources.
 Increase environment problems: Due FDI and invest in developing countries result to
air pollution, land degradation etc

WHY AFRICA BECOME A LOOSER IN GLOBALIZATION PROCESSES?
 Inequalities in global economic structure: The economic structure allows for more FDI
to developing countries and exploits them and attains economic benefits. It is very
difficult for developing countries to penetrate in World market.
 Have no VETO power in decision making process: International financial Institutions

such as IMF and World Bank is highly dominate by Super power nations (The Big 5)
i.e. Africa had no representative at the 1994 (Geneva Uruguay Round of the WTO and
thats why the agreement didnt favour Africans.
 Marginalization of African Economy: Developing countries only become the producers

of raw materials for developed countries
 Poor technology and infrastructure: We still use outdate technology in agriculture,

production and depend from North.
 External Debts and dependent economy: The debts and grants given to African
continent come out with difficulties conditionalities such as devaluation of currencies,
privatization etc
 Political Instability: civil war and political unrest hindering developing countries to grab
the opportunities from globalization.

LECTURE FOUR
POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENNT
INTRODUCTION
Poverty and development are intertwined concepts and each compliments another. Poverty
reduction efforts prepare the ways to achieve development and development process aimed at
improving standard of living.
 Majority of the population in southern part of Africa are living in extreme poverty and
less than a dollar per day.
MEANING OF POVERTY
Poverty is a multidimensional problem which results from a combination of economic, political

and environmental factors, and which comprises several different aspects.
Poverty is multifaceted concept and complex. In defining poverty many scholars of development
came out with various interpretations. In a simple way, there is no universal acceptable definition
of the term poverty.
 According to United Nation (1998) poverty is defined as denial of choices and
opportunities, a violation of human dignity.

 According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 25) define poverty
as deprive the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being
of himself and his family.
Based on these two definitions of poverty, development and good standard of living is the right
of every one regardless of their status or continent. Every human being has right to education,
safe water, shelter, food etc.
 UNDP (2002) define poverty based on Human Poverty Index (HPI). The HPI include
measure of low life expectancy, illiteracy, lack of access to health services, safe water
and adequate nutrition.
 Poverty makes individual/country powerless and humiliated. I,e in decision making
process in UN, WB and even at family level
TYPES OF POVERTY
 Absolute Poverty: a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs

include food, shelter, it depends not only in income but also on access.
 Relative Poverty: this refer to income inequality, is defined contextually as economic

inequality in the location or society in which people live.
POVERTY SITUATION IN UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES
As the statistic on human development index (HDI) indicate clear that poverty in 3 rd world
phenomena. Worldwide, almost the half of world population over 3 billion people live in less
than 2.50 dollars a day.
 The GDP of the 41 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) is less than the wealth of
the worlds richest people combined.

 1 billion children live in poverty, 640 million live without adequate shelter, 400 have no
access to safe water, 270 million have no access to health services and 10.6 millions died
each year before reaching the age of 5.
 According to the WHO more than one in people worldwide 894 millions doesnt have
access to safe water.
VARIOUS INDICATORS OF POVERTY
In understanding poverty we have to know various indicators of poverty as follows:

 Income to people
 Illiteracy rate
 Investment level (foreign owned or not)
 Level of dependency (grants & aids)
 Poverty gap i.e between the rich and poor
 Health service provisions (High death rate)
 Life expectancy
 Economic development such as GDP
FACTORS BEHIND POVERTY IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
The cause of poverty in developing countries is complex and internally and externally pressured.
But to large extent internal factors are the major factor for poverty in 3rd world countries.
1. Internal Factors
 Lack of capital: most of developing countries are facing with the problem of capital,
therefore, result to low investments and finally low income to the majority.
 Corruption and Bribery: i.e Most of the leaders are focusing on their personal interests
than national interests
 Poor Technology: In most case the technologies we are using in agriculture and
manufacturing of goods are outdated. This situation encourage for low productivity.

 Lack of Political Will: most of the governments and politicians in developing countries
are not serious in addressing the problem of poverty and development.
 Population Growth: The numbers on population are increasing without considering the
resources available.
 Lack of democracy and good governance: poor accountability and transparent.
 Poor human capital i.e high illiterate rate among the population
 Political Instability: including unstable political environment and civil wars
2. Internal Factors
The external factors for underdevelopment in Africa based on the following factors:
 Pre- colonial and Colonial relationship
 External debts and negative conditionalities i.e SAPs
 Economic dependency from the North
 Political Instability i.e DRC, Sudan, planting for pipette leaders e.t.c
 Unequal economic balance between the North and South i.e Market control
 Foreign Direct Investment i.e Mining sectors
 Lack of involvement in decision process i.e VETO power in UN and other International
organization such as IMF, WB and WTO
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE TO REDUCE POVERTY IN LDCs?

