A

Technical Seminar report

On

“SENSOR TECHNOLOGY”

Submitted for the partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of

the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted by

SHAIK FATHIMA

(22BFA04426)

SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
Karakambadi Road, TIRUPATI – 517507
2024-25
 SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMU NICATION ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
TIRUPATI – 517507

2024-25

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that a seminar report entitled “SENSOR TECHNOLOGY” a bonafide record of

the technical seminar done and submitted by SHAIK FATHIMA bearing 22BFA04426 for the

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of B. Tech Degree in ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING of JNT University Anantapur, Ananthapuramu.

SEMINAR COORDINATOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratefulness and sincere thanks to Dr D. Srinivasulu

Reddy, Head of the Department of ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING, for his

kind support and encouragement during the course of my study and in the successful

completion of the technical seminar.

I would like express gratitude to Mrs. D. Srilatha, M. Tech (Ph.D) ,Assistant Professor,

seminar coordinator, ECE Department for her continuous follow up and timely guidance in

delivering seminar presentations effectively.

It’s my pleasure to convey thanks to Faculty of ECE department for their help in

selection of right theme for the technical seminar.

I have great pleasure in expressing my hearty thanks to our beloved Principal Dr. N.

Sudhakar Reddy for his support and encouragement.

I would like to thank our parents and friends, who have the greatest contributions in all

my achievements.

SHAIK FATHIMA
(22BFA04426)
 ABSTRACTS

Recent advances of sensor technologies have been powered by high-

speed and low-cost electronic circuits, novel signal processing
methods, and advanced manufacturing technologies. The synergetic
interaction of new developments in these fields provides promising
technical solutions increasing the quality, reliability, and economic
efficiency of technical products.

With selected examples, we will give an overview about the

significant developments of methods, structures, manufacturing
technologies, and signal processing characterizing today’s sensors
and sensor systems. Predominantly observed development trends in
the future are discussed.
Index Terms Future trends, review, sensor signal processing, sensor
technology, smart sensors.
 CONTEXTS
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
1 INTRODUCTION 1-3

2-3

2 What is a sensor 4-6

3 Components Used In Weather Monitoring System 7-11

4 Sensor Selection and Placement 12-13

5 Weather Monitoring System 14-18

5.1 Overview 14-15

5.2 How it Works 15-18

6 Benefits of Weather Monitoring System 19-20

7 IoT Applications of Weather Monitoring System 21-22

8 Challenges and Future Advantages 23-24

9 Conclusion 25

10 References 26
 1.Introduction
Sensors have a very wide range, and there are many types, but
fundamentally, sensors are devices that detect the feature quantity of a
measurement object and convert this quantity into a readable signal,
which is displayed on and instrument. And sensing technology, simply
put, is a technology that uses sensors to acquire information by
detecting the physical, chemical, or biological property quantities and
convert them into readable signal. There are a wide variety of sensors
available for practically any industrial need. For demanding, mission-
critical industrial applications, sensors can help improve processes,
and offer unmatched asset protection.
These sensors offer real-time monitoring, including detection and
reporting, as needed by a process. Data monitored and collected by
sensors is sent for control and analysis, and any anomaly in a
particular property is reported by emitting an electrical signal by that
sensor. This way, sensors enhance process efficiency and product
quality, while ensuring that processes comply with best practices.

Fig:1.1Sensor Block Diagram

 2. What is a sensor?

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure
orany number of other environmental phenomena. The output is generally a
signalthat is converted to a human-readable display at the sensor location or
transmittedelectronically over a network for reading or further processing.

Sensors play a pivotal role in the internet of things (IoT). They make it
possibleto create an ecosystem for collecting and processing data about a
specificenvironment so it can be monitored, managed and controlled more
easily andefficiently. IoT sensors are used in homes, out in the field, in
automobiles, onairplanes, in industrial settings and in other environments.
Sensors bridge the gap between the physical world and logical world, acting
as the eyes and ears for acomputing infrastructure that analyzes and acts upon
the data collected from thesensors.

