Chapter IV

Air Transportation

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, the students can:

 Discuss the history of aviation

 Explain the importance oof air transportation in the tourism industry
 Identify the different categories of air carriers and aircraft
 Identify the air transportation evolution and development in the Philippines and internationally.
 Explain the air transport structure
 Identify the categories of airline
 Differentiate Domestic and International Airlines’ Services and Characteristics
 Discuss the new trends in the aviation and airline industry
 List the advantages of disadvantages of air transportation
 List and describe the types of air transport
 Define the different air transportation organization and their services
 Differentiate between ICAO and IATA codes

INTRODUCTION

With the Philippines’ archipelagic geography, air transport is the most efficient way to connect
its islands and boost economic activities. Using the latest Philippine input-output tables (National
Statistical Coordination Board, 2006; Philippine Statistics Authority, 2014, 2017), the air transport sector
proves to be the leading driver of economic activities. Ranking first relative to all other sectors in the
economy, in terms of backward linkages, indicates its general dependence on the rest

Chapter IV introduces the learners to air transportation management and development locally
and international. It provides a discussion to the freedoms of the air, history of air transportation in the
Philippines and airport hubs. The unit likewise describe the different air transportation services in the
Philippines as well as air navigation services. The chapter also discuss the different organizations that
focus on air transport operation and services locally and internationally.

Tourism depends on transportation to bring visitors, while the transportation industry depends
on tourism to generate demand for its services. The growth in tourism industry directly reflects onto the
air transportation. Over the last 25 years, the number of international tourists has more than doubled.
The expansion of international tourism has a large impact on the discipline of transport geography.

The aviation industry has gone a long way since the first airplane took to the skies. It is the
youngest among all major modes of transportation. Sea and land travel have been moving man since
ancient times. Air transport is a late bloomer, as it was only in the early 1900s that the Wright Brothers
made the first successful flight in the history of the airplane as we know it today.

1
 Air transport is the main mode for international tourism. It plays a dominant role in inter-
regional movements of tourist, which normally entails travel over a long-distance. Growth rates of
international air traffic are pegged with growth rates of international tourism. Attractive package tours,
competitive airfare attract more and more tourists day by day, therefore both the industry is expanding
rapidly.

This chapter discusses general concepts and principles in aviation. It starts with the definition of
general concepts and principles in aviation. It starts with the definition of general terms, such as
aviation. It also covers the history from local and international viewpoints. It has a section on the role
and significance of air travel in the development, categories, and types of aircrafts, routes and services.
It talks
about regulatory bodies involved in aviation, as well as the structure of air transport

According to the IATA, in 2019, airlines transported 3.5 billion people across a network of almost
55,000 routes generating 60 million jobs and $ 2.6 trillion in business activity.

What is Aviation

One of the best ways to start a topic is to make sure definitions are the same for all. Air
transportation uses a number of jargons and terms that may have a different meanings in the other
field.

The word “ aviation” is a general term that originated from the French word “avi” meaning
“bird”. The researched meaning of aviation is a noun that means the design, development, production,
operation, and use of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft. This definition covers a system that
has a reference to air transportation.

Types of Aviation

General Aviation

The ICAO (2009) defines general aviation as “all civil aviation operations other than scheduled
air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for renumeration or hire”. It involves activities
such as business flights, air charter, private aviation, flight training, ballooning, paragliding,
parachuting,gliding, hang gliding, aerial photography, foot-launched powered hang gliders, air
ambuance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting, police air patrols, and forest fire fighting.
General aviation is a wider term.

The airports in the Philippines see a number of general aviation activities. Aside from the
number of commercial flights taking off and landing at NAIA, general aviation contributes to the airport’s
congestion.

Commercial Aviation

Through commercial aviation is part of general aviation, commercial aviation can be

differentiated as activities that involve flying for business, renumeration, or hire. The best example is
the scheduled flights of commercial airlines that operate in major airports.

2
Military Aviation

Military aviation involves using military aircraft and other flying machines. It is usually done for
national security, warfare, logistics deployment to military personnel, and other military purposes. It
may include carrying civilian passengers who need to be evacuated or repatriated.

History of Aviation

Aviation history can be divided into two categories. One is lighter-than-air development aircraft,
and another is heavier-than-air development aircraft. There are several significant events that helped
shape the aviation world as it is today through these two categories.

Lighter-Than-Air Aircraft Development

When aviation is talked about, what comes to mind are airplanes that are heavier-than-air
aircraft. But other than heavier-than-air aircraft, there are also lighter-than-air. Examples of lighter-than-
air aircraft are hot air balloons and airships or blimps.

The first successful hot air balloon was created by the French brothers, Joseph Michel and
Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier. The flight in November 1783 took to the air science teacher Jean-Francois
Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes, Francois Laurent (The Montgolfier Brothers' Balloon, n.d.).
The brothers experimented using paper and fabric for the balloon that used fire to produce hot air. A
basket was attached to the balloon where the passengers boarded (The First Hot Air Balloon Flight, n.d.).

In Philippine airspace, the first flight was on a hot air balloon flown by Portuguese acrobat C. F.
Marquez who performed during a carnival exhibition in Manila on April 4, 1909. His performance was
recorded in Philippine aviation history as the first air travel.

Today, hot air balloons are used for countryside sightseeing tours in places like Cappadocia,
Turkey and Serengeti, Tanzania. The Philippines also hosts a ballooning event once a year in Pampanga
for ballooning and aviation enthusiasts.

Another lighter-than-air aircraft is the airship, dirigible, or blimp. An airship is a rigid cigar-
shaped aircraft with propellers. In the article of Freudenrich (n.d.,) Henri Giffard built the first successful
airship in 1852.The more popular airship, the Zeppelin, was designed by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin
in 1900. It had a rigid metal framework and used hydrogen gas.

The Zeppelins were used for both military and commercial purposes. The most famous among
the Zeppelins was the Hindenburg, which carried passengers across the North Atlantic (The Editors of
Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019). It was tragically destroyed by fire in 1937. That event ended the career
of the Zeppelin as a commercial aircraft.

Though not very often, blimps can still be seen flying today in other countries outside the
Philippines. It is used more for advertising and TV commercials than for other purposes.

Heavier-Than-Air Aircraft Development

3
 There are several personalities who have contributed to the initial designs of the first successful
heavier-than-air aircraft. The ideas and aerial concepts of Leonardo da Vinci, George Cayley, Otto
Lilienthal, John Stringfellow, Lawrence Hargrave and Samuel Langley led to the success of Wilbur and
Orville Wright, better known as the Wright brothers. These men are not all engineers or scientists but
have been intrigued by the desire for man to fly like birds.

Though Leonard Da Vinci is well known for his artistic paintings such as the Money-and the Last
Supper, his other works have influenced aviation development. As a young boy, he was fascinated with
flight and studied how birds fly (Williams, 2014). He sketched flying machines such as the ornithopters.
His aviation designs included machines with a pilot in a prone position, standing vertically, using arms
and legs (Jakab, 2013).

The gliders that were developed around 1853 are considered the first successful heavier-than-
air aircraft. Gorn (2001) shared that though most of his designs were unmanned gliders, British engineer
George Cayley was able to fly his glider across a small valley, thus earning the privilege of being the first
successful airman.

According to Gorn (2001), Otto Lilienthal studied the ideas of Sir Cayley of how birds fly as well.
He built several gliders and flew almost 2,000 controlled flights with fixed-wing crafts. His works later
influenced the Wright brothers, as well as other engineers and aviation designers (Early Gliders, n.d.).

John Stringfellow is another personality in aviation development. He was an Englishman known

in the lace industry. Due to his fascination with the steam engine, together with William Henson, they
designed the Aerial Steam Carriage in 1842 (Gray 2003). Their attempts to build flying machines
powered by lightweight steam engines were not successful.

Aviation development also happened on the other side of the world. Lawrence Hargrave was
another Englishman but later lived in Australia. His contribution to aviation development was the engine
that was powered by compressed air and fuel. In 1889, he created the compressed air engine using
three rotating cylinders(Inglis,n.d.).

Samuel Langley designed and created pilotless heavier-than-alr crafts in aviation developments
from the New World. In 1896, two of his airplane creations achieved fight (Langley, 2018), The frst
airplane reached 914 meters or 3,000 feet. The second airplane flew as high as 1,280 meters or 4,200
feet. Both were unmanned.

The most famous personalities in aviation history are Orville and Wilbur Wright, bicycle shop
owners. According to Van der Linden et al. (2016), the brothers successfully New the Wright glider in
1902. A year later, in December 1903, the two brothers achieved the first manned flight with their
Wright flyer, giving them rights to the claim of the first successful manned flight in history.

4
 Top: (R to L): Leonardo da Vinci, George Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, John Stringfellow,
Bottom (R to L): Lawrence Hargrave, Samuel Langley, Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright

Gallery of Aviation Development Personalities

The success of the Wright brothers with their Wright Flyer proved that man could fly. Most of
the earlier uses of the airplane were for the military and eventually for wars. Aircraft were mostly built
for reconnaissance. When the war ended, airplanes were put to commercial use, such as carrying mail
and passengers.

Mass air travel was prominent around 1945 to 1960. After World War II, tourism was used to
promote economic aid and cultural diplomacy (Van Vleck, 2013). Airplanes used to transport servicemen
and women during the war were converted as aircraft to carry civilians for leisure and tourism purposes.
Planes were then used for economic and tourism development rather than for mass destruction. It was
around this time that airline companies around the world started to rebuild their transportation
business.

Van Vleck (2013) researched that the jet age started with Pan-Am Flight 111 , “ jet age
pioneers” from New York to Paris onboard a Boeing 707 on October 26,1958. The flight took only 7
hours and 34 minutes compared to the previous 11 hour flight using a piston engine. Boeing, a U.S.
based aerospace company, built the aircraft that started an revolution in air travel.

The record set by the jet age was later broken with the entry of the Concorde, an aircraft that
brought the industry into the supersonic age in 1973. Travel between Paris they and New York took only
3 and 1/2 hours. The success of the Concorde did not last long. It retired after 15 years and had not
been used since. No other aircraft has broken the Concorde’s speed record (Blum, 2019).

History of Philippine Aviation

The Philippines is known for shipbuilding. The Department of Trade and Industry (2017)
reported that Philippine-based shipbuilders have exported ships since 1994. However, the country is
not known for airplane manufacturing. Airline companies will have to complete their fleet by ordering
aircraft from aircraft manufacturers overseas. Aviation history is viewed from a different perspective,
that is, through milestones throughout the years.