 To encourage external capital flow with restriction on the national interest and priorities.
 To encourage industrial development, will increase economic growth and employment.
 To promote regional economic integrations such as EAC, SADC
 To create self-reliant economy and reduce dependency from North.
 To invest in human capital i.e education
 To maintain political stability and good governances
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Meaning of MDGs
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
The international communitys realized that poverty is global problems and requires purposeful
effort to tackle it. United Nations, in 2000 came out with Eight (8) MDGs as the way to free
people from extreme poverty.
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. Achieve Universal Primary Education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health i.e pregnant women
6. Combating HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environment sustainability
8. Develop a global partnerships for development

LECTURE FIVE
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
MEANING OF GENDER
Gender and sex are interrelated concepts, in most cases, people tend to confuse between gender
and sex. Fundamentally these two concepts are totally different. Sex refers to biological and
physiological characteristic that define men and women.
Gender refers to social constructed roles, behavior, activities and attribute that a given society
considers appropriate for men and women. In most case, gender use Masculine and
Feminine to refer women and men.
 It is an individuals self conception as being male or female. It is social
constructed that denotes culturally/socially determined differences between men
and women.
 FAO (1993) define gender as the relations between men and women both
perceptual and material and is socially constructed.
 Therefore, the key concept is Social Constructed
WHY GENDER CONCERNS?

1. Because of the existing gender inequality between men and women in various social,
economic sectors.
2. The desire to achieve 50/50 of human resources between male and female
3. Aimed at addressing the issue of gender violence and oppression to woman
4. To ensure equal opportunities to all regardless of the sex of individuals.
5. To achieve desired national social economical development
THE GENDER CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
i) Gender Equality
The concept of gender equality has been defined in various ways but the major concern is to
ensure the equality between men and women. Gender inequality has significant impacts in
development processes.
Example in Saud Arabia there is no equality between women and men, such as women are
not allowed to vote or participate in political process.
 Gender equality is the measurable equal representation of men and women in social
economic development
 Gender equality does not imply that women and men are the same but imply that
women and men have equal value and should be treated equally regardless they are
born male or female.
 United Nations (UN) define gender equality as essential human right to every one
Therefore, both man and women equal access to education, equal access to human capital, equal
voices, and equal access to social services as well as ownership of properties.
ii) Gender Equity

Most people confuse between gender equity and gender equality means the same. By
definition gender equity is the process of being fair to both women and men.
 Gender equity aim at ensuring fairness, strategies and measure available to
compensate for womens historical and social disadvantages that favour man and
prevent women.
 You should not that gender equity lead to gender equality
 Gender equity refers to fairness and designed to eliminate the qualities between men
and women, discrimination and provide equal opportunities.
iii) Gender Roles

By definition, gender roles are social definition of women and men in a given society. The
gender roles differ from one society/country to another based on their culture and division of
labour.
 Gender specific roles and responsibilities in most cases conditioned by household
structures, access to resources, specific impacts and global economy.
 In African Societies and Arabs, women are associated/responsible for cooking and
take care of the children at home WHILE men are responsible to search for money.
 In Kagera region, Men are responsible for searching kuni and water
iv) Gender Mainstreaming

The United Nations (UN) define gender mainstreaming as the process of assessing the
implications for women and men of any planned action including legislation, policies and
programs in all areas and at all levels.
The term Mainstreaming emerge the early 1980s when in the midst UN decade for
womens movement.
 The main objectives of gender mainstreaming is to attaining gender equality
 GM allows for contribution perspectives and priorities of both women and men in
development process design, implementation and outcome of policies and programs.