On the other hand, passive sensors do not require any external power and
producean output response. GPS and radar are examples of active sensors that
require anexternal power source to operate. Active remote sensing techniques
such asRADAR and LiDAR measure the time delay between emission and
return todetermine an object's location, speed, and direction. Passive sensors,
also knownas self-generated sensors, produce their own electric signal and do
not requireexternal power. Thermal sensors, electric field sensing, and metal
detection areexamples of these. The sensor's detecting method is used in the
other categorism method.
 3.TYPES OF SENSORS

Sensors can be categorized in multiple ways. One common approach is

toclassify them as either active or passive. An active sensor is one that
requires anexternal power source to be able to respond to environmental
input and generateoutput. For example, sensors used in weather satellites
often require some sourceof energy to provide
meteorological data about the Earth’s atmosphere.

A passive sensor, on the other hand, doesn't require an external power

source todetect environmental input. It relies on the environment itself
for its power, usingsources such as light or thermal energy. A good
example is the mercury-basedglass thermometer. The mercury expands
and contracts in response to fluctuatingtemperatures, causing the level to
be higher or lower in the glass tube. Externalmarkings provide a human-
readable gauge for viewing the temperature.

Some types of sensors, such as seismic and infrared light sensors, are
available in both active and passive forms. The environment in which
the sensor is deployedtypically determines which type is best suited for
the application.

Another way in which sensors can be classified is by whether they're

analog ordigital, based on the type of output the sensors produce. Analog
sensors convertthe environmental input into output analog signals, which
are continuous andvarying. Thermocouples that are used in gas hot water
heaters offer a goodexample of analog sensors. The water heater's pilot
light continuously heats thethermocouple. If the pilot light goes out, the
thermocouple cools, sending adifferent analog signal that
indicates the gas should be shut off.

As with active and passive sensors, some types of sensors -- such as

thermal or pressure sensors -- are available in both analog and digital
forms.In this case,too, the environment in which the sensor will operate
typically determines which isthe best option.
There are many different types of sensors, the main categories are;
• Light Sensor
➢ IR Sensor (IR Transmitter / IR LED)
➢ Photodiode (IR Receiver)
➢ Light Dependent Resistor
• Temperature Sensor
➢ Thermistor
➢ Thermocouple
• Pressure/Force/Weight Sensor
➢ Strain Gauge (Pressure Sensor)
➢ Load Cells (Weight Sensor)
• Position Sensor
➢ Potentiometer
➢ Encoder
• Hall Sensor (Detect Magnetic Field)
• Flex Sensor
• Sound Sensor
➢ Microphone
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Touch Sensor
• PIR Sensor
• Tilt Sensor
➢ Accelerometer
• Gas Sensor

IR LED:
It is also called as IR Transmitter. It is used to emit Infrared rays.
Therange of these frequencies are greater than the microwave
frequencies(i.e >300GHz to few hundreds of THz). The rays
generated by an infrared LED can be sensed by Photodiode
 explained below. The pair of IR LED and photodiode is called IR
Sensor.

Fig:IR LED Sensor

Photo Diode (Light Sensor):

It is a semiconductor device which is used to detect the light rays and

mostly usedas IR Receiver. Its construction is similar to the normal PN
junction diode but the
working principle differs from it. As we know a PN junction allows
small leakagecurrents when it is reverse biased so, this property is used
to detect the light rays.A photodiode is constructed such that light rays
should fall on the PN junctionwhich makes the leakage current increase
based on the intensity of the light thatwe have applied. So, in this way, a
photodiode can be used to sense the lightrays and maintain the current
through the circuit.

Fig:Photo Diode(Light sensor)

DR (Light Dependent Resistor):

As the name itself specifies that the resistor that depends upon the light
intensity.It works on the principle of photoconductivity which means the
conduction dueto the light. It is generally made up of Cadmium sulfide.
When light falls on theLDR, its resistance decreases and acts similar to a
conductor and when no lightfalls on it, its resistance is almost in the
range of MΩ or ideally it acts as an opencircuit. One note should be
considered with LDR is that it won’t respond if the light is not exactly
focused on its surface.

