Cells

1 Describe and compare the structure of a plant cell with an animal cell, limited to: cell
wall, cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, ribosomes, mitochondria,
vacuoles
2 Describe the structure of a bacterial cell, limited to: cell wall, cell membrane,
cytoplasm, ribosomes, circular DNA, plasmids
3 Identify the cell structures in diagrams and images of plant, animal and bacterial cells
4 Describe the functions of the structures in plant, animal and bacterial cells
5 State that new cells are produced by division of existing cells
6 State that specialised cells have specific functions, limited to:
(a) ciliated cells – movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi
(b) root hair cells – absorption (c) palisade mesophyll cells – photosynthesis
(d) neurones – conduction of electrical impulses
(e) red blood cells – transport of oxygen
(f) sperm and egg cells (gametes) – reproduction
7 Describe the meaning of the terms: cell, tissue, organ, organ system and organism as
illustrated by examples given in the syllabus
 Cell the basic unit of life
• Cell: The basic unit of structure and function of all living
organisms is the cell.
• Cell are very small in size and can be seen with a
microscope only.
• There are 2 basic type of cells:
• Eukaryotic cells which are of 2 types:
• Animal cells
• Plant cells
• Prokaryotic cells
• Unicellular organisms: Some organisms are unicellular,
which means that they are made of just a single cell, and
can exist independently, eg: bacteria and yeast.
• Multicellular organisms: Large organisms may contain
millions of cells.
 Microscopes
• Microscopes are used to see cells clearly.
• 2 types: i) Light microscope ii) Electron microscope
• The kind of microscope used in a school laboratory is
called a light microscope.
• It shines light through the piece of animal or plant
tissue.
• Glass lenses are used to magnify and focus the
image.
• A very good light microscope can magnify about
1500 times (x1500)
• A photograph taken using a light microscope is
called a photomicrograph.
Light microscope
 Electron microscope
• An electron microscope is used to see smaller things
inside a cell.
• We can see many structures more clearly
• We can see some structures that cannot be seen at
all with a light microscope
• This type of microscope uses a beam of electrons
instead of light.
• It can magnify things up to 500 000 times (x500000).
• A picture taken with an electron microscope is called
an electron micrograph
Electron microscope
An animal cell as it appears through a light
microscope
A plant cell as it appears through a light
microscope
Cells from trachea (windpipe) of a mammal
In a plat cell (moss) the cell membranes cannot be seen
because they are pressed tightly against the inside of the cell
walls.
Electron microscopes do not provide images that show the
colours of the different parts. Often, colour is added to the
image afterwards (false colour imaging).
 Sizes of specimens
• Many of the structures that biologists study are very
small. Cells, for example, are so small that we cannot
see them without a microscope.
• Magnification is defined as, how many times larger
the image is than the actual object.
• It can be calculated using the formula:
• magnification = size of image
size of actual object
 Calculations
• There are two very important things to remember when you
are calculating a magnification:
• Make sure that all the numbers in your calculation have the
same units.
• For bigger images it is often a good idea to convert everything
to millimetres, mm.
• Magnification is always written with a multiplication sign in
front of it, × , eg: X100.
• Magnification does not have units.
• Some of the objects that we study in biology are so small that
we use micrometres. The symbol for a micrometre is μm.
• 1 mm= 1000um
• 1 m= 1000000 um (10 6 μm)
The length of the spider in the photograph is 40 mm
long. The real spider was 8 mm long. So, we can work
out how much the diagram is magnified: M = I / A
CW - Mitochondrion
 Question
1. The mitochondrion in the previous slide is magnified
20000 times.
a) Using a ruler, carefully measure the maximum length of
the mitochondrion. Record your measurement in mm
(millimetres).
b) Convert your answer to µm (micrometres).
c) Use this formula to calculate the real size of the
mitochondrion in µm:
d) real size in μm = size of image in um / magnification
e) How many of these mitochondria could you line up
end to end between two of the mm marks on your
ruler?
 Cell membrane
• Every cell has a cell surface membrane around the outside.
• It is a very thin layer of protein and fat.
• It is very important to the cell because it controls what goes
in and out of it.
• It is said to be partially permeable, which means that it will
let some substances through but not others.
• It allows fat soluble substances to pass but not the water
soluble ones. In general, oxygen, food and water are
allowed to enter; waste products are allowed to leave; and
harmful substances are kept out.
• It separates the contents of the cell from its environment.
• Difficult to see in a plant cell, because it is pressed tightly
against the inside of the cell wall.
Cell membrane
 Membrane around organelles
• Several cell organelles have a membrane around them.
• Here too the membrane is partially permeable.
• It allows some but not all the substances to pass
through.
• For example endoplasmic reticulum and
vacuole/vesicles have a single membrane around them.
• This is like the cell surface membrane which is a single
membrane.
• Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast have two
membranes around them.
• Ribosomes do not have a membrane around them.
Cell membrane in animal and plant cell
 Cell wall
• All plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall made
mainly of cellulose, eg: Paper.
• Animal cells never have cell walls.
• Cellulose belongs to a group of substances called
polysaccharides.
• Cellulose forms fibres which criss-cross over one
another to form a very strong covering to the cell
• This helps to protect and support the cell.
• If the cell absorbs a lot of water and swells, the cell
wall stops it bursting.
• It is described as fully permeable because of the
spaces between fibres, even very large molecules
are able to go through the cellulose cell wall.
Cell wall
 Functions of cell wall