 GM aimed at fighting against women marginalization in decision making and policy
formulation.
v) Gender Balance
Gender balance refers to the degree to which men and women hold the full range of position
in the society or organization. The aim of gender balance is to ensure equal chance to both
sides.
 The long term objective of UN General Assembly is to achieve 50/50 percent gender
balance.
 Various countries in developing countries adopt affirmative actions to increase the

number of women in legislative and government intuitions. Example, Tanzania
appoint for special seats feo women to the legislature.
vi) Gender Stereotype: Gender stereotype are simplistic generalization about gender
attributes, differences and roles of individual and/or groups. It involves the tendency
of making gender assumptions.
 Stereotype can be positive or negative, example, all women are weak and depend
from men for their survival or you behave like this because you are a woman
 Under stereotype one believes that an individual will behave in a particular way
simply because of his/her sex.
vii) Gender Discrimination: this refers to the systematic unfavorable treatment of

individual on the basis of their gender, which denies their rights.
 In developing countries, women are treated unfairly and less value, women
are discriminate in property ownerships, in other societies gender
discrimination can be lead to son preference to education and other privilege

 In 1979, The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW) protects the rights of women.
MAJOR CAUSES OF GENDER OPPRESSION AND VIOLANCE
In developing countries the problem of unequal treatment between men and men to large affect
the development process. Therefore, in order to sustainable development, these countries have to
address the problem of gender inequalities.
Violence against women can be defined as the violence hat results in, or is likely to result in,
physical, sexual and psychological harm or suffering to women. It includes threats of such acts,
coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether in public or private life.
i. Religious factors: Both Christians and Muslims direct their followers to respect for
man than women, favour men in everything
ii. Traditions and Cultural Factors: The tradition and Culture of various societies
regard man as superior than man. i.e. regard them as instrument of refreshing
iii. Ignorance and Illiterate: Is another factor that influences the oppression against
women. Majority of the population are not aware of the global change in equal right
for man and women.

iv. Inferiority Complex/Superiority Complex: To large extent women feel inferior to
men.
v. Economic Factors: In economic area, largely dominated by men therefore affect the
power of women in economy.
vi. Lack of Political Will: Most of our government leaders and ordinary people they are
not serious on the issue of gender violence and discrimination.
LECTURE SIX
HIV/AIDS AND DEVELOPMENT
MEANING OF HIV/AIDS
Majority of the people in most cases confuse between HIV and AIDS and define them as the
same concept. These two concepts are fundamentally different and mean the different thing.
 HIV is stand for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and the disease HIV weaken your
immune system by destroying important cell that fight disease and infection
 At this stage, the HIV patient is not already started to be serious sick
AIDS simply mean Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, and at this stage a person is starting
to realize the symptoms of infection.
 AIDS is not something you inherit from your parents, but you are acquired AIDS after
birth.

HOW HIV/AIDS TRANSMITTED?
1. Sexual Contact: This includes anal, oral oe virginal sex with an infected partner. If your
partner has HIV, those body fluid can deliver the virus into your blood stream through
microscope breaks and lips.
 It is advised to use condom when you have sex intercourse with any partner.
2. Injection Drug Use: When you are injured or use injections or sharp equipments that
already used by infected person. Example Mateja used to share the injection.
3. Blood transfusion: with the infected blood or unsafe blood transmission during the
treatment.
4. During Pregnancy, child birth and/or breath feeding.
HIV/AIDS STATUS AND DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA

In Tanzania, the first cases of HIV/AIDS were reported in 1983 IN Kagera Region. HIV/AIDS
infection is unevenly distributed across geographical areas, gender, age, sex and groups and
social economical classes in the country.
 The statistics shows that youth and women have been the most affected group because of
the economical, social culture, biological and anatomical reasons.
 In Tanzania, transmission of HIV/AIDS occurs mainly through heterosexual contact than

others.
The current situation
By the end of 1999 it is estimated that 33.6 million adults and children were living with
HIV/AIDS, and 16.3 million had already died. In the same year there were 5.6 million new
infections of which 4 million were in sub-Saharan Africa. Cumulatively, it is estimated that 13.2