Fig:Light dependent resistor

Thermistor (Temperature Sensor):

A thermistor can be used to detect the variation in temperature. It has a

negativetemperature coefficient that means when the temperature
increases the resistancedecreases. So, the thermistor’s resistance can be
varied with the rise intemperature which causes more current flow
through it. This change in currentflow can be used to determine the
amount of change in temperature. Anapplication for thermistor is, it is
used to detect the rise in temperature and controlthe leakage current in a
transistor circuit which helps in maintaining its stability.
Thermocouple (Temperature Sensor):

Another component that can detect the variation in temperature is

athermocouple. In its construction, two different metals are joined
together to forma junction. Its main principle is when the junction of two
different metals areheated or exposed to high temperatures a potential
across their terminals varies.So, the varying potential can be further used
to measure the amount of change in temperatutre.

Strain Gauge (Pressure/Force Sensor):

A strain gauge is used to detect pressure when a load is applied . It

works on the principle of resistance, we know that the resistance is
directly proportional to thelength of the wire and is inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area(R=ρl/a). The same principle can
be used here to measure the load. On a flexi ble board, a wire is arranged
in a zig-zag manner as shown in the figure below. So,when the pressure
is applied to that particular board, it bends in a directioncausing the
change in overall length and cross-sectional area of the wire. Thisleads
to change in resistance of the wire. The resistance thus obtained is very
minute (few ohms) which can be determined with the help of the
Wheatstone bridge. The strain gauge is placed in one of the four arms in
a bridge with theremaining values unchanged. Therefore, when the
pressure is applied to it as theresistance changes the current passing
through the bridge varies and pressure can be calculate.
Load Cell (Weight Sensor):

Load cells are similar to strain gauges which measure the physical
quantity likeforce and give the output in form of electrical signals. When
some tension isapplied on the load cell it structure varies causing the
change in resistance andfinally, its value can be calibrated using a
Wheatstone bridge.
Potentiometer:

A potentiometer is used to detect the position. It generally has various

ranges ofresistors connected to different poles of the switch. A
potentiometer can be eitherrotary or linear type. In rotary type, a wiper is
connected to a long shaft whichcan be rotated. When the shaft has
rotated the position of the wiper alters suchthat the resultant
resistance varies causing the change in the output voltage. Thus the
output can be calibrated to detect the change its position.

Encoder:

To detect the change in the position an encoder can also be used. It has a
circularrotatable disk-like structure with specific openings in between
such that when theIR rays or light rays pass through it only a few light
rays get detected. Further,these rays are encoded into a digital data (in
terms of binary) which representsthe specific position.
Hall Sensor:

The name itself states that it is the sensor which works on the Hall
Effect. It can be defined as when a magnetic field is brought close to the
current carryingconductor (perpendicular to the direction of the electric
field) then a potentialdifference is developed across the given conductor.
Using this property a Hallsensor is used to detect the magnetic field and
gives output in terms of voltage.Care should be taken that the Hall
sensor can detect only one pole of the magnet.

The hall sensor is used in few smartphones which are helpful in turning
off thescreen when the flap cover (which has a magnet in it) is closed
onto the screen.
 4.WORKING OF SENSOR

Sensors react to changing physical conditions by altering their electrical

properties. Thus, most artificial sensors rely on electronic systems to
capture,analyse and relay information about the environment. These
electronic systemsrely on the same principles as electrical circuits to
work, so the abilityto control the flow of electrical energy is very
important.

Put simply, a sensor converts stimuli such as heat, light, sound and
motion intoelectrical signals. These signals are passed through an
interface that convertsthem into a binary code and passes this on to a
computer to be processed.