Aviation came to the Philippines as early as 1911, just eight years after the successful flight in
Kittyhawk. And commercial aviation followed when the first mail service was delivered by Tom Gunn in
1914. But aviation has gone a long way now.

Philippine Firsts

5
 The following firsts were written in the book titled 100 years of Philippine Aviation (1909-2009):
A focus on Airline Management by Dr. Avelino Zapanta, a former president and chief operating officer of
Philippine Airlines (Zapanta, 2005).

On February 27, 1911, James "Bud" C. Mars flew his red devil biplane 10 miles out of Manila.
Though it seems a simple feat, it was recorded in history as the first cross-court flight in the Philippines.

The first Filipino passenger was Gagaban, an Igorot chieftain flown over Lunets Part (now Rizal
Park) by Lee Hammond on February 12, 1912. But even with a passenger, it was not a commercial
activity. The flight was during an airshow.
Cora Wong, a nurse from the Chinese General Hospital, won a popularity contest whose prize
was to fly with Tom Gunn on April 11, 1914. The momentous event made her the first woman passenger
in Philippine aviation history.

Tom Gunn made two other firsts aside from flying Cora Wong. On the same day, he dropped a
bag of mail for the Manila Post Office. This event proves the viability of air transportation as a
commercial venture. The next day, on April 12, 1914, Tom Gunn flew to Guam, bringing with him
Rosario Reyes, who was recorded as the first international passenger.

It was late 1919 when the first airline was established in the Philippines. Major Joseph E. H.
Stevenot and Alfred J. Croft incorporated Philippine Airways Service, Inc. (PASI) to operate commercial
airmail between Manila, Cebu, and Iloilo. Other businessmen followed suit soon after. Below is a table
to show the chronological creation of major airline companies in the Philippines.

In 1931, the Philippine government saw the need to create an office to handle aviation matters.
The office was then organized under the Department of Commerce and Communications (WCC Aviation
Company, n.d.).

Following this event, several entrepreneurs and businessmen ventured into the airline industry.
Here are some of the more significant companies that were established in 1919.

Airline Name Date Established Owners/Incorporators Notes

Philippine Airways Service November 1919 Major Joseph E.H. Stevenot

Incorporated (PASI)
July 1920 The Philippine Government
Philippine Air Service
Philippine Airways, Inc. (PAI) November 1927 S.F. Aubrey, W. Briggman

Airline Name Date Established Owners/Incorporators Notes

What lessons can be learned from this historical listing of Airlines in the Philippines

 Success may require government support in policies as well as financially .

 Competition may lead to the failure of some airlines because of over-capacity.
 Airline operation and management is capital-intensive, but financial funding needs solid plans
and strategies.
 Though safety is a priority for airlines , air craft accidents can cause heavy strain on the financial
standing of airlines

6
What is Air Transport?

Air transport or air transportation is that which transports by air, by means of aircrafts,
airplanes, etc. Allows the movement of people, goods and mail. Aircraft are the fastest means of
transportation and therefore the most suitable for shipping products within the supply chain that
require fast and agile delivery.

History of Air Travel

The history of air travel began with the flight of the Wright brothers, Orville Wright and Wilbur
Wright, on December 07,1903. There plane was powered and controlled aircraft whereas previous
attempts to fly used gliders that had control and no power or free flight which had power but no control.
By being able to combine both, they set the standard in aviation.

Developments in aviation since the 1960’s have focused not only on aircraft but on
instrumentation and control. Airplanes have become more efficient and quieter due to improvements in
engines and composite air frames.

In 1978, airline travel was deregulated and airlines were then able set their own routes and
prices. This caused an increase in travel in developed countries. The development of the airplane has
been one of the most important innovations of mankind.

The first commercial (paid passenger flight took place in Florida on New Year's Day 1914 as a
single person was transported across Tampa Bay. There have been a number of international aviation
milestones since that flight.

Characteristics of Air Transport

Air transport is the most recent mode of transport. It is the gift of the 20th century to the world. The
two world wars gave a great impetus to the development of air transport in almost all the countries of
the world. The peculiar characteristic of air transport is that is does not need a specific surface track for
its operations. Air transport has the following characteristics:

1. Unbroken Journey: Air transport provides unbroken journey over land and sea. It is the fastest
and quickest means of transport.
2. Rapidity: Air transport had the highest speed among all the modes of transport.
3. Expensive: Air transport is the most expensive means of transport. There is huge investment in
purchasing aero planes and constructing of aerodromes.
4. Special Preparations: Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers links,
meteorological stations, flood lights, searchlights etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Transport

Advantages:

1. High Speed: The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest mode of
transport and thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important factor.

7
 2. Comfortable and Quick Services: It provides a regular, comfortable, efficient and quick service.
3. No Investment in Construction of Track: It does not require huge capital investment in the
construction and maintenance of surface track.
4. No Physical Barriers: It follows the shortest and direct route as seas, mountains or forests do not
come in the way of air transport.
5. Easy Access: Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are not
accessible by other means of transport.
6. Emergency Services: It can operate even when all other means of transport cannot be operated
due to the floods or other natural calamities. Thus, at that time, it is the only mode of transport
which can be employed to do the relief work and provide the essential commodities of life.
7. Quick Clearance: In air transport, custom formalities can be very quickly complied with and thus
it avoids delay in obtaining clearance.
8. Most Suitable for Carrying Light Goods of High Value: It is most suitable for carrying goods of
perishable nature which require quick delivery and light goods of high value such as diamonds,
bullion etc. over long distances.
9. National Defense: Air transport plays a very important role in the defense of a country.
Modern wars have been fought mainly by aero-planes.
10. Space Exploration: Air transport has helped the world in the exploration of space.

Disadvantages:

In spite of many advantages, air transport has the following limitations:

1. Very Costly: It is the costliest means of transport. The fares of air transport are so high that it is
beyond the reach of the common man.
2. Small Carrying Capacity: Its carrying capacity is very small and hence it is not suitable to carry
cheap and bulky goods.
3. Uncertain and Unreliable: Air transport is uncertain and unreliable as it is controlled to a great
extent by weather conditions. Unfavorable weather such as fog, snow or heavy rain etc. may
cause cancellation of scheduled flights and suspension of air service.
4. Breakdowns and Accidents: The chances of breakdowns and accidents are high as compared to
other modes of transport. Hence, it involves comparatively greater risk.
5. Large Investment: It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and
maintenance of airplanes. Further, very trained and skilled persons are required for operating
air service.
6. Specialized Skill: Air transport requires a specialized skill and high degree of training for its
operation.
7. Unsuitable for Cheap and Bulky Goods: Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap, bulky and
heavy goods because of its limited capacity and high cost.
8. Legal Restrictions: There are many legal restrictions imposed by various countries in the interest
of their own national unity and peace.

The rise and fall of new airline companies did not only happen in the Philippines. It has been a
common phenomenon throughout the history of the airline industry. Doganis (2006) explained that
airlines around the world experience a slack in the late 1990s. Some even almost went bankrupt
because of events like rising fuel prices and the oversupply of airline seats due to the new airlines
coming in. Some of these ailing airlines survived with financial support from their government. Another

8
common reason for the failure of an airline is related to overcapacity (Lee, 2016). Overcapacity happens
when too many airline companies operate one route or city pair. If the number of passengers or the
market for the city pair or sector does not increase together with an increase in capacity, the operating
airlines will be competing for the same passengers. What often results is a price war. And when a price
war happens, airlines can be desperate enough to price their products below breakeven levels.

Significance of Air Transportation

Rodriguez, et.al. (2013) wrote that the reason transportation exists to remove the distance
created by space. This distance is often determined by man and physical attributes that include time and
topography. He further explained that the “goal of transportation is to transform the geographical
attributes of freight and people” (Rodriguez, 2013). This clarifies how important transportation is, in
general to, society.

Transportation supports human activities. It connects countries, regions, and the rest of the
world.

The importance of transportation cannot be undermined in tourism. Tourism involves bringing

tourists to destinations using different modes of transportation. With this, there is a symbiotic
relationship between tourism and transportation (Page & Ge, 2009, pp. 371- 395).

The fact is that the Philippines is an archipelago. The current transportation system is quite
extensive, if not world-class. Tourist destinations can be reached with different means of transportation,
such as land, sea, and air transportation. Air transportation is the most convenient in terms of time. The
48-hour travel by bus from Manila to Davao is only 2 hours by air transport. The 20-hour travel by sea
from Manila to Cebu takes only about 1 hour by air. Though it is the fastest way to travel, it may also be
the most expensive.

Tourists will need to travel to different destinations, be it domestic or international. Given the
convenience of speed, most tourist will prefer to travel by air. Traveling by air will allow the tourists
more time to spend at the destination instead of moving or traveling to their point of vacation.

Categories of Aircrafts

Aircraft or air transport vehicles can be categorized according to their size and how
maneuverable they are. Based on the CFR-14 categorization, the 10 categories of aircraft are acrobatic,
commuter, experimental, light sport, limited, normal, primary, restricted, transport, and utility (Aircraft
Categories and Classes,2018).

The article from aircraft categories and classes (2018) defined the different aircraft categories as
follows:

1. Acrobatic Airplanes - These are airplanes not restricted by flight maneuvers. They have a
maximum of passenger seats and do not weigh more than 12,500 pounds or approximately
5,700 kilograms. The flexibility of in-flight maneuvers allows these aircraft to perform aerobatics
or special stunts, such as rolls and loops. They are often used in air shows.

9
 2. Commuter Airplanes - Airplanes of this category are limited to have 19 or fever passengers and
weigh no more ten 00 pounds or 8,618 kilograms. They are multi-engine and propeller-driven.
Pomroy (2016) added that they are typically used for short-distance travel to and from small
airports with short runways.

3. Experimental Airplanes - These aircraft may not have been fully proven in figh, hence the name
experimental. They may be amateur-built or kit-built aircraft, They are sometimes unmanned or
used for light sport. It is further explained in Experimental Aircraft (n.d.) that these aircraft are
typically used for experimental aircraft for research and development, crew training, exhibitions,
air racing, or surveys

4. Light Sport Aircraft - LSA is how some know this airplane category. It is given a special
airworthiness certificate for operations. Some classify two-seat ultralight-type aircraft, powered
parachutes, antiques, and classics airplanes, the composite aircraft as LSA. According to an
article from EAA Airventure, getting a sport aircraft certificate is half the time faster and the
regular pilot license (Light-Sport Aircraft, n.d.). This convenience makes recreational flight easier
for adventure seekers.