million children have been orphaned globally by HIV/AIDS and about 9.4 million are in Africa
alone.
 In the African continent the first AIDS cases were also reported in early 1980s. By 1987
the epidemic had become concentrated in most of countries in Sub Saharan Africa. Of the
estimated 33.6 million cases of HIV infection in the world about 23 million cases are in
Sub Saharan Africa, Tanzania being one of the most affected countries. In Tanzania the
first three AIDS cases were reported in 1983 in Kagera region.
By 1986 all the regions in Tanzania Mainland had reported AIDS cases. By the end of 1999
there were some 600,000 cases of HIV/AIDS and a similar number of orphans. It is also
estimated that over 2 million people are infected with HIVAIDS; 70.5 percent of whom are in
the age group 25 49 years, and 15 percent 15 24 years. Over 72,000 new born babies were
HIV infected. Women get infected at much earlier age. Among the new infections in women
69% were in the 15 24 age group (TACAIDS, 2000)
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE TRANSMISSION OF HIV.AIDS IN TANZANIA
There are number of factor that influences the spread of HIV/AIDS in our country. Below are
some of the factors:
1. Poverty: This is one of the major factors that contributed to the spread of HIV/AIDS to
the majority of Tanzanians. Lack of employments and venue to generate income
influence girls/women to engage themselves in prostitute behavior for their survival.
2. Traditional Beliefs and Culture: is another factor for spread of HIV/AID in Tanzania.
Some culture and beliefs are still believe in female circumcision, early marriage, and
polygamist and inherit wife from deceased.
3. Ignorance and Illiteracy: majority of the population is illiterate and ignorant of

HIV/AIDS, they are not aware of the way HIV is transmitted. They are ignorance of the
use condoms and how to take precaution against HIV/AIDS.

4. Group Behavior: HIV/AIDS to large extent affect the youth and female due to
unprotected sex behavior and the use of drugs. Most of them they dont want to change
their behavior.
5. Lack of Political Will: to address the problem of HIV/AIDS, the government should
invest much in education and awareness on the disease.
IMPACTS OF HIV/AIDS TO SOCIAL, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The HIV/AIDS has had serious impact on the countrys social, economical development as
follows:
1. Depopulation: The disease to large extent kill majority of the population especially
youth.
2. Increase Poverty: At family level, result to the loss of the parents who are the source of
income to the family. The disease resulted to household poverty.
3. It affects industrial and agriculture production due to the death labour forces.
4. Increase orphans and street children
5. Reduce number of skill/educated manpower by killing lot professionals. This result cause
high cost of recruitment and training the new personnel.
6. Reduce Life Expectancy: The World Bank (WB) estimates that because of the AIDS
epidemic life, life expectancy by 2010 will revert ot 47 years instead of the projected 56
year in the absence of HIV/AIDS
Note: Please read Tanzania National Policy on HIV/AIDS

LECTURE SEVEN
POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
GLOBAL POPULATION SIZE & TRENDS
Population growth in the past was at a slower rate compared to now.This was caused byfactors
such as 1. Plagues 2. Poor health conditions and 3. Wars . Thus reduced populations in several
parts of the world.From the 18th century, however the populationbegan to increase very
fast.Between 1750 and 1900 world population growth rate was0.5 percent per annum.In the 20th
century the growth rate increased from 0.5 to 1% until1950, and no it is about 2% per annum.It
took about more than 1, 500 years for thepopulation to doubled up to the years 1750.Then it
doubled to reach 1.7 billion by the1900 e.i within only 150 years.Now in almost a period of less
than 50 years i.e from 1950to date the world population has nearly doubled again from about 2.5
to almost 6.0billion. In terms of distribution, the world population is uneven.More than 815 is
locatedin the developing countries. The countries with highest population in the world are
Chinafollowed by India.

Characteristic of population: Developing vs. Developed countries
In developing countries there is high population growth due to the following characteristics
Annual population growth rate is high,High fertility level,Low life expectancy,Low level of
urbanization but with rapid urban population growth,Urban immigration and High dependency
ratio Mixture of social, economic and cultural factors has caused high fertility. These are:
 Value of children as source of labour. Old age security and mortality risk
 Universal and early marriage
 Decline in the practice of prolonged breast feeding
 Decline in the practice of sexual abstinence after childbirth
 Low status of women
 Limited use of modern family planning methods
 Relatively lack of a clear population policy
 Sex preferences
Population trend in Africa
The population in Africa was estimated to be 141 million in 1920, which represented about 8%
of the world population. In 1980 Africa had about 869 million people which were about 11% of
the world population. Currently Africa has 840 million people. About 13.5 of the world
population has been increasing significance over years. Moreover, the rapid increase of the
population is reflected in the changing population density in the region. The population density
from about 5 people per square kilometer in 2002.
This information is summarized as follows:
 Within Africa, there exists notable variations in population size and growth in Africa between
regions