Many sensors act as a switch, controlling the flow of electric charges

through thecircuit. Switches are an important part of electronics as they
change the state ofthe circuit. Components of sensors such as integrated
circuits (chips), transistorsand diodes all contain semiconducting
material and are included in the sensorcircuits so that they act as
switches. For example, a transistor works by using asmall electrical
current in one part of the circuit to switch on a large clectrical current in
another part of the circuit.

You first start with something that you want to sense — the quantity
you’remeasuring. The human body, for instance, is great at sensing light
(with our eyes),smells (with our nose), and tastes (with our mouth). In
essence, our body isequipped with a set of sensors, but each carries out a
specific task.

Similarly, if you want to build an electronic sensor, you first think

aboutwhat you wantto measure, or sense. Let’s say you want to build a
light sensor.You need an instrument to transform light into an electrical
signal. Thatinstrument is called a photodiode, and it does just what you
want it to do: itconverts light energy into electrical current. But let’s dig
a bit deeper: how doesthe photodiode do this?
Without going into too many technicalities, photodiodes are built from
specificmaterials and when photons hit the surface of these materials,
they createsomething called the photoelectric effect, which disrupts the
previously stableenergy configuration of the material. This can generate
an electric signal whichis then picked up (and sometimes amplified) so it
can be read by the system.If you want to build a motion sensor, you need
different types of materials, thatcan produce small amounts of current
when they are moved or disorted.the rest of the mechanism is the same.

So in essence, sensors generally work in a similar fashion: you

needsomething (like a photodiode) that can transform your desired input
into anelectric current. You then pick up that electric current, amplify it
if necessary, and pass it on to your computer.

A good sensor must have the ability to tell current very precisely. For
instance, ifthe light increases slightly, so too will the current produced
by the photodiode,and the sensor must be able to tell this. The better the
ability, the better thesensitivity. But sensors also need to be able to
withstand vibrations andtemperature changes, which often affect
the quality of the output.
 5.Sensor Performance Characteristics

The following are some of the more important sensor characteristics:

5.1 Transfer Function:

The transfer function shows the functional relationship between physical

inputsignal and electrical output signal. Usually, this relationship is
represented as agraph showing the relationship between the input and
output signal, and thedetails of this relationship may constitute a
complete description of the sensorcharacteristics. For expensive sensors
that are individually calibrated, this mighttake the form of the certified
calibration curve.

5.2 Sensitivity:

The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between input

physicalsignal and output electrical signal. It is generally the ratio
between a small changein electrical signal to a small change in physical
signal. As such, it may beexpressed as the derivative of the transfer
function with respect to physical signal.Typical units are volts/kelvin,
millivolts/kilopascal, etc.. A thermometer wouldhave “high sensitivity”
if a small temperature change resulted in a large voltagechange.

5.3 Span or Dynamic Range:

The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical

signals bythe sensor is the dynamic range or span. Signals outside of this
range are expectedto cause unacceptably large inaccuracy. This span or
dynamic range is usuallyspecified by the sensor supplier as the range
over which other performancecharacteristics described in the data sheets
are expected to apply. Typical unitsare kelvin, pascal, newtons, etc.
5.4 Accuracy or Uncertainty:

Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest expected error between

actual andideal output signals. Typical units are kelvin. Sometimes this
is quoted as afraction of the full-scale output or a fraction of the reading.
For example, athermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within 5%
of FSO (Full ScaleOutput). “Accuracy” is generally considered by
metrologists to be a qualitativeterm, while “uncertainty” is quantitative.
For example one sensor might have better accuracy than another if its
uncertainty is 1% compared to the other withan uncertainty of 3%.

5.5 Noise:

All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output signal.
In somecases, the noise of the sensor is less than the noise of the next
element in theelectronics, or less than the fluctuations in the physical
signal, in which case it isnot important. Many other cases exist in which
the noise of the sensor limits the performance of the system based on the
sensor. Noise is generally distributedacross the frequency spectrum.
Many common noise sources produce a whitenoise distribution, which is
to say that the spectral noise density is the same at allfrequencies.
Johnson noise in a resistor is a good example of such a noisedistribution.
For white noise, the spectral noise density is characterized in unitsof
volts/Root (Hz). A distribution of this nature adds noise to a
measurement withamplitude proportional to the square root of the
measurement bandwidth. Sincethere is an inverse relationship between
the bandwidth and measurement time, itcan be said that the noise
decreases with the square root of the measurement time.