5. Limited Airplanes - Airplanes categorized as limited are either modified or converted military
aircraft, which is currently being used for civilian purposes. These airplanes are usually military
surplus planes. The Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) has issued an order to restrict the use of
limited airplanes for commercial purposes (Special Airworthiness Certificate, n.d.).

6. Normal Aircraft - Airplanes categorized as normal airplanes have the same size as acrobatic
planes, that is having a maximum weight of 12,500 pounds and nine or fewer passenger seats.
The difference lies in the fact that they have approval for acrobat flights. An answer posted in
What Is the Difference between Normal and Utility Categories (n.d) said that normal is one of
the three other aircraft that is considered “small”. The other three are aircraft categorized as
utility,acrobat and commuter.

7. Primary Airplanes - Airplanes in this category are given special airworthiness certificates. They
have to be built in compliance with the production certificate. on the technical side, they have
three or fewer seats and are typically unpressurized, as explained in What Are the Regulatory
Categories of Aircraft Defined by the FAA (n.d.)

8. Restricted Airplanes - Restricted aircraft are used for agriculture and other services such as
surveying, weather control, and forest services. When forest fires happen in countries like the
United States, firefighters use these airplanes to help stop the spread of the disaster. One
answer shared in What Are the Regulatory Categories of Aircraft Defined by the FAA (n.d.)
further explained that restrict airplanes are often modified U.S. Armed Forces equipment used
for special purposes.

9. Transport Airplanes - Transport airplanes are yet another category of airplanes.These aircraft
weigh more than 12,500 pounds and have more than 10 passenger seats. It has piston-engine,
greater than 19 seats and a maximum takeoff weight of more than 19,000 pounds.

10. Utility Airplanes - The last in the aircraft category list are the utility airplanes.These planes can
also be used for aerobatics. These aircraft have a maximum of nine passengers plus pilot seats.

10
 The takeoff weight should not be more than 12,500 pounds. Both Federal Aviation Regulations
(n.d.) and What Are the Regulatory Categories of Aircraft Defined by the FAA (n.d.) stated utility
aircraft maneuvers include spins, lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns. This is of great use for
air show aerobatics.

Trivia

According to Flight Centre (2020), 70% of today's airplanes are over 70% more fuel-efficient per
seat kilometer than jets in the 1960s (25 Interesting and Fun Aviation Facts You Never Knew, 2018).

Types of Aircrafts

From the Commercial and Passenger point of view, airplanes are also differentiated by their
types. Archer and Syratt (2003) shared that the publication, Airline Guide has five types. Here is the list
including the code used in the Airline Industry :

1. Jet (J)
2. Propjet (T)
3. Propeller (P)
4. Helicopter (H)
5. Amphibian/Seaplane (S)i

For some passengers, the type of aircraft is important because gerit tells them information such
as the passenger capacity and speed. Passengers may prefer jets over propeller airplanes since jets are
faster. Propeller aircraft are also known to be loud and raucous.

However, the type of airplane used may be dependent on the condition of airports. Not all
airports are qualified as international airports. For smaller airports, only smaller planes, such as
propellers or propjets, are allowed to land and take off from.

Routes and Air Services

Airlines use network planning models to predict their profitability (Garrow, 2010). It was further
explained that network planning models are used by airlines to find out how many passengers can be
expected to fly to which destinations, what city pairs they should operate, and other schedule-related
decisions.

There are two main categories of a network model. These are the point-to-point model and the
hub and spoke model.

A point-to-point network is when an airline operates simple routes. Airlines focus on operating
flights between the origin city to the destination. It is typically a non-stop flight and is often a direct
flight as well (Difference between a Hub, a Spoke, a Point to Point, n.d.). Airlines who operate the point-
to-point service limit their responsibility of bringing passengers to the arrival city of the flight. If the
passengers have a different final destination, it will be another point-to-point leg.

Most low-cost carriers use the point-to-point network model (Doganis, 2006). It is simple
network to implement. Even if their point-to-point flights connect with each other they only focus on

11
specific city pairs. For instance, Cebu Pacific has several daily flight between Bacolod and Manila, as well
as Manila and Singapore. If a Bacolod passenger actually bound for Singapore and there are flights that
will connect within the same each leg is a point-to-point leg.

HUB

Another network model is hub and spoke. The bicycle wheel is an example of a spoke where the
center of the wheel is the hub. Habas (2019) wrote that airlines have capitalized on the model of the
hub and spoke. Airlines use the larger and busier airports as their hub. The smaller or regional cities feed
their passengers to the hub. Airlines use the hub and service more frequently and destinations from
there. The spokes are also known as feeder flights.

Airlines have found the hub and spoke model effective. They are able to consolidate more
passengers for their hubs. The consolidation of the passengers gives the airlines better loads for each
major flight.

Airlines their bigger planes from their hub to more popular destinations. Feeder flights coming
from the spoke use the smaller capacity aircraft. Both legs will have a higher load, which will make their
operation more efficient and cost-effective.

Through the hub and spoke model has its advantages, it is not a perfect model (Habas,2019).
Congestion at the hub is a common concern for airlines as most airlines will choose the same hub. In the
case of the Philippines, other major

Lesson 9 : Freedoms of the Air/Air Transportation System

First Freedom of the Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted
by one State to another State or States to fly across its territory without landing (also known as a First
Freedom Right).

Second Freedom of the Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services,
granted by one State to another State or States to land in its territory for non-traffic purposes (also
known as a Second Freedom Right).

12
Third Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services,
granted by one State to another State to put down, in the territory of the first State, traffic coming from
the home State of the carrier (also known as a Third Freedom Right).

Fourth Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services,
granted by one State to another State to take on, in the territory of the first State, traffic destined for
the home State of the carrier (also known as a Fourth Freedom Right).

Fifth Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services,
granted by one State to another State to put down and to take on, in the territory of the first State,
traffic coming from or destined to a third State (also known as a Fifth Freedom Right).

ICAO characterizes all "freedoms" beyond the Fifth as "so-called" because only the first five "freedoms"
have been officially recognized as such by international treaty.

Sixth Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, of
transporting, via the home State of the carrier, traffic moving between two other States (also known as a
Sixth Freedom Right). The so-called Sixth Freedom of the Air, unlike the first five freedoms, is not
incorporated as such into any widely recognized air service agreements such as the "Five Freedoms
Agreement".

Seventh Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services,
granted by one State to another State, of transporting traffic between the territory of the granting State
and any third State with no requirement to include on such operation any point in the territory of the
recipient State, i.e the service need not connect to or be an extension of any service to/from the home
State of the carrier.

Eighth Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, of
transporting cabotage traffic between two points in the territory of the granting State on a service which
originates or terminates in the home country of the foreign carrier or (in connection with the so-called
Seventh Freedom of the Air) outside the territory of the granting State (also known as a Eighth Freedom
Right or "consecutive cabotage").

Ninth Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege of transporting cabotage traffic of the granting State on
a service performed entirely within the territory of the granting State (also known as a Ninth Freedom
Right or "stand alone" cabotage).

Source: Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport (Doc 9626, Part 4)

Parts of an Airplane and its Function

13
Wings

For any airplane to fly, one must lift the weight of the airplane itself, the fuel, the passengers,
and the cargo. The wings generate most of the lift to hold the plane in the air. To generate lift, the
airplane must be pushed through the air. The air resists the motion in the form of aerodynamic drag.
Modern airliners use winglets on the tips of the wings to reduce drag. The turbine engines, which are
located beneath the wings, provide the thrust to overcome drag and push the airplane forward through
the air. Smaller, low-speed airplanes use propellers for the propulsion system instead of turbine engines.

Vertical and Horizontal Stabilizer

To control and maneuver the aircraft, smaller wings are located at the tail of the plane. The tail
usually has a fixed horizontal piece, called the horizontal stabilizer, and a fixed vertical piece, called the
vertical stabilizer. The stabilizers’ job is to provide stability for the aircraft, to keep it flying straight.
The vertical stabilizer keeps the nose of the plane from swinging from side to side, which is called yaw.
The horizontal stabilizer prevents an up-and-down motion of the nose, which is called pitch. (On the
Wright brother’s first aircraft, the horizontal stabilizer was placed in front of the wings. Such a
configuration is called a canard after the French word for “duck”).

At the rear of the wings and stabilizers are small moving sections that are attached to the fixed
sections by hinges. In the figure, these moving sections are colored brown. Changing the rear portion of
a wing will change the amount of force that the wing produces. The ability to change forces gives us a
means of controlling and maneuvering the airplane. The hinged part of the vertical stabilizer is called
the rudder; it is used to deflect the tail to the left and right as viewed from the front of the fuselage. The
hinged part of the horizontal stabilizer is called the elevator; it is used to deflect the tail up and down.
The outboard hinged part of the wing is called the aileron; it is used to roll the wings from side to side.
Most airliners can also be rolled from side to side by using the spoilers. Spoilers are small plates that are
used to disrupt the flow over the wing and to change the amount of force by decreasing the lift when
the spoiler is deployed.

Flaps and Spoilers

14
 The wings have additional hinged, rear sections near the body that are called flaps. Flaps are
deployed downward on takeoff and landing to increase the amount of force produced by the wing. On
some aircraft, the front part of the wing will also deflect. Slats are used at takeoff and landing to
produce additional force. The spoilers are also used during landing to slow the plane down and to
counteract the flaps when the aircraft is on the ground. The next time you fly on an airplane, notice how
the wing shape changes during takeoff and landing.

Fuselage

The fuselage or body of the airplane, holds all the pieces together. The pilots sit in the cockpit at
the front of the fuselage. Passengers and cargo are carried in the rear of the fuselage. Some aircraft
carry fuel in the fuselage; others carry the fuel in the wings.
As mentioned above, the aircraft configuration in the figure was chosen only as an example.
Individual aircraft may be configured quite differently from this airliner. The Wright Brothers 1903
Flyer had pusher propellers and the elevators at the front of the aircraft. Fighter aircraft often have the
jet engines buried inside the fuselage instead of in pods hung beneath the wings. Many fighter aircraft
also combine the horizontal stabilizer and elevator into a single stabilator surface. There are many
possible aircraft configurations, but any configuration must provide for the four forces needed for flight.

TRIVIAS

An aircraft is any machine that can fly. Airplanes, hot air balloons, helicopters, or even flying
platforms are considered aircraft! An airplane is a specific type of aircraft that has fixed wings and is
heavier than air that is capable of sustained, powered, and controlled flight.

Airplane and aeroplane are the same thing, but aeroplane is the preferred british spelling.
Aircraft refers to anything that can fly, such as a helicopter or hot air baloon in addition to airplanes.