 By 2002, Eastern Africa had the largest population in the continent, followed by Western
Africa. Southern Africa had the smallest proportion than all other regions.
 The population estimates for 2025 indicates that Western Africa will take the lead in terms of
population size.
Demographic situation in Tanzania
Several attempts to count the population of Tanzania have been made. Earlier counts in 1913,
1921, 1928 and 1931 were based on the tax payers records and native administrations reports
The data obtained from these counts were considered inaccurate in detail and statistically
incorrect due to their poor coverage and reporting system (Tanganyika, 1932) The more
scientific censuses were obtained in 1948, 1957, 1967, 1978, 1988 and 2002.
The table below demonstrates the population developments in Tanzania between 1948 and 2002.
 The population almost doubled between 1967 and 1988, a period of 21 years suggesting a
growth rate of above 3.0.
Population density
 There is clear evidence to suggest existence of unequal distribution of population by

regions.
 Eleven regions in the mainland had a population of more than a million in 1988. These
include mwanza, mbeya, shinyanga, Dar, arusha., kagera, iringa morogoro, tabora
Kilimanjaro and Dodoma. But in 2002 the number has gone to 19 regions.
 The population density by region in the mainland shows that Dar region has the highest
population density 1.793 per square km. and lindi region has the lowest density 12 per
square km.
 The other regions with higher density in the mainland are mwanza 150 and Kilimanjaro 104.
 In Zanzibar almost all regions have higher density than most of the mainlands regions

 These density differentials are largely caused by annual population increase which is a result
of fertility and mortality changes and other factors such as migration.
 Similarly, the variability of arable land and its quality is of considerable importance in
explaining the internal disparities in population densities.
 Given the fact that the majority of the population live in the rural area and depend on
peasant agriculture, the quality of land and its accessibility encourage the population to
select the best parts in the first place ( Madulu, 1996)
 Although the magnitude of the population increase differs from one region to another. Its
consequences on the other hand and the overall environment may be broadly similar.
 Long distance to the farm, declining productivity, increasing resources depletion, land use
conflicts and high risk of land degradation are common phenomena in almost all regions
which record high population densities and growth.
 Proportion of land less people in the population has also been increasing
It should be noted that while the population continue to increase, the land and other resources
remain fixed or even declines due to
MAIN SOURCES OF POULATION DATA IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
(a) CENSUS
Definition; is defined as the total process of collecting, compiling, and publishing demographic,
economic and social data pertaining at specific time or times to all persons in a country or
delineated territory. (UN, 1965). It is common method in most LDCs and the world in general. It
is carried out in intervals of five or ten years. It is good method of recording the size, distribution
and other characteristics of the population at fixed intervals
Limitations
 Very expensive; it needs careful advances planning, and adequate resources

 It has too long intervals to satisfy data requirements of the developing countries whose
populations are changing very fast.
 Only limited number of questions can be asked.
 It cant be too long due to consideration of the public to answers the questionnaire.
 Time needed for processing is too long to satisfy urgent requirements for information.
MAIN FEATURES OF A POPULATION CENSUS
1. Sponsorship
A census is usually sponsored by the national government. It is the responsibility of the

government to provide and mobilize resources from other sources necessary for conducting a
census. A census requires adequate legislative support or legal authority.
2. Universality within a defined territory: Enumeration must cover every person within a
defined territory or geographic unit e.g state, country, nation. When this condition is not
fulfilled for whatever reason e.g. war or isolated tribes it is essential to indicate the
proportion of population that is not covered.
3. Simultaneity: To have any comparative logic, a census should refer to a well-defined
period of time and to be taking simultaneously throughout the country. For example, in
Tanzania the 1967, 1978, and 1988 census were conducted on the 26 th/27th August of the
respective years. Although the enumeration was not completed on the same day, the
official reference period remained to be the mid-night of the census day.
4. Individual enumeration: Every individual is enumerated separately. It is only on rare

occasions that group enumeration can be applied over communities.
5. Defined periodicity: A census should be taken at constant intervals, say ten years, so that
the information collected can be comparable. This has major advantage in appraising the
past, present and future population trends.

6. Demarcated enumeration areas
A census requires a detailed geographic work to demarcate the country into smaller
enumeration areas or clusters that can be conveniently covered by one enumerator within
the census period.
(a) Sample Survey
 Definition; defined as data collection from selected or fraction of a population.
 These are second most important sources of demographic data ( after census) in most
LDCs.
Advantage
 Simple, flexible, easy to administer and relatively cheap in terms of costs compared
to census.
Disadvantage
 Have high rates of error especially during sampling.