5.6 Bandwidth:

All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change in

physicalsignal. In addition, many sensors have decay times, which
would represent thetime after a step change in physical signal for the
sensor output to decay to itsoriginal value. The reciprocal of these times
correspond to the upper and lowercut off frequencies, respectively. The
bandwidth of a sensor is the frequencyrange between these two
frequencies.

5.7 Nonlinearity:

The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function over the

specifieddynamic range. There are several measures of this error. The
most commoncompares the actual transfer function with the “best
straight line,” which liesmidway between the two parallel lines that
encompass the entire transfer functionover the specified dynamic range
of the device. This choice of comparisonmethod is popular because it
makes most sensors look the best. Other referencelines may be used, so
the user should be careful to compare using the same reference.
 6.Applications of Sensors

Managing day to day activities:

There are many specialised applications of sensors devices in day-to-

dayactivities. These are used to manage key processes in the chemical,
oil, gas, andnuclear energy sectors. Here, sensors are required to control
geographically vast power transmission and distribution systems in the
electric energy business aswell. Standards for communication,
interoperability, dependability, calibrating,safety, and accuracy for
intelligent sensors have been created for such sorts ofvital infrastructure.

Safety:

Devices can also be networked in conjunction with the Internet and can
beused for enhanced safety and convenience through intelligent home
solutions.These solutions involve networks of data collection, cloud, and
machine-to-machine communication. The sensor offers more data about
the path of glucosethan previously. With distance sensors and a
processing unit, the warning systemincorporated into the shoe delivers
audio, haptic, or visual input. It permits freeand ambient events on
natural auditory channels. It is revolutionary for thestandard fall mats to
be supplemented with fall mat sensors that rapidly recordload changes
and ask for assistance via the call system.

Cleaning:

Sensors guarantee that the flat is cleaned at every aspect and

vacuumcleaners can avoid physical barriers. In the future, water sensors
can also preventdamage to the house caused by washing machines or
dishwashers. Smart sensorsystems are everywhere in our daily lives.
They offer safety, save lives andenhance living quality. More and more
automated and networked living sectorswill raise the necessity of novel
sensor technology.
Emergency:

Driver assistance systems like autonomous emergency braking systems

or parking devices facilitate daily life and boost road safety via cameras,
infraredand ultrasonic sensors, and radar sensors. This offered automatic
parking aidsusing ultrasonic front and rear sensors to support the guides
during parking. Thesehelp to identify parking spaces available and relay
information. Free parking places can be accessed immediately by
drivers. The automobile lacks the parkingarea, the wheel locks itself, and
only the throttle and brake have to be operated by the driver. Innovative,
self-sufficient energy parking sensors facilitate dailyliving to locate a
place in urban areas.

Boilers and washing machines:

Some household appliance applications using sensors are the boiler,

washingmachines and dishwashers for heating systems, and other white
products. Manyvehicles, including automobiles, trains, buses, etc.,
employ sensors to monitor petroleum temperature and pressure, jets and
steering systems, and so many more.Magnetic sensors are used to detect
movement by the use of the magnetic field ofthe earth. It has several
uses, such as portable navigation, product promotion,indoor and urban
navigation, etc.
Measure distance:

Sensors are commonly employed in all forms of portable and handheld

devices.They are utilised in fitness applications to measure the distance
of each step andthe incremental steps that a person has taken. These are
also used to detect theusker's motion, such as rotating and tilting,
providing them with an incrediblegaming experience. Motion
sensors also have a wide range of home and personal safety applications.
However, without a motion sensor, it is difficult to establisha safety
system. They are particularly successful because during
peak night hours;they offer clear views.