Different Types of Air Transportation

Aviation is a core component of tourism and there are different types of air transport within the
aviation industry. Whilst most of us immediately think of commercial aircraft (the ones that we fly on
when we go on holiday), there is actually much more to the air transport industry. There are many
different types of air transport. They provide different uses, whether that be for cargo transportation or
tourism, and operate in different ways due to how they are built and the ways in which they are made
to fly.

A number of different types of air transportation exist, both commercially and privately. Some of
these types have been developed over the course of decades or even centuries to meet the needs of
modern humans. Each different type is unique in the way it achieves flight, the speed it travels and the
sustainability of its voyage. Many of the inventions have developed into large scale industries. However,
some methods are still in their infancy, or they merely represent a small niche within the world of flight.

Hot Air Balloons

The first successful type of air transportation that carried humans was the hot air balloon. The
Montgolfier brothers developed the idea of designing a large bag or balloon that held hot air in the late
1700s. Passengers and the heat source were placed in a gondola or wicker basket underneath the

15
balloon. Since hot air rises, the balloon flew according to the direction of the wind. By cooling the
balloon's temperature, the passengers safely floated back to earth. Today's hot air balloons use almost
the exact same technology, however, they are able to design the balloons into nearly any shape
imaginable.

Blimps

An offshoot of the hot air balloon is the blimp. Blimps have been around since the end of the
19th century and were first used as scouting tools by various militaries. The technology has developed
into a convenient and cost-effective way to travel and advertise products. To float, blimps use hot air
and large fans attached to the gondola underneath. They can be deflated for storage or transportation
and inflated cheaply when service is needed. Arguably, the Goodyear Blimp is the most famous of this
mode of transportation, seen at sporting games and events around the world.

Zeppelins

Zeppelins were built in the early 20th century, based on designs by Count Ferdinand von
Zeppelin. Visually, zeppelins appear very much like blimps. However, they differ on two key points:
zeppelins have a metal skeleton with a rigid covering, and they are filled with hydrogen. These two
elements made zeppelins much larger than blimps and capable of sustaining long-distance flights.
During World War I, they were introduced as the first flying machine to practice bombing runs. Through
the successive decades, zeppelins were used in the first commercial airline service, ferrying passengers
from Germany to the Americas. Unfortunately, the zeppelin industry was destroyed by the public outcry
from the 1937 Hindenburg disaster, when a zeppelin exploded over New Jersey, killing 35 people.

Airplanes

The fixed-wing aircraft is the most popular form of air transportation available. According to
FlightAware, a flight tracking organization, there are 49,315 commercial flights around the world each
day that use fixed-wing aircraft. Nearly 1.1 billion people are flown `each year. Fixed-wing aircraft are
distinguishable from other types of air transportation in that they achieve lift through forward motion. A
long runway is needed for the vehicles to achieve enough velocity to become airborne. Airplanes use a
propeller or jet engine to power the aircraft, and the wings act as a stabilizer for keeping the vehicle in
the air.

The first design for functional fixed-wing aircraft dates back to the 1800s. Most of these designs
were models that were not large enough to hold passengers. The first official sustained flight was
performed by the Wright Brothers on Dec. 17, 1903. Over the next decade, advances in the technology
continued. World War I became the first full-scale testing ground for fixed-wing aircraft. Thousands of
planes were built for the purpose of spying, bombing and fighting. By the time the war ended, aviation
had become a science. Following the war, larger passenger planes were produced, and ultimately, the
jet engine was designed, making way for one of the fastest modes of transportation in the world.
Airplanes are used by militaries and civilian agencies around the world. They have been incorporated
with luxurious facilities in the case of passenger planes and extensive weapons systems for military use.

Also known as aircraft, airplanes or simply planes, an aeroplane is a powered, fixed-wing

aircraft. Using a jet engine, propellers or a rocket engine, an aeroplane flies through the air and is one of
the most popular types of air transport. Planes come in a huge variety of shapes and sizes with different

16
wing configurations, and are used in many ways. They are used to transport people and goods, for
research, within the military, simply for recreation and more. Planes are flown by an on-board pilot or a
group of pilots, with the help of automated technologies. The first plane was invented and flown by the
Wright brothers in 1903. Aeroplane technology was used in a limited way during World War I, and it
continued to develop from then on. It is ever-evolving, and planes make up a huge portion of all types of
air transport vehicles.

Current airliners making planes include:

 Airbus (France/Germany/Spain/United Kingdom)

 Antonov (Ukraine)
 ATR Aircraft (France/Italy)
 Boeing (USA)
 Bombardier (Canada)
 Comac (China)
 Embraer (Brazil)
 Let Kunovice (Czech Republic)
 Mitsubishi Aircraft Corporation (Japan)
 United Aircraft Corporation (Russia)
 Xi’an Aircraft Industrial Corporation (China)

Helicopters

With the success of the fixed-wing aircraft, engineers and technicians looked for a way to make
the general principles of airplanes, sustained and fast flight, more efficient. The goal was to develop a
flying vehicle that could take off from a sitting position and carry people to another location. This
invention is the helicopter. Helicopters are propelled using horizontal rotors consisting of two or more
blades. These blades rotate around the top of the machine, and achieve lift, pulling the body of the
helicopter along. Designs for the helicopter had been conceived as far back as the 1480s, with Leonard
da Vinci. However, it wasn't until the early 1900s that individuals created working models. The post-war
era saw the birth of the helicopter industry. However, most models can only carry four to six people,
limiting its commercial use. The primary applications for helicopters are in the military, law
enforcement, medical, news or fire control sectors.

Personal Air Transportation/Gliders

The mid-1900s saw the birth of a new type of air transportation: the personal vehicle.
Individuals invented autogyro, gliders and jet packs for the purpose of transporting a single person from
one place to another. Some of the earliest styles of helicopters were single-seat vehicles. This was the
inspiration for the autogyro. The autogyro uses elements from both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft in
order to fly. The lift is supplied by a rotor positioned on the mast. The stability and power for flight is
achieved by a rear propeller and a set of wings. Gliders use no power to control flight. They simply use
the stability of fixedwings to soar through the air. The controller can move flaps on the wings in order to
hit updrafts that keep the vehicle in the air. A jet pack is a device that is generally strapped to the back
and releases a powerful blast of gases that allow the user to fly. These devices are very inefficient, as
most models can only contain enough gases to sustain flight for a few minutes.

Rockets

17
 Perhaps the most advanced form of air transportation comes in the form of rockets. Rockets use
thrust obtained via the chemical reaction of a fluid that is ejected at high velocities from the vehicle. The
force from the explosion within the vehicle's combustion chamber forces gases out of the tail of the
rocket, pushing the vehicle to extremely high speeds. The principle is based on inertia, in that every
action has an equal and opposite reaction. Rockets have been used at least since the 13th century for
small-scale military applications and recreational displays. However, the first full-scale implementation
was during World War II with Germany's V-2 rockets and various rocket-powered aircraft. The post-war
era saw the rocket implemented as a mode of transportation that allowed for suborbital and orbital
flights in the upper atmosphere. These vehicles are used for both public and private enterprises.

AIRLINE INDUSTRY

The airline industry encompasses a wide range of businesses, called airlines, which offer air
transport services for paying customers or business partners. These air transport services are provided
for both human travelers and cargo. Airlines may offer scheduled and/or chartered services and the
airline industry forms a key part of the wider travel industry, providing customers with the ability to
purchase seats on flights and travel to different parts of the world. The airline industry offers a variety of
career paths, including pilots, flight attendants and ground crew.

Airline Industry and Aviation Industry?

The terms “airline industry” and “aviation industry” are sometimes thought of as being
synonymous, but in reality, they have different meanings. As stated, the airline industry refers to
companies that offer air transport services to paying customers, whereas the aviation industry includes
all aviation-related businesses.

The airline industry can be classed as just one sector of the wider aviation industry. In addition
to this sector, aviation companies would also include businesses like aircraft manufacturers, companies
offering non-commercial flights, aerospace companies, regulation authorities and those involved with
research.

Types of Airlines or Carriers

CAAP records show 70 airports within the Philippines. This includes international, domestic,
military, and private. But not all 70 have night landing facilities. This limits the operation of domestic
flights during the daytime for most domestic airports. To connect the many islands of the country, air
transportation

Airlines are often grouped into different categories and precise definitions can vary in different
parts of the world. However, broadly speaking, airlines or air carriers can be classified according to their
area of operation which are as follows:

1. International Airlines

International airlines are a group of the largest, most high-profile and most successful
airlines. They make billions in revenue each year and operate large passenger jets. These airlines
also tend to focus their efforts on offering global services, carrying passengers and cargo over

18
 large distances. Additionally, international airlines usually employ tens of thousands of people,
often have multiple hubs and will provide access to hundreds of destinations. Examples would
include Delta Air Lines and American Airlines.

2. National Airlines

National airlines represent the next step down from the largest international airlines.
They will typically offer both medium-sized and large-sized jets and will often focus on offering
services to areas within their home country, but many will offer access to international
destinations too. A national airline is still likely to employ thousands of people, but will have a
smaller fleet size. In many cases, the destinations they offer flights to are influenced by seasonal
fluctuations in demand. Examples of national airlines include Aloha, Atlas Air, Airtran, Emery
Worldwide, Evergreen, Hawaiian and Midwest Express.

3. Regional Airlines

Regional airlines are the smallest of the three main types and focus on offering services
within specific regions. In many cases, they provide passenger services to parts of the world with
lower levels of demand and where services are not offered by either national or international
airlines.

Regionals are divided into three subgroups:

o Large regionals - These are scheduled carriers with $20-million to $100-million in annual
revenue. They operate aircraft that can accommodate more than 60 passengers.

o Medium regionals - These airlines operate on a smaller scale, with operating revenues of
under $20-million, and often use only small aircraft.

o Small regionals - These airlines don't have a set revenue definition, but are usually
referred to as "commuter airlines." They use small aircraft with less than 61 seats.

Regional Airlines

1. Air Juan 5. Sky Jet Airlines

Hub: Puerto Princesa Hub: Manila
2. Airswift 6. Sunlight Air
Hub: Manila, El Nido Hub: Manila
3. Alpha Land Aviation 7. Sky Pasada
Hub: Manila, Clark Hub: Manila
4. Royal Air Philippines 8. XplorAsia Airways
Hub: Clark, Cebu Hub: Manila, Clark

Classification of Commercial Airlines

19
 There are a huge number of airlines around the world, each with different ways of doing
business. Nevertheless, most can be categorized as belonging to one of the four main business models,
which are as follows:

1.Full-Service Carriers

Full-service carriers are airlines that operate with a business model that includes offering a
range of pre-flight and on-board services with the price of the ticket. This may include, for instance,
checked baggage, in-flight meals and multiple service classes, such as first-class, business class, economy
class, etc.