 The results of findings are used to generalize the phenomena in a locality
(b) Vital registration
 It is a continuous process of registering of birth, deaths, marriage, divorces,

adoption, legitimating and separation.
 In most LDCs vital registration system is uncommon.
 Thus not a very reliable sources of data.
(c) Population registration

This is up to date records of people resident in a country with details of sex, date of
birth, marital status. Not well developed and used in LDCs.
(d) Miscellaneous sources
Most of these are obtained from sources like, parish registers, baptismal records and
government publications and administrative data.
IMPACTS OF POPULATION GROWTH ON RESOURCES
Meaning of resource
Resource can be defined as materials useful or potential for human use. Currently human race is
dependent on them for survival. Resources can be divided into two major groups:
 Renewable resources: these are resources which replenish themselves within a short time
such as water, timber, soil and solar power. Such resources can disappear through over
exploitation and mismanagement
 Non-renewable resources are resources that take time to replenish such as fossil fuels
(coal, and oil) and minerals.
Currently it is argued that population growth in developing countries is bringing

ecological stress leading to resources depletion. The stress is explained in terms of
deforestation, desertification, fuel wood crisis, water supplies and food production.
However these features are an outcome of different factors such as deforestation,
desertification, and impact on water supply and fuel crisis as discussed in environmental
degradation topic. Moreover population growth has impact on food production.
Other factors affecting resources in LDCs.
 There are several other factors contributing to resources depletion in LDCs apart from
demographic ones. Namely:
 equality in access to resources especially land

 Production of large-scale commercial agriculture
 Commercialization of resources
 Breakdown of traditional resources management system.
In conclusion
 As noted in the discussion population growth is not necessarily the major causes of
resources depletion in the world in general and LDCs in specific.
 Thus other factors have to be considered as well to protect the resources
 Therefore hand in hand with population policies the following possible alternatives
have to be considered:
1. To strike a balance between the needs for food, land energy and foreign exchange in
the LDCs and the world in general.
2. Diversification of resources use such as energy and food so as to reduce over-

exploitation.
3. Encourage use of traditional methods in resources management and conservation.
4. In addition current effort of resources management such as reforestation, protection

of water resources and protection of endangered species has to be maintained.
5. Also other strategies such as educating the masses to make them appreciate that the
resources are theirs: establishment of bylaws that protect the environment; and
encouraging of popular participation in resources management should be adopted.
POPULATION POLICIES
Definition and classification

 A population policy can be defined as an effort or program by a government or other social
institution to influence the size, distribution, composition, structure and change of the human
population.
 In other words it involves efforts to influence the 3 major demographic variables i.e fertility,
mortality and migration in a society.
 In defining a population policy it is important to note that policies to influence the

demographic variables cane be in two forms
Explicit policies
 An explicit policy is a statement or document by a national government announcing its

intention to affect the countrys population growth or distribution or composition or all of
them.
 The statements or documents can be given in different forms including: legislation,
commissions, development plans, declaration of a ruling party and statement by nations
president.
Implicit policies
 These are laws, regulations and other directives which although not necessarily issued for
the purpose of affecting population have effect of doing so.
 Such policies include for example: integrated rural development programmes, villagisation,
socioeconomic policies e.g education, health and housing.
 NB. Emphasis is always made in examining the former than the latter i.e explicit rather than
implicit policies.
 This is due to two main reasons:
1. Most of the implicit policies are not coordinated to reach a common population goal.
2. Legal changes in some areas are important for the effective implementation of population
policies.

Some of these areas: include age at marriage, status of women and medical
ethics.
Implementation
 Simply a policy does not guarantee that it will be carried out.

 Thus many policies specify the institution at framework and institutions responsible for
implementation
 Development of action plans
For example: Nigeria (1988) stated that all tiers and agencies of government as well as
community and NGOs to be actively involved
Monitoring and evaluation
 Institution responsible
 Mode of monitoring and evaluation e.g reports, reviews
Population policy in sub-Saharan Africa.
Introduction
 SSA covers about 20% of the earths land surface and currently it contains about 10% of
the worlds population.
 The population is diverse
 Region wise it is mainly concentrated in Western Africa then Eastern Africa and least in
Southern Africa.
 Country wise over 20% of the SSA population is in Nigeria and nearly 40% of the
population are found in six relatively populous countries i.e Ethiopia. Somalia.

Policy and program measures
 Most policies consist of measures that a country plans to take.