Doorbells:

Sensors play a significant role in wireless doorbells. It may dispose of

typicalentrance cells employing motion sensors, as movement sensors
can inform guestswhen they reach the door. Motion sensors detect
motion using optical, vibration,radiofrequency, sound, and warmth,
essentially using electronic chips. The centreof our new safety systems is
movement sensors. They are utilised for the detectionand understanding
of location, speed, and acceleration.
Automating lighting operations:

The primary operation of light sensors is tuning light on the day. In

addition tofacilitating human-centric lighting, daylight harvesting, and
lighting planning forenergy savings, efficiency, and the environment, it
automates lighting operationsin smart buildings. Thermal sensors are
required to automate room temperaturein smart buildings and
businesses. The temperature is continuously inside,regardless of how the
temperature swings externally. These sensors also conserveenergy by
regulating the temperature with the climatic environment.

Gas detection and surveillance:

Gas detection and surveillance are always strongly related to the safety
of peoplein difficult circumstances when the presence of toxic gases is
identified. Sensorscan easily monitor and measure the amount of gas
frequently to be greater thanusual and ensure the safety of persons
operating in and near dangerous gases.Indoor air quality is another
significant business that employs gas sensortechnology to monitor.

Detect level of liquid and other quantities:

Sensors are used to detect items such as liquids, powders, and granular
solids.Many sectors, including oil, water and drinks processing, and food
production,employ high-level sensors. Trash management systems are
typical because levelsensors can monitor waste levels in waste
containers or dumpsters. These sensorsmeasure the presence of fuel or
hazardous gases and detect changes in air quality.Mining, oil and gas.
 7.Advantages and Disadvantages of Sensors

Advantages:

• Accelerate processes and make them more accurate

• Collect process and asset data in real time
• Monitor processes and assets accurately, reliably, and
continuously
• Increase productivity and reduce total cost of ownership
• Lower energy wastage
• Readings taken using sensors are more accurate than a human
Interpreting data
• Low cost and power consumption
• They are useful and can help with many security problems
• High speed and High switching rate.

Disadvantages:

They can be affected by environmental changes and contamination.

Sensing Range Affected by Colour and Reflectivity target.
Distance Limitations
Radio frequency at high power is harmful for humans (active type).
Passive sensor type works in LOS (Line of Sight) and does not work
In non-LOS regions.
Work in non-LOS regions.
 8.Conclusion

In business and our everyday life, sensors are everywhere.

Inindustrial systems, process variables like temperature, pressure,
level,flow rate, and turbidity are measured accurately. The
electricalvariables like the voltage, current, and frequency; mechanical
variableslike revolution, cycle number, positioning, the direction of
movement,static and dynamic pressures, proximity; environmental
variables, suchas humidity, vibration, wind velocity, and direction are
also measured by using these technologies. In various areas, advanced
sensornetworks are employed and are being developed constantly.
ThroughAI technology, sensor-based gadgets have become more
innovative;these gadgets can interact and generate independent
behaviour. Theyare used for receiving information, data such as
temperature, pressure, picture, etc. Remote sensing is when the
information is obtained,detected, analysed, the physical parameters of an
area are monitored,and radiated energy is recorded and released without
physical contactwith the studied subject. Sensors create a digital
representation of theworld in which they work by gathering data from
houses, buildings,and vehicles. These can monitor and inform about the
drug level inhumans and detect any anomalies in the body.
Sensors can assist in preventing symptoms and offering early warning of
illness.
 9.REFERENCES

https://www.scribd.com/document/618046641/Sensor-Technology-
Documentation-Final
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
3090944_Sensor_Technology_Advances_and_Future_Trends
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
347050409_Introduction_to_sensors
https://nybsys.com/types-of-sensors/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/
B9780323884310000181
https://instrumentationtools.com/performance-characteristics-of-
sensors-and-transducers/
https://www.variohm.com/news-media/technical-blog-archive/
applications-of-sensors-
https://www.javatpoint.com/advantages-and-dsadvantages-of-
sensors