1. Mechanical support to keep the plant upright

2. Prevents bursting when the cell gets filled up with
water
3. Maintains shape of the plant cells.
 Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm is a clear jelly.
• It is nearly all water; about 70% is water in many
cells in others it may be upto 90% .
• It contains many substances dissolved in it, like
molecules of salts and sugars, larger molecules of
lipids (fats and oils) and especially proteins.
• Many different metabolic reactions (the chemical
reactions of life) take place in the cytoplasm.
• Structures known as organelles are present
which have special functions in the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm
 Vacuole
• A vacuole is a fluid-filled space inside a cell which
is surrounded by its own membrane (Tonoplast).
• Plant cells have very large, permanent vacuoles,
which contain a solution of sugars and other
substances called cell sap.
• When the vacuole is full, it presses outwards on
the rest of the cell, and helps it to keep its shape.
• Animal cells have much smaller vacuoles, called
vesicle, which also contain solutions.
Vacuole in plant cell
Vacuole (Vesicle) in animal cell
 Nucleus
• The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell.
– It controls all the functions of the cell.
– It is where the genetic information is stored.
• The information is kept on the chromosome,
which are inherited from the organism’s parents.
• The chromosomes are made of DNA.
• The information carried on the DNA determines
the kinds of proteins that are made in the cell.
 Chromosomes
• Chromosomes are very long, but so thin that
they cannot easily be seen even using an
electron microscope in non dividing cell.
• However, when the cell is dividing, they
become short and thick, and can be seen with
a good light microscope
Photomicrograph of dividing plant cells
 Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of plants.
• They contain the green colouring or pigment called
chlorophyll.
• Inside the chloroplast are membranes where the
chlorophyll is kept
• Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight, and this
energy is then used in making food for the plant by
photosynthesis.
• Chloroplasts often contain starch grains, which have
been made by photosynthesis.
• Chloroplast are not found in animal cells.
• Animal cells never contain starch grains.
Electron micrograph of a chloroplast from
a cell
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are found in
almost all plant and animal cells.
• These cannot be seen clearly unless we use an electron
microscope.
• Mitochondria are the parts of the cell where aerobic
respiration happens.
• This is how energy is released from glucose.
• Aerobic respiration is the main way in which cells get the
energy that they need to stay alive.
• The more energy a cell needs, the more mitochondria it
has. Eg: muscle cells are packed full of mitochondria.
 Mitochondrion
Drawing Electronmicrograph
 Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are tiny structures found in almost
all animal cells and plant cells.
• They are so small that we can only see them
with an electron microscope.
• Ribosomes are where the cell makes proteins.
• The instructions on the DNA molecules
(genes) are used to link together long chains
of amino acids in a particular sequence.
Diagram of the inside of an animal cell
An electron micrograph of the central part of an
animal cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum
• It is an extensive system of membranes running
through the cytoplasm forming sac like structures.
• There are two types of ER:
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum RER and Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum SER.
• RER is so called because it is covered with many tiny
organelles called ribosomes.
• It is the site for protein synthesis
• SER does not have ribosomes attached to it makes
lipids and steroids
 CW
1. Explain the difference between a unicellular organism and a
multicellular organism, giving one example of each. [3]
2. Name the part of a cell which has each of these functions:
a) making proteins
b) containing the information about which proteins to make
c) photosynthesis
d) preventing the cell from bursting when it takes up water
e) storing a solution of sugars and other solutes
f) controlling what enters and leaves the cell. [6]
3. Compare animal cells and plant cells. [4]
4. Draw a diagram to show the differences given for Q3 [2]
 Bacterial cells
• Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular organisms.
• Bacterial cells are different from the cells of animals and
plants.
• The most important difference between a bacterial cell and
animal or plant cells is that bacteria do not have a nucleus.
• Bacterial cells are also known as prokaryotic cells. ‘Pro’
means ‘before’, and ‘karyotic’ means ‘nucleus’.
• Instead of chromosomes inside a nucleus, bacteria have a
circle of DNA. This is sometimes called a bacterial
chromosome.
• The DNA has exactly the same function as in other cells – it
provides instructions for making proteins.
Bacterial Cell diagram
 Other contents of bacteria
• Bacterial cells often have one or more smaller circles of DNA,
called plasmids, used by scientists in the genetic modification of
cells and organisms.
• Bacterial cells always have a cell wall.
• Unlike plant cells, this cell wall is made of murein.
• But the function is the same as in plant cells
– – the bacterial cell wall helps to support the cell,
– stops it bursting if the cell takes up a lot of water.
• A partially permeable cell membrane is pressed tightly against
the inside of the bacterial cell wall.
• The cell membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell.
• Bacterial cells have cytoplasm and ribosomes, which have the
same functions as in animal and plant cells. They do not have
mitochondria or chloroplasts
This picture was taken with an electron microscope,
after which the colours were added to it. It shows a
bacterium called Enterococcus faecalis dividing into
two. This is the way that bacteria reproduce (Binary
fission)
 CW
• Construct a table to compare the structure of a bacterial
cell with animal and plant cells.
Feature Animal cell Plant cell Bacterial cell
Cell wall
Cell membrane