 These are actions to be taken to achieve the objectives or goals as well as the target set.
The following measures are often used by many policies
i. Providing fertility regulation or family planning services.
 This is a features-common to most policies.
 Family planning is justified in terms of its importance to MCHs
 Sometimes specific FP methods to be provided or prohibited are included. Example:

Kenya population policy of 1986 emphasized on the use of voluntary surgical
contraception.
ii. Implementing policies to affect migration
 Internal migration sometimes creates some problems to countries
 They include increase crime, overcrowding of cities or towns, pollution , emergency of

slums
 Thus some policies are designed to curb the problem of migration.
 They include: creation of new towns, an increase in rural investments, encouraging

decentralization of industrial location, and improving the rural infrastructure
iii. Providing incentives and disincentives
 Some policies do include use of incentives or disincentives to influence fertility behavior

especially in Asia.

These measures include: cash payment, family benefits and penalties. Example; Ghanas policy
incentives design to encourage smaller family size among government employees e.g limit to 3
the number of paid maternity leaves, limiting to 3
 children for whom child allowances and travel allowances will be paid to government
officers
iv. Improving research and evaluation
 These aim at improving the existing statistical and vital registration capacity.
 In addition, they aim at monitoring the population policy itself
v. Carrying specific legal reforms
Factor for lack of explicit population policies in SSA
1. The common perception that the population was too small leading to empty spaces and
vast unutilized resources base.
 At the time of independence most of the SSA had a small population relative to the size of
the resource base.
 As results the economies at that time could accommodate the population growth leading to
raised incomes and standards of living.
2. The message that Africa has rapid population growth has come from the west.
 These countries were linked with colonialism.
 Thus some political leaders considered the arguments as irrelative and tricky aiming to
continue to dominate them
3. Religious and tribal factors made population a very sensitive issue

 There are more than 800 ethnic groups in SSA speaking different languages and
belonging to different religious
 Some group are reluctant to discuss about reducing population due to fear of domination
by other groups
Most post-colonial political leaders in SSA were pre-occupied with the problems of
economic and social development and foreign assistance. Thus population was not a
concern. It was considered a long-term issue.
4. Lack of reliable demographic data.
 Most of the SSA had inadequate information to understand fertility levels and to
demonstrate how fast the population was growing.
 Most countries had not taken a census or comprehensive surveys before the 1960s.
Development of Explicit population policies
In the mid 1980s attitudes of many political leaders in SSA towards development of policies
were gradually becoming positive.
Several factors contributed to this trend.
1. Impact of severe economic recession of the late 1970s and early 1908s.
 The failure of many governments to meet or sustain basic social services

contributed to changing attitudes of some politicians towards population growth.
2. Increased awareness of population trends caused by international conferences in

population.
 A series of major international conference have helped to change the attitudes.
 African population conference held in Arusha in 1984.

 International conference on population held in Mexico, 1984.
 The all Africa Parliamentary conference on population held in Zimbabwe, 1985.
 These conferences stimulated governments to formulate official positions on

population.
3. Influence of international donor agencies
 Several donor agencies e.g UNFPA, USAID, JOIFP and GTZ have sponsored a
series of sensitization and awareness seminars to government ministers, policy
and planning officials as well as party, religious and community leaders
4. Availability of reliable and scientific information documenting fertility levels. Population

growth rates increased the awareness of the population trends to many countries.
 Many countries had their first information or second census during the 1970s and
early 1980s.
 The WFSs which included 10 SSA between 1977-1982, as well as CPS and DHS
provided adequate data on fertility and population growth.
 The messages had an impact to policy makers
5. Other factors
 Concern on the levels of infant and maternal mortality.
Activities of some pioneering private FP association helped to change attitudes e.g UMATI of
TZ began in the late 1950s
SOME CALCULATION IN POPULATION VARIABLES
(a) Crude Birth rate =is the number of birth in a years per 1000 mid -year population. The
rate is normally expressed per 1000. Sometimes this measure is called as the birth rate

and it is the simplest and commonest measures of fertility. CBR is computed using the
following formula:
Crude birth rate=Birth in a year x1000
Population at mid-year
 CBR is a crude measure of fertility because it includes all ages and both sexes in
the denominator.
 Moreover, no attempt is been made to relate births to women at risk of giving
these births. Normally range from 10 per 1000 in developed countries to 50 per
1000 in developing countries.
Crude death rate
This is the simplest and commonest measures of mortality. It refers to the number of
death in a year per 1000 of the mid-year population. Like crude birth rate it is
conventionally expressed per 1000. Although it is the most elementary and most quoted
death rate it is strongly affected by the age sex structure of the population. This definition
is represented in a formula as follows:
CDR =Death in a year x1000
Mid-year population
(b) Sex Ratio
Relates to the number of males per 100 females in the same population. Thus measures
the balance between sexes
It is given as; Sex ratio=Males x 100
Females