Also called Network Airlines. These are the most "evolved" airlines and have global route
networks, huge hubs, huge fleets and multiple types of aircraft. With aircraft ranging from 50 to nearly
400 seats, network airlines can get you from Asheville to Shanghai, often in just one stop.
They carry a wide array of passengers, including leisure and business passengers traveling domestically
or internationally.

Their operations will typically include both passenger and cargo services, and frequent flyer
programmes are often on offer. In many parts of the world, full-service carriers are former state-owned
flag carriers, which have since been privatized. They usually offer domestic, international, long haul and
short-haul slights. Examples would include British Airways, American Airlines, Air France and Lufthansa.

2. Low-Cost Carriers

Low-cost carriers otherwise known as a budget airline are airlines that aim to gain a compelitive
advantage over full service carriers by reducing costs. This is done in a number of ways, including using
smaller fleets and smaller aircraft, and also by offering more limited services. Their business model tends
to center around promoting value for money.

For travelers, flights from low-cost carriers are often significantly cheaper. However, they tend
not to offer lounge services at airports and things like in-flight meals and baggage allowances will almost
certainly not be included in the price of the ticket. Instead, where they are available, customers pay for
them separately. LCC's generally cater to people going on vacation or enjoying other forms of leisure
travel, but each one does so differently.

The term Low cost airline originated within the airline which industry to refer to airlines which
have a lower operating cost structure than their competitors. The term is often applied to any carrier
with low ticket prices and limited services regardless of their operating models. However, low-cost
carriers should not be confused with regional airlines that operate short flights without service or cut-
price flight prices during seasonal sales. Examples would include Ryanair, Southwest Airlines, EasyJet
and Eurowings.

3.Charter Airlines

Also known as holiday carriers, air taxi or ad-hoc flights and require certification from that
country's national aviation authority. Regulations are different from typical commercial flights as they
offer a non-scheduled service.

20
 Charter airlines are focused very firmly on providing passenger services to tourists. In most
cases, however, they do not sell airline tickets directly. Instead, they will enter into agreements with
tour operators and/or travel agencies, who then take responsibility for finding passengers for them.

In terms of passenger services, charter airlines are often a "middle-ground" between full-service
and low-cost carriers. As with low-cost airlines, the business model does rely on reducing overall costs.
Yet, in many cases, in-flight meals and similar services will be included with the price of an airline ticket.

It is most popular in the US, but becoming more common in Europe followed by the Middle East,
Asia and Central America. Some charter airline companies include: Arab Wings, Kabo Air, Blue Bird
Aviation and Net Jets.

4.Scheduled airlines

Scheduled airlines operate flights that adhere to a particular schedule drawn up months - or
even years - in advance. Even if the flight is not full, it should continue to operate. Tickets are sold via
various sales channels, such as through travel agents, the airline website or ticket offices. Flights cater to
both business and leisure passengers, and these flights are where you will see the class system in place.
Low cost and charter airlines don't tend to offer much variety in terms of seating, but scheduled airlines
will have a variety of options: Economy, Premium Economy, Business Class and First Class.

The higher the class, the closer to the front of the aircraft your seat usually is and the more
expensive your ticket will be. You will get different benefits in each class, whether that's free drinks,
toiletries, more comfortable seats, a more private space, refund policies, extra baggage and more.

There are many different scheduled airlines providing air transport around the world. Some of
them are: British Airways, Emirates, Virgin Atlantic, Gulf Air, KLM, Cathay Pacific, Delta. Scheduled
airlines also offer charter services as well, including Champion Air, Luzair and Rayyan Air.

5.Cargo Airlines

Cargo airlines, also known as air freight carriers, are airlines that are either solely or primarily
focused on the air transportation of cargo or freight. Some cargo airlines, such as Lufthansa Cargo and
Emirates SkyCargo, are subsidiaries or sub-divisions of airlines that also offer passenger services.

Cargo airlines can be further broken down into traditional cargo carriers and integrated cargo
carriers. With the latter, all aspects of cargo transportation are controlled by the company, including the
ground or non-flight elements. Examples of airlines that would fit into the integrated cargo carrier
category include UPS Airlines and FedEx Express.

21
Biggest Airline Companies in the World

When it comes to identifying the largest airlines in the world, one of the most widely utilized
metrics is revenue passenger-kilometers (RPKs) and this information is published each year by the
International Air Transport Association (IATA). As the name indicates, this metric is the sum total of the
distances flown by each of the airline's paying passengers over the course of a year. With this in mind,
the seven biggest airline companies in the world today are:

Logo Name of Airlines

American Airlines

The biggest airline company in the airline industry

is American Airlines. Founded in 1926, American
Airlines is the largest airline in the world, not only
according to the aforementioned RPK metric, but
also based on fleet size, total passengers and
number of destinations served. The company has
its main headquarters in Fort Worth, Texas, flies
to around 350 destinations, and handles 200
million annual passengers
Delta Airlines

The second-largest airline company in the airline

industry is Delta Airlines. Based in Atlanta,
Georgia, in the USA, Delta Air Lines was
established in 1925 and commenced passenger
operations in 1929. The company, which employs
more than 80,000 people, operates in excess of
5,000 daily flights, covers more than 300
destinations and handles in the region of 200

22
 United Airlines

The third-largest airline company in the airline

industry is United Airlines. United Airlines was
founded in 1926 and started offering passenger
services in 1931. The company is based in
Chicago, Illinois and offers flights to more than
300 destinations. United Airlines is ranked as the
third-largest airline, not only by PK, but also by
fleet size, with more than 750 Boeing or Airbus
aircraft. In total, the airline has eight hubs, with
Chicago-O'Hare Airport serving as the main one.
Emirates

Another main airline company within the airline

industry is Emirates, based in Dubai, in the United
Arab Emirates. A state-owned airline, it started
operations in 1985 and is also recognized as one
of the largest airlines in the world for cargo
activities. Emirates currently has a fleet size of
more than 250 aircraft and is notable for not
having joined any of the major airline alliances. It
is estimated that Emirates provides flights for
more than 50 million annual passengers and
offers services to more than 150 destinations in
total. The company's sole hub is Dubai
International Airport.
Southwest Airlines

The fifth biggest airline company in the airline

industry is Southwest Airlines. Established in
1967 and commencing with passenger airline
services in 1971, Southwest Airlines is recognized
as the largest low-cost carrier in the world,
according to most metrics. It has more than
60,000 staff, operates with a fleet of more than
750 aircraft and carries more domestic
passengers than any other US airline. Unlike most
of the other airlines on this list, Southwest
Airlines does not have a main hub and instead
relies on a point-to-point system. Most of its
destinations are in North America and Central
America.
China Southern Airlines

The sixth biggest airline company in the airline

industry is China Southern Airlines. China

23
 Southern Airlines was founded in 1988 and is the
largest airline in Asia by fleet size, delivering is
services through more than 600 aircraft. The
company provides services to in excess of 200
destinations, carries around 150 million
passengers each year and employs somewhere in
the region of 100,000 staff. The airline's two main
hubs are Beijing Capital International Airport and
Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport.
RYANAIR

Ryanair is Founded in 1984, Ryanair is based in

Dublin, Ireland and is recognized as one of the
largest budget airlines in the world, providing
flights for more than 100 million passengers
every year. These flights cover 225 destinations
and the company has a fleet size of more than
300 aircraft. The airline makes use of a point-to-
point model, rather than having a central hub,
but its main operational bases can be found at
Dublin Airport and London Stanstead Airport. Its
route network centers on Europe and the Middle
East.

TYPES OF FLIGHT

Domestic and International flights

Air travel can be grouped into two general classifications:

1. Domestic Flights: Flights from one point to another within the same country
2. International Flights: Flights from a point in one country to a point of different country are
known as.

Non-Stop, Direct and Connecting Flights

 Ideal for: Busy travelers

 Price Range: The highest

1. Non-stop flights are exactly as they sound: a flight that goes from one destination to another
without stopping.

These flights have a single flight number and are often the most sought-after for
business travelers who value their time. They're always the fastest to arrive at their final
destination. With no stopovers, no matter how short, they won't be affected by unexpected
airport delays after takeoff. While great for business travelers that need to get from one place to
the next without issue, they are also generally the most expensive flights.

24
 2. Direct Flight
 Ideal for: Travelers that have more time, but still appreciate a quicker flight
 Price Range: Moderate to high

The term “ direct “ is often used interchangeably with “ non-stop flights “ when talking about
flights, as many people think they are the same thing. They are not.

Direct flights also have only one flight number, but they're different from nonstop flights in that they
stop at least once en route to their final destination to pick up or drop off passengers. Direct flights can
add up to an hour to your total flight time every time they stop, so they're not ideal for those in a hurry.
If time isn't as much of an issue, direct flights can be a rewarding option in that they can be cheaper than
non-stop flights. This isn't always the case. If given the option between a nonstop and direct flight for
approximately the same price, opt for the non-stop flight.

3. Connecting Flight

 Ideal for: International travelers, or those that value cheaper fares over shorter routes.
 Price Range: The lowest

If you book a connecting flight, it means that you will not only make a stop en route to you final
destination, but you will have to disembark your plane to get on a new plane. They usually have more
than one flight number and will generally come with a layover.

Connecting flights are usually not the most sought-after for business travelers that place a high value
on their time. Not only will you be spending extra time in the airport due to landing, disembarking and
layovers, but these flights can be influenced by unexpected airport or weather delays.

Connecting flights are often the only choice for international travelers. The big benefit of connecting
flights is the potential to save money. They're always less expensive than direct and non-stop flights - a
definite plus for travelers that don't mind taking a little extra time in their journey. Plus, increasingly
lavish airports and lounges mean that a little layover time isn't necessarily a bad thing.