Cytoplasm
Nucleus
DNA
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Ribosomes
 Specialised cells
• Multicellular organisms, such as humans or plants, may
contain many millions of cells. Not all of these cells are
alike. Eg:
• In humans almost all of the cells have the same features
that are found in most animal cells
• But most of the cells have a particular function to
perform, and their structure is modified to help them to
carry out that function effectively.
• They are said to be specialised.
• Same is true for the plants where the cells have the basic
characteristics of plant cells and some features that
enable them to perform specialized tasks.
 Tissues
• A group of cells that specialise in the same activity are found
together, forming a tissue.
• Examples of a tissue in animals are: 1. A layer of cells lining
your stomach. These cells make enzymes to help to digest
your food.
• 2. A layer of muscle in the stomach wall, made of cells which
can move. This muscle tissue makes the wall of the stomach
move in and out, churning the food and mixing it up with
enzymes.
• Plants also have tissues. Examples are: 1. Epidermis tissue
from an onion bulb.
• 2. Inside a leaf, a layer of cells makes up the palisade tissue –
these cells are specialised to carry out photosynthesis.
 Tissues in the Animals - wall of stomach

Muscle layer Inner Lining cells

 Tissues in plants

Epidermis tissue Palisade tissue

 Organs

• A group of different tissues that carry out a

function together is called an organ.
• The stomach is an organ.
• Other organs include the heart, the kidneys and
the lungs.
• In a plant, an onion bulb is an organ.
• A leaf is another example of a plant organ.
 Organ system and Organism
• The stomach is only one of the organs which help in the
digestion of food.
• The mouth, the intestines and the stomach are all part of
an organ system called the digestive system.
• The heart is part of the circulatory system.
• Each kidney is part of the excretory system.
• The way in which organisms are built up can be
summarised like this:
• Cells make up tissues, which make up organs, which
make up organ systems, which make up organisms.
Calculating magnification from a scale bar
 Calculations

• Measure the length of the line in millimeters

(60mm).
• Convert into micrometers (60x1000=60000 um).
• This is your I (image size)
• The actual length – A, of the line is given on the line
(6 um)
• M=I/A . 60000/6=10000
• Magnification is x10000
 Conversions
• 1 meter=1000 mm
• 1mm=1000 um
• 1m = 1000000 um
Or
• 1 mm = 1/1000 = 1x10-3 m
• 1 um = 1/1000000 = 1x10-6 m