Interpretations.
 When sex ratio is more than 100 then it indicates that there are more male birth than
female. A value of less than 100 indicates an excess of female over male births
 Usually sex ratio at birth shows an excess of males over females, in most cases it range
between 104 and 107.
 When sex ratio is lower than 100 it may be attributed to migration, high death rate for
males.
(c) Growth rate
 These can be defined as rates of population growth adjusted for births, deaths and
migration.
 They are expressed as per cent growth per annum.
 Usually the rates are established by using models that are based on demographic
statistics.
 Two models are commonly used: geometric and exponential
Geometric growth rate is given as r=
Exponential growth rate is given as r=1/n log e (p2/p1)
Where, r is the growth rate expressed in per cent per annum, P1 is the population at the
beginning of the interval, P2 is the population at the end of the interval, n is the length of the
interval between two counts and e is a base of natural logarithm ( e=2.72) in these methods,
birth, death and migration rate are held constant.
Significance of the model
These two mathematical models are useful for

 Estimating rates of growth in inter-censual intervals
 Estimating the size of the population at any time in future
(d) Age errors
Errors in the reporting of age: due to heaping (due to digital preference especially to even
numbers e.g 6,8and those ending with 0 or 5) age shifting, ignorance of age, memory lapse

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LECTURE ONE

DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS & THEORIES

 Development as economic growth too often commodity output as opposed to people is

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 United Nation (UN) documents emphasis on Human Development measured by life

 According to the Human Development Report (1996) published by United National

- Conditions for enabling economic growth incudes:

- Conditions for enabling human development includes:

Kholi (2005) provide for political dimension of development by focusing on democratization

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2. Creating condition conducive to the growth of peoples self-esteem through the

DISTINCTION BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES

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4. Developed countries characterized by high technology compare to third world

6. Stable government is main characteristic of developed countries with high adherence to

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

- There is major three (3) theories of development namely:

ii. Dependency Theory

iii. Marxist Theory

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It is a transformational process which enables traditional societies to become modern societies.

- Modernization theory is an irreversible process, once started modernization cannot be

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 He suggest that poor countries invest in human capital

 Transfer of technology from developed countries to poor countries is essential.

 A country/society in developing countries characterized with low income, and therefore,

HOW TO BREAK VICIOUS POVERTY CYCLE

4. Application of capital must be made to a wide range of different industries

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WEAKNESS OF RAGNER THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

ROSTOWIAN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

 Traditional Society Stage:

- Majority of the population under this stage engaged in substance agriculture

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- The manufacturing sectors and industries in traditional society grow by limited by

- The social structure is feudalistic in nature

 Pre-condition for Take Off Stage:

- It is characterized by massive development of mining industries

- Increase in capital use in agriculture and become commercialized

- Invest in transport infrastructure is developed to support trade

- The stage encourage saving and investment and entrepreneur emerge.

- The economy shift from agrarian to industrial or manufacturing industry

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Sometime is commonly known as economic take off Stage. It characterized by dynamic

- It is characterized by self-sustained economic growth

- Industrialization increase and increase and economy switches from agriculture to

- New political and social institution are involving to support industries

- Dramatic technological development in both industry and agriculture

- Significant increase in investment

- Increase urban population due to industrialization

 Drive to Maturity Stage:

- Less reliance on import much emphasis in export

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- Under this stage characterize by high mass consumption of consumer durables

- Increase in employment in the service sectors

- Highly increased in per capital income

- Equality in welfare issues or developing luxuries for its upper class

CRITIQUE TO ROSTOW STAGES THEORY

- Eliminate traditional values in development process.

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 United Nation (UN) documents emphasis on Human Development measured by life

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2. Creating condition conducive to the growth of peoples self-esteem through the

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 Singer Prebisch an Argentinian economist at the UN Commission for Latin America

- The theory focuses on the Centre Periphery/North South relationships. It state

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The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common

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 In order to achieve agriculture development and increase peoples income, the

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 Desertification ( Almost half of Africas land is vulnerable to desertification)

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