Airline Ticket

25
 An airline ticket is a document or electronic record, issued by an airline or a travel agency, that
confirms that an individual is entitled to a seat on a flight on an aircraft. The airline ticket may be one of
two types: a paper ticket, which comprises coupons or vouchers; and an electronic ticket (commonly
referred to as an e-ticket). The ticket, in either form, is required to obtain a boarding pass during check-
in at the airport. Then with the boarding pass and the attached ticket, the passenger is allowed to board
the aircraft. Regardless of the type, tickets contain the following information:

 The passenger's name

 The issuing airline
 A ticket number, including the airline's three-digit code at the start of the number
 The cities between which the ticket is valid for travel
 Flight for which the ticket is valid (unless the ticket is "open")
 Baggage allowance.
 Fare. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)
 Taxes. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)
 The "Fare Basis", an alphabetic or alphanumeric code that identifies the fare
 Restrictions on changes and refunds. (Not always shown in detail, but referred to)
 Dates for which the ticket is valid.
 "Form of payment", i.e. details of how the ticket was paid for, which will in turn affect how it
would be refunded.
 The exchange rate used to calculate any international parts of the fare and tax
 A "Fare Construction" or "Linear" showing the breakdown of the total fare
 Times on airline tickets are generally for the local time zone where the flight will be at that
moment.

There are several factors that contribute to the cost of a fare:

 Purchase date - The earlier you buy a ticket, the cheaper it will be (most likely).Someone who
buys a ticket on the day the flight is entered is going to get a cheaper fare than someone who
buys a seat on the day of the flight.
 Class - first class is more expensive than coach.
 Destination - There are certain destinations that cost more, either because of the distance to the
destination or the popularity of the destination.

26
  Flight date and time - Flights that depart earlier in the day tend to have lower fares because
fewer people are flying then. Also, fares go up in the summer vacation season.
 Fuel costs - Fuel is an airline's second largest expense. Any increase in fuel costs is usually passed
onto passengers in the ticket price.
 Competitors' fares - An airline has to be careful not to price their fares too much higher than
their competitors.
 Special factors - There are certain specialty fares given to senior citizens, government and
military employees and corporate customers.

Popular Websites to Book Airline Tickets

 Airline own websites

 Skyscanner
 Travelocity
 Expedia
 Booking.com
 Cheapoair
 Tripadvisor
 Travelzoo
 Momondo

Air Transport Organizations

Logo Organization
Air Transport Association

The premier trade group of the principal

U.S. airlines. ATA airline members and their
affiliates transport more than 90% of U.S. airline
passenger and cargo traffic. ATA serves Its
member airlines and their customers by assisting
the airline industry in continuing to provide the
world's safest system of transportation;
transmitting technical expertise and operational
knowledge to improve safety, service and
efficiency; advocating fair airline taxation and
regulation worldwide to foster a healthy,
competitive industry; and by developing and
coordinating industry actions that are
environmentally beneficial, economically
reasonable and technologically feasible.
Flight Safety Foundation (FSA)

An independent, nonprofit, international

organization engaged in research, auditing,
education, advocacy and publishing to improve
aviation safety. The Foundation's mission is to

27
 pursue the continuous improvement of global
aviation safety and the prevention of accidents.
The Foundation, with members from more than
142 nations around the globe, transcends local,
regional or national political interests.
General Aviation Manufacturers Association
(GAMA)

A national trade association representing

55 manufacturers of fixed-wing aircraft, engines,
avionics, and components. In addition to building
nearly all the general aviation aircraft flying in the
United States today, GAMA member companies
also operate aircraft fleets, airport fixed-based
operations, pilot schools, and training facilities
across the nation.
Global Industry Association and Organization

With the huge disparity between the

superpowers and economically smaller countries,
the global industry associations and organizations
serves as the intermediaries and coordinators
among the members airlines and countries
(Zapanta,2009). There is often a difference
between in interests for each member airline and
country. Here is where IATA and ICAO come in by
being impartial to the influence of the stronger
countries and bigger airlines
International Air Transport Association (IATA)

An international trade body representing

some 240 airlines comprising 94% of scheduled
international air traffic. IATA's aim is to help
airlines help themselves by simplifying processes
and increasing passenger convenience while
reducing costs and improving efficiency. Safety is
IATA's number one priority, and IATA's goal is to
continually improve safety standards, notably
through ATA's Operational Safety Audit (IOSA).
Another main concern is to minimize the impact
of air transport on environment.

28
 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

The International Civil Aviation Organization

(ICAO) is a specialized agency of the United
Nations. It changes the principles and techniques
of international air navigation and fosters the
planning and development of international air
transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.
Society of Experimental Test Pilots (SET)

The Society of Experimental Test Pilots is an

international organization that seeks to promote
air safety and contributes to aeronautical
advancement by promoting sound aeronautical
design and development; interchanging ideas,
thoughts and suggestions of the members,
assisting in the professional development of
experimental pilots, and providing scholarships
and aid to members and the families of deceased
members

AIRPORT CODES

Airport codes arose out of the convenience that the practice brought pilots for location
identification in the 1930s. Initially, pilots in the United States used the two-letter code from the
National Weather Service (NWS) for identifying cities. This system became unmanageable for cities and
towns without an NWS identifier, and the use of two letters allowed only a few hundred combinations; a
three- letter system of airport codes was implemented. This system allowed for 17,576 permutations,
assuming all letters can be used in conjunction with each other. An IATA airport code, also known as an
IATA location identifier, IATA station code, Or simply a location identifier, is a three- letter geocode
designating many airports and metropolitan areas around the world, defined by the International Air
Transport Association (IATA). The characters prominently displayed on baggage tags attached at airport
check-in desks are al example of a way these codes are used.

The assignment of these codes is governed by IATA Resolution 763, and it is administered by the
IATA's headquarters in Montreal. The codes are published semi-annually in the IATA Airline Coding
Directory.

The assignment of these codes is governed by IATA Resolution 763, and it is administered by the
IATA's headquarters in Montreal. The codes are published semi-annually in the IATA Airline Coding
Directory.

Lesson 8 : IATA AND ICAO CODES

International Air Transport Association (IATA) - is a trade association of the world's airlines founded in
1945. IATA has been described as a cartel since, in addition to setting technical standards for airlines,
IATA also organized tariff conferences that served as a forum for price fixing.

29
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) - is a specialized agency of the United Nations that
coordinates the principles and techniques of international air navigation, and fosters the planning and
development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.

LIST OF AIRPORTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

A
# Airport Name and City IATA ICAO
1 Allah Valley Airport AAV RPMA
Surallah
2 Awang Airport CBO RPWC
Cotabato
B
3 Bacolod Airport BCD RPVB
Bacolod
4 Baganga Airport BNQ RPUZ
Baganga
5 Baler Airport BQA RPUR
Baler
6 Basco Airport BSO RPUO
Basco
7 Bislig Airport BPH RPMF
Bislig
8 Butuan Airport BXU RPWE
Butuan
C
9 Cagayan De Oro Domestic Airport CGY RPWL
Cagayan De Oro
10 Cagayan De Sulu Airport CDY RPMU
Cagayan De Sulu
11 Calbayog Airport CYP RPVC
Calbayog
12 Cauayan Airport CYZ RPUY
Cauayan
13 CLR Airport RZP SBRF
Taytay Sandoval
14 Coron Airport XCN RPVV
Coron
15 Cubi Pt NAS Airport NCP
Luzon Is
16 Culion Airport CUJ
Culion
17 Cuyo Airport CYU RPLO
Cuyo
D
18 D.Z. Romualdez Airport TAC RPVA

30
 Tacloban
19 Diosdado Macapagal International CRK RPLC
Airport
Angeles City
20 Dipolog Airport DPL RPMG
Dipolog
21 Dumaguete Airport DGT RPVD
Dumaguete
E
22 El Nido Airport ENI
El Nido
23 Evelio Javier Airport EUQ RPVS
Antique
F
24 Francisco Bangoy International Airport DVO RPWD
Davao
G
25 General Santos International Airport GES RPMB
General Santos
I
26 Iloilo International Airport ILO RPVI
Iloilo
27 Imelda Romualdez Marcos Airport MXI RPMQ
Mati
28 Ipil Airport IPE RPMV
Ipil
J
29 Jolo Airport JOL RPMJ
Jolo
K
30 Kalibo Airport KLO RPVK
Kalibo
L
31 Labo Airport OZC RPMO
Ozamis City
32 Laoag International Airport LAO RPLI
Laoag
33 Legazpi Airport LGP RPMP
Legazpi
34 Loakan Airport BAG RPUB
Baguio
35 Lubang Airport LBX RPLU
Lubang
M
36 Mactan-Cebu International Airport CEB RPMC
Cebu
37 Malabang Airport MLP RPMM

31
 Malabang
38 Malay Airport MPH RPVE
Caticlan
39 Mambajao Airport CGM RPMH
Camiguin
40 Mamburao Airport MBO FAMM
Mamburao
41 Maramag Airport XMA
Maramag
42 Maria Cristina Airport IGN RPMI
Iligan
43 Marinduque Airport MRQ RPUW
Marinduque
44 Masbate Airport MBT RPVJ
Masbate
45 Mcguire Fld Airport SJI RPVS
San Jose
N
46 NAF Airport NSP RPLS
Sangley Point
47 Naga Airport DTE RPUD
Daet
48 Naga Airport WNP RPUN
Naga
49 National Airport CRM RPVF
Catarman
50 Ninoy Aquino International Airport MNL RPMM
Manila
O
51 Ormoc Airport OMC RPVO
Ormoc
P
52 Pagadian Airport PAG RPMP
Pagadian
53 Puerto Princesa Airport PPS RPVP
Puerto Princesa
54 Puerto Princessa Airport USU RPVV
Busuanga

R
55 Romblon Airport TBH RPVU
Tablas
56 Roxas City Airport RXS RPVR
Roxas City
S
57 San Fernando Airport SFE RPUS
San Fernando

32
 58 Sanga Sanga Airport SGS RPMN
Sanga Sanga
59 Sangley Point NAS Airport SGL
Cavite City
60 Siasi Airport SSV
Siasi
61 Sicogon Island Airport ICO
Sicogon Island
62 Siocon Airport XSO
Siocon
63 Surigao Airport SUG RPMS
Surigao
T
64 Tagbilaran Airport TAG RPVT
Tagbilaran
65 Tagbita Airport TGB
Tagbita
66 Tandag Airport TDG RPMW
Tandag
67 Tawitawi Airport TWT
Tawitawi
68 Tuguegarao Airport TUG RPUT
Tuguegarao
V
69 Virac Airport VRC RPUV
Virac
Z
70 Zamboanga International Airport ZAM
RPMZ
Zamboanga

ICAO VS. IATA Codes

ICAO codes are four-letter codes used by a appendant body of the United Nations to designate
international flights and govern the standards of air travel.

IATA codes are three-letter codes used by a non-governmental trade organization to efficiently
identify airports, airlines, and flight paths for consumers.

An Overview of the Airline Industry in the Philippines

The airline industry in the Philippines continues to be a booming business. This year, it is
projected that the growth of the industry is going to be robust through various joint-agreements with
our neighboring countries, as well as the expansions underway. One expansion project is the re-fleeting
plan of the top airlines in the country, Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific. Specifically, Philippine Airlines
is thinking of acquiring aircraft suitable for long-haul, which would increase the number of passenger
traffic.

33
 But what do we know of this industry aside from the large airplanes we see and travel with from
time to time? Here are facts about the airline industry in the Philippines.

Timeline of the airline industry

• 1931 – To handle the airline matters, the government created an office under of the
Department of Commerce and Communications.
• 1941 – The first domestic airline, Philippine Airlines (PAL), was founded. PAL is now also the flag
carrier airline of the Philippines.
• 1952 – The Civil Aeronautics Board and the Civil Aeronautics Administration was reorganized
due to the Republic Act 776.
• 1973– As it is the sole domestic airline, Philippine Airlines (PAL) was virtually monopolizing the
country’s aviation industry.
• 1974– PAL continues to dominate the industry by having the monopoly on domestic travels.
• 1978 – The airline was given a new franchise, however, under a provision that the government
regulated the fares.
• 1995 – The industry was liberalized with the establishment of domestic and international civil
aviation liberalization policy and the government control was removed.
• 1999 – Competing airlines increased. Due to this, PAL’s market share decreased.

Moreover, here is the current airline industry in numbers:

According to the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines, the country has 71 airports. Eleven of
them can handle international flights. 32 of them only accommodate domestic travel, and 28 of them
are primarily used for general navigation. The most prominent of these airports is the Ninoy Aquino
International Airport, which is located in Pasay City. It has four terminals and can handle hundreds of
both international and domestic flights every day, making it by far the busiest airport in the country.

In these airports are hundreds of planes coming in and out, handled by different airlines. There
are four major commercial airlines in the country: Cebu Pacific, Air Asia, Philippine Airlines, and Skyjet.
These airlines carry majority of the international and domestic flights in the country.

Air travel has made it easier for people to travel from place to place, no matter how far they are.
Evidently, travelers can be considered the lifeblood of the airline industry. As of August 2016, more than
500 thousand tourists visited the Philippines, according to the data from the Department of Tourism.
The majority of the visitors are coming in also from Asia, visitors coming from America coming second.
These visitors primarily come through airports in Manila, Cebu, Kalibo, Clark, and Davao, respectively.

These facts can prove that this country can be a good training ground and place for pilots,
because of its flourishing airline industry. There are many career and growth opportunities for aspiring
pilots.

Aside from the booming airline industry, Philippines also have good flight schools, such as WCC
Aviation School. They have the best instructors, facilities, and safety certifications that make them the
perfect flight school. Visit their website for more information.

34
 In 1991 there were two international airports: Manila's Ninoy Aquino International Airport and
Mactan. International Airport near Cebu City. Slightly over 1 million visitors arrived in the Philippines by
air in 1988. About half of the national airports were served by the main domestic and international
carrier, Philippine Air Lines. No additional airport construction was anticipated in the Medium-Term
Development Plan, 1987-92. Thereafter, Manila's international airport, which is too small to handle
expected increases in air traffic, would need to be relocated. During the talks between the United States
and the Philippines in 1990, concerning the future of the two major United States military facilities in
the Philippines, there was public discussion of relocating the international airport to the United States
facility, Clark Air Base and making Ninoy Aquino a domestic airport.

Domestic and International Airports in the Philippines

The Philippines has some of the busiest airports in Asia. Following the aggressive campaigns by the
Tourism Department in recent years, the country has since enjoyed tremendous growth in terms of
tourist arrivals from both the domestic and international markets.

List of the local and international airports in the Philippine

 International Airports
 Principal Domestic Airport Class 1
 Principal Domestic Airport Class 2
 Community Airports

International Airports

All of the airports under this category include airports that are capable of handling international
flights or have served international destinations before.

1. Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA)

The airport is named after Ninoy Aquino, husband of the former president Cory Aquino. In 2016,
this international airport underwent some major upgrade in services and facilities. The Philippine
government is determined to make this airport one of the best in the world. The airport has 4 terminals
and all of them have Wi-Fi access.

Terminal 1 Address: Ninoy Aquino Ave., Pasay, Metro Manila

Terminal 2 Address: NAIA Rd., Pasay, Metro Manila
Terminal 3 Address: Andrews Ave., Pasay, Metro Manila Terminal 4 Address: Aurora Blvd., Pasay, Metro
Manila

HISTORY OF NAIA

Manila Ninoy Aquino International Airport (IATA: MNL, ICAO: RPLL), which is also known under
its codename ‘Nichols Field’ (Nichols), started its operation in 1935 in Grace Park, Caloocan. Initially was
used by the Philippine Air Lines (Philippine Aerial Taxi Company back then) for the domestic flights only.

35
 In July 1937, the airport became the hub for the flights to Manila. Only in 1948, the airport was
moved to the nowadays site ‘Nichols Field/Nichols Air Base’ which was established in 1919 and later on
became the home for the Philippine Air Force (PAF).

Manila Ninoy Aquino International Airport – 2007

In September 1961 the 1st official terminal for international flights was built, however, was
damaged by the fire back in 1972. Therefore, the smaller terminal was constructed on its place as a
temporary solution until 1981, when Terminal 1 (as it is known now) was built to manage all
international flights. In August 1987 the Terminal 1 was named after Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr., leader
of an opposition movement, who was assassinated at the Manila International Airport in 1983 after
returning from his self-imposed exile in the United States.

In 1998 Terminal 2 (the Centennial Terminal) was constructed and the construction coincided
with the 100th anniversary of the Philippines Declaration of Independence from Spain. Earlier in 1997,
the construction of Terminal 3 was approved, however, it has started its partial operation only in 2008
due to some technical and legal issues.

2. Bacolod-Silay International Airport

Bacolod-Silay International Airport is the main airport serving the metro area of Bacolod and
Negros Oriental. It is designed to handle an excess of one million passengers and around 16,715 tons of
cargo yearly. It has 21 buildings and a floor space of 10,075 square meters.

Address: Airport Rd., Silay City, Negros Occidental

3. Clark International Airport

Clark International Airport, also known as the Diosdado Macapagal International Airport. This is
a historical airport and was once the largest overseas base of the United States Air Force until it was
closed down in 1991 and transferred over to the Government of the Philippines.

The airport has three terminals and currently, renovations are being made to improve service.
Also, this airport is now easier to access due to the Subic-Clark-Tarlac Expressway.

Address: Andres Bonifacio Ave., Clark Freeport Zone, Mabalacat, Pampanga

4. Puerto Princesa International Airport

Located in one of the most beautiful places in the world, the Puerto Princesa International
Airport serves as the gateway to the UNESCO World Heritage site, the Puerto Princesa Underground
River. It is part of the New 7 Wonders of Nature.

Address: Rizal Ave., Brgy. San Miguel, Puerto Princesa, Palawan

5. Mactan–Cebu International Airport

36
 This airport was originally built by the United States Air Force in 1956 as an emergency airport
landing for Strategic Air Command bombers and remained as a Spartan outpost until the Vietnam War.

Now, it is the second busiest airport in the Philippines with over 4.5 million passengers traveling
yearly. Mactan-Cebu International Airport Authority underwent a redesign in 2009 so that it would be
able to handle the increasing volume of passenger traffic.

Address: Lapu-Lapu Airport Road, Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu

6. Subic Bay International Airport

It used to be the Naval Air Station Cubi Point of the United States Navy. It is now Asia’s largest
private aviation port when it comes to its hangar space of 100,000 square feet.

Address: Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Zambales

7. Francisco Bangoy International Airport

Known as the Davao International Airport, it is considered as the main airport serving Mindanao
business operations. It is able to handle 2 million passengers yearly and this airport is set for
modernization and improvements. The aim is to make it a hub for tourism and foreign investments.

Address: Buhangin, Davao City, Davao Del Sur

8. General Santos International Airport

Found in General Santos City and located in Barangay Fatima, the General Santos International
Airport is the largest airport island of Mindanao. It was declared as an international airport by the Civil
Aviation Authority of the Philippines. This airport is now being used as an air station by the Philippine Air
Force.

Address: Filipino-American Friendship Ave., General Santos City, South Cotabato

9. Iloilo International Airport

Also known as the Cabatuan Airport, the Iloilo Airport was first opened commercially in 2007. It
is the fourth busiest airport in the Philippines and it was built on par with international standards. It is
one of the biggest airports constructed in the country and it is also seen as one of the most modern in
the country.

Address: Iloilo Airport Access Rd., Cabatuan, Iloilo

10. Bicol International Airport

Costing 3.5 million pesos to create, this airport in the municipality of Daraga is set to change the
way we see international airports in the country.

Address: Southern Luzon International Airport Access Rd., Daraga, Albay, Bicol

37
11. Kalibo International Airport

If you are scheduled to go to Boracay, then this is one of the two airports where you can land.
The Kalibo International Airport has the fastest growing number of passenger visits and at times it also
caters to international flights and services in international locations like Taipei.

Address: Kalibo International Airport Access Rd., Kalibo, Aklan

12. Laoag International Airport

Famous as a charter destination for tourists coming from China, this main airport in Ilocos Norte
is undergoing changes to meet international standards.

Address: Brgy. 43, Laoag City, Ilocos Norte

13. Zamboanga International Airport

With 270 hectares, it is the third busiest airport located in the Philippines. It serves both civilian
and military type of flights in the country.

Address: Gov. Camins Rd., Brgy. Baliwasan, Zamboanga City

These airports serve only domestic destinations and are divided into two classes.

1. Principal Domestic Airport Class 1

Under the Principal Domestic Airports Class 1 category, you’ll find airports that serve aircrafts
with a capacity of at least 100 seats.

 Bancasi (Butuan) Airport

 Awang (Cotabato) Airport
 Dipolog Airport
 Sibulan (Dumaguete) Airport
 Laguindingan Airport
 Naga (Pili) Airport
 Pagadian Airport
 Roxas Airport
 San Jose Airport
 Tagbilaran Airport
 Tuguegarao Airport
 Virac Airport

2.Principal Domestic Airport Class 2

Class 2 category airports serve propeller airplanes with a capacity of at least 19 seats.

 Basco Airport

38
 Sanga-Sanga (Tawi-Tawi) Airport
 Francisco B. Reyes (Busuanga-Coron) Airport
 Calbayog Airport
 Camiguin Airport
 Catarman National Airport
 Godofredo P. Ramos (Caticlan/Boracay) Airport
 Jolo Airport
 Dipolog Airport
 Marinduque Airport
 Moises R. Espinosa (Masbate) Airport
 Tugdan (Tablas/Romblon) Airport
 Sayak (Siargao) Airport
 Surigao Airport

Community Airports

Community Airports in the Philippines are used mostly for general aviation purposes like serving
private jets, medical flights, flight training, and agricultural aviation. A few of the community airports in
the Philippines include:

 Baler Airport
 Bislig Airport
 Borongan (Punta Maria) Airport
 Bantayan Airport Cauayan Airport
 Itbayat Airport
 Labo (Ozamiz) Airport
 Palanan Airport
 San Fernando (Poro Point) Airport
 Mindoro (Vigan) Airport

Best Airports in the Philippines

There are 4 international airports that have been listed on Asia’s best airports list and this
includes the Iloilo International Airport, Mactan-Cebu International Airport, Clark International Airport
and Davao International Airport as stated by Sleeping in Airports’ 30 Best Airports in Asia for 2016.

The Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines

LOGO OF CAA and BUILDING OF CAA

39
 Almost every international and domestic airport in the country is being headed by the Civil
Aviation Authority of the Philippines.

A government owned agency that is connected with the Department of Transportation, they are
the ones responsible for the implementation of the policies for each airport. This is to ensure that the
airports are safe and efficient for economic and business travels.

The Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines (Pangasiwaan ng Abyasyon Sibil ng Pilipinas) is the
national aviation authority of the Philippines and is responsible for implementing policies on civil
aviation to assure safe, economic and efficient air travel. The agency also investigates aviation accidents
via its Aircraft Accident Investigation and Inquiry Board. Formerly Air Transportation Office, it is an
independent regulatory body attached to the Department of Transportation for the purpose of policy
coordination.

Legislative Act No. 3909 passed by the Congress of the Philippines on November 20, 1931
created an Office under the Department of Commerce and Communications to handle aviation matters,
particularly the enforcement of rules and regulations governing commercial aviation as well as private
flying. It was amended by Act 3996 to include licensing of airmen and aircraft, inspection of aircraft
concerning air traffic rules, schedules and rates and enforcement of Aviation Laws.

From 1932 to 1936, there were no standard procedures as to the licensing of airmen,
registration of aircraft and recording of various aeronautical activities connected with commercial
aviation. There were attempts made to register planes and their owners without ascertaining their
airworthiness and to record names of pilots, airplane mechanics and other details.

In 1933, the office of Technical Assistant of Aviation matters was enlarged into the Aeronautics
Division under the Department of Commerce and Industry, the functions of which were embodied in
Administrative Order No. 309, a joint Bulletin issued by the Department of Public Works and
Communications and the Department of Finance.

In October 1934, Act 4033 was passed to require a franchise from the Philippine government in
order to operate an air service and to regulate foreign aircraft operations.

On November 12, 1936, the Congress of the Philippines passed Commonwealth Act No. 168,
better known as the Civil Aviation Law of the Philippines which created the Bureau of Aeronautics. After
the liberation of the Philippines in March 1945, the Bureau was reorganized and placed under the
Department of National Defense. Among its functions was to promulgate Civil Aviation Regulations.

On October 1947, Executive Order No. 94 which reorganized the government transferred the
Bureau of Aeronautics to the newly created Department of Commerce and Industry and renamed Civil
Aeronautics Administration (CAA).

On June 5, 1948, Republic Act 224 created the National Airports Corporation which was charged
with the management and operations of all national airports.

On June 20, 1952, Republic Act No. 776, otherwise known as the Civil Aeronautics Act of the
Philippines reorganized the Civil Aeronautics Board and the Civil Aeronautics Administration. It defined

40
the powers and duties of both agencies including the funds, personnel and the regulations of Civil
Aviation.

On January 20, 1975, Letter of Instruction No. 244 transferred to the Department of Public
Highways the responsibilities relative to airport plans, designs, construction, improvement, maintenance
as well as site acquisition. The responsibilities related to location, planning design and funding were
later returned to the CAA.

On July 23, 1979, under Executive Order No. 546, the CAA was renamed the Bureau of Air
Transportation (BAT) and placed under the Ministry of Transportation and Communications.

On April 13, 1987, Executive Order No. 125-A renamed the Bureau of Air Transportation the Air
Transportation Office headed by the Assistant Secretary of Air Transportation.

On March 4, 2008, the Civil Aviation Authority Act of 2008 was signed into law which replaced
the Air Transportation Office with the Civil Aviation Authority, an independent regulatory body with
quasi-judicial and quasi-legislative powers with corporate attributes.

Different Jargons in the Air Industry

Jargons in Air Industry

APEX Advance Purchase Excursion (fare). These are
usually the cheapest tickets the passenger can
get though they are restricted in number
Airport Code The three-digit code unique to a specific airport,
eg. LHR for Heathrow or LGW for Gatwick.
Back-to-back ticketing When the passenger combines two return trips
with opposite start and destination points but
uses only a single segment from each to achieve
a lower overall fare.
Baggage allowance The weight of the airline's luggage allows the
traveler to check-in.
Base fare/rate The introductory price of the ticket before taxes
and other surcharges are added (these are
usually a substantial amount, particularly on
longer flights).

Jargons in Air Industry

Boarding pass A card given to the passenger after check-in
which allocates a seat number or indicates a
boarding pattern.
Blackout periods specific days or periods of time when special
rates are not available due to high demand for
flights.
Budget / Low-cost airlines These are short-haul flights are bargain prices
but with occasional drawbacks.
Bumped. This means that the number of seats on the flight

41
 has been oversold.
Cancellation charges Penalties that you will incur if you cancel your
flights, Most fares have this clause in them so
travel insurance is advisable if your plans are
likely to change.
Capacity-controlled fares A certain number of seats on a flight to which a
cheaper price has been allocated.
Carrier The organization responsible for transporting
passengers or goods – in terms of flight, this will
be the airline.
Carry-on Hand baggage or luggage that has not been
checked in.
Charter An aircraft that is used by a specific group be it
customers of a particular holiday company or an
individual party.
Check-in The time before departure when your luggage
goes onto the airline and boarding cards are
issued For long-haul this is 2 hours whilst short-
haul is approximately 1 hour.
City pair The chosen cities for departure and arrival.
Commission The percentage of a ticket price that airlines pay
their agents.
Companion fare. usually part of a promotion where another ticket
may be purchased at a lower rate than the
original fare.
Contract of carriage This is the legal contract that the passenger
enters into with the airline with the terms
outlined when the traveler receives the ticket.
Confirmation Oral or written communication that informs the
carrier that you will definitely be on a flight or
flights.
Construction tickets Term given to two single tickets bought to make
up a return flight.
Connecting flights A journey where the passenger must change
planes to reach their final destination.
Connecting point the airport where the traveler changes planes.
Consolidators Airlines often sell blocks of seats to a third party
who then sells these to passengers at discounted
prices.
Corporate rate This is the discounted rate that organizations and
companies can negotiate with the airlines.
Carrier The organization responsible for transporting
passengers or goods – in terms of flight, this will
be the airline.
Coupon This is part of the ticket that the passenger hands
over at check-in and also contains the contract of
carriage.

42
 Direct flights A flight where the passenger does not need to
change planes but the aircraft may stop en route.
Discounted tickets by shopping around you will often be able to find
agents selling cheaper tickets than those
advertised by the airlines but usually, you will be
subject to various restrictions.
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
EST Eastern Standard Time (GMT – 5hrs)
Excess baggage Checked-in luggage which exceeds the weight of
the baggage allowance.
ETD Estimated time of departure
Hidden City fairing This is when a passenger organizes their flights to
achieve a final destination that is different from
their official itinerary in order to get a lower fare.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) The international time standard (also known as
UTC – Coordinated Universal time).
Hub A major airport where an airline has many flights
leaving to smaller destination.
IATA International Air Transportation Association
Illegal Connection Flights that are booked where the time between
landing and taking off on the next flight does not
adhere to the legal minimum requirements.
Indirect flights This means the passenger will have to leave the
plane at some stage during the journey either so
that it can refuel or possibly so that the traveler
can change planes in order to complete the trip.
Interline / Interlining Using multiple airlines to reach the final
destination.
Joint fare An arrangement between carriers to charge
special rates when a passenger uses their
respective airlines.
Long haul flight A flight of considerable distance and time – often
with the passengers suffering some significant jet
lag along the way.
Lowest Fare Routing (LFR) The cheapest legal flight to the traveler's chosen
destination.
Minimum connecting time The smallest amount of time that is allowed to
change planes at an airport. If these conditions
are breached it is known as an illegal connection.
Multi-hop or multi-leg A journey where the passenger does not just fly
between two airports to reach their final
destination but where they stop en-route any
number of times and perhaps spend time in each
of the destinations (see Stopover).
Net fare or Net Rate The price of a ticket minus any third-party
commission or tax.
Non-endorsable A ticket that cannot be used to fly with another

43
 airline.
Non-stop flight. A flight that goes directly from A to B without
landing en route.
Non-transferable A ticket that is specifically for just one passenger
and cannot be used by anyone else.
No-shows The term relating to passengers who either arrive
late or do not arrive at all to travel on their
booked flight.
Offline connection A journey where the passenger travels on
multiple planes using multiple airlines.
Open-jaw A ticket that allows the traveler to depart from a
different airport to the one in which they landed.
Package Flights, hotels, and services which are bundled
together and sold at a specific price.
Passenger coupon The final portion of a ticket that acts as a receipt
for the passenger’s own records.
PDT PDT – Pacific Daylight Time (GMT – 8hrs)
Penalty fare The amount the passenger has to pay in order to
make a change to the travel arrangements or
cancel the ticket once it has been issued.
Segment An identifiable leg or part of the journey. Usually
defined by departure and arrival destinations.
Short-haul flight One that is brief in terms of distance traveled
and time in the air.
Situated in, ticketed in (SITI) Where you buy the ticket from the country you
are leaving.
Situated Out, Ticketed Out (SOTO) Where the ticket is bought from your destination
country.
Split Ticketing When you travel using two single tickets instead
of a return in order to obtain a lower fare.
Standby This is if a passenger holds a ticket that does not
automatically guarantee a reserved seat means
instead that they are waiting for availability.
Stopover An overnight stay (or possibly longer) at a
location en route to your final destination.
Surface sector The distance between departure airports using
an open-jaw ticket.
Ticket issuance Purchasing tickets that have previously been
reserved.
Window of convenience The traveler’s ideal departure or arrival time –
plus or minus two hours.

44
45