CPU – CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The Central Processing Unit (Normally called a processor or CPU) is the brain of the PC. It executes
instructions, allowing a computer to perform all kinds of tasks. From burning CDs or DVDs to something
as simple as a mouse click, the CPU is always at work. Processors consist of two parts: The Arithmetic
Unit, which performs math and logical operations, & the Control Unit, which decodes instructions. Over
the years, processors have become extremely fast. AMD and Intel are the two primary manufacturers.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other
units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the
primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data

CPU technology constantly changes, probably faster than any other type of hardware. On this page I
highlight what I consider are the main specifications.
When looking at a CPU, you don't really see the processor itself. The little piece of silicon that contains
the circuitry is very small. What you actually see is the package that it's in. Both AMD and Intel have
had many types over the years. Packages are usually square with pins underneath that fit into holes on
the CPU's slot. This arrangement is known as Pin Grid Array (PGA) and is now only used by AMD.
Intel abandoned PGA years ago and now have the pins located on the slots themselves, called Land Grid
Array (LGA).

Types
Processors are designed to fit into a certain type of socket on the motherboard. Every socket has a name,
indicating whether it's for an AMD or Intel CPU. Keep in mind that AMD and Intel have different socket
designs, so their processors are not interchangeable. But regardless of manufacturer, CPUs usually differ
in the number of pins used and are often named accordingly.

Socket Type Manufacturer

LGA 771 (Socket J) Intel (Xeon Server)
LGA 775 (Socket T) Intel
LGA 1156 (Socket H) Intel
LGA 1166 (Socket B) Intel
AM2 AMD
AM2+ AMD
AM3 AMD

AM2+ and AM3 mainly differ in terms of the memory each supports. AM2+ supports DDR2 while AM3
supports DDR2 and DDR3, making it backward-compatible with the AM2+ motherboard.
Rates & Data Transfer:
What characterizes a computer processor is its speed or rate - how fast it can execute instructions. As of
now, speed is measured in gigahertz (GHz), or billions of cycles a second. Some CPU rates are 2.0 GHz,
2.40 GHz, and 3.20 GHz. These rates and others are obtained by using the motherboard's bus speed.

CPUs contain a multiplier that when multiplied by the bus speed, yields the appropriate CPU speed for a
given motherboard. For example, if the speed of a motherboard is 800 MHz, and the CPU multiplier is 4,
then the processor's speed is 800 x 4 = 3200 MHz or 3.2 GHz.

Because the CPU greatly determines the overall performance of a PC, the type of processor and its speed
are two of the main factors to look for when deciding to buy a computer. But keep in mind there are
other important things, such as the amount of memory.

CPUs are either 32-bit or 64-bit. This means how much data that can be processed in terms of bits. In
computers data is composed of 1's and 0's (e.g. 01110010). Each individual 1 or 0 is called a bit. A 32-
bit CPU can process a max of 2^32 (2 raised to 32nd power) or about 4.3 billion bits per cycle. A 64-bit
processor 2^64 or about 18,400,000,000,000,000,000 of data per cycle. The more data a computer can
handle means improved performance.

The amount of memory supported by a processor is also determined by the number of bits. Using the
same math above, a 32-bit processor supports 2^32 or approximataely 4 GB of memory.

Cache:
In addition to CPU speed, another important processor feature that influences performance is the amount
of cache (pronounced cash) it has. CPU cache is memory set aside for the most frequently used data.
There's Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 (commonly just called L1, L2, and L3). L1 uses extremely fast and
expensive SRAM (Static RAM) and is the smallest in size. L2 is slightly larger in size. Both L1 and L2
are located on the processor. L3 is the largest and is usually located outside the CPU and shared by all
the cores. When data is requested, the CPU first checks the L1 to see if it's there. If not it checks L2 and
so on. Accessing data in the cache is far more faster and efficient than fetching it from RAM.

Dual Core & Multicore Processors:

Most computer processors today are dual core or multicore. Both terms are generic for any processor
that literally contains two or more CPUs in one package. Both Intel and AMD produce versions of these
processors. AMD's Athlon x2, Turion x2, and Intel's Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Extreme are examples of
dual core CPUs. Multicore examples are the AMD Phenom x3 and x4 and Intel's Core 2 Quad and the
Core i7. These powerful CPUs allow users to run several applications simultaneously as well as play the
latest games.

HyperTransport:
AMD's HyperTransport Technology has been around since 2003. All of their processors based on
AMD64 architecture use HypertTransport. It eliminated the front side bus (FSB) and took the memory
controller, which was previously on the chipset, and placed it on the processor. The old front side bus
used one data path from the CPU for memory and I/O (Input/Output). HTT implements two separate
data paths for memory and I/O. Also, unlike the FSB, data flow between the CPU and the chipset can be
sent and received at the same time.

In late 2008, Intel released the quad-core Core i7 CPU with its own version of HyperTransport called
QuickPath Interconnect (QPI). It basically does the same thing as HTT but only uses DDR3 memory,
and depending on which model some support three memory channels. They also had to develop a new
chipset which includes PCI Express enhancements.
In addition supporting QPI, the Core i7 includes 64K L1 and 256K L2 cache for each core, 8MB L3
shared cache, turbo boost, and HD boost for improved high definition. It brings back the old hyper-
threading. Before dual cores came on the scene, hyper-threading was used to make the operating system
think there were two processors. Since the i7 is quad-core hyper-threading makes it seem as if there are
eight cores.

All these combined make for an extremely fast system for multitasking, gaming and multimedia needs.

The Core i7 computer processor comes in several variations, and it can get confusing. There is also the
Core i5 and Core i3. Below are tables showing the Intel processors recently released in each class.

Maximum
i7 Series Processor Amount of
Integrated
(All Quad Core & Memory & Cache
Released Speed Transfers/Sec HD
Use Number of Size
Graphics
Hyperthreading) Channels
Supported
2.8 GHZ;
3.46 GHz 24 GB, 3
i7-930 Q1 2010 4.8 GT/s N 8 MB
w/Turbo Channels
Boost
3.2 GHz;
3.46 GHz 24 GB, 3
i7-960 Q4 2009 4.8 GT/s N 8 MB
w/Turbo Channels
Boost
2.8 GHz;
3.46 GHz 16 GB, 2
i7-860 Q3 2009 2.5 GT/s N 8 MB
w/Turbo Channels
Boost
2.93GHz;
3.6 GHz 16 GB, 2
i7-870 Q3 2009 2.5 GT/s N 8 MB
w/Turbo Channels
Boost
3.06 GHz;
3.33 GHz 24 GB, 3
i7-950 Q2 2009 4.8 GT/s N 8 MB
w/ Turbo Channels
Boost
2.66 GHz;
2.93 GHz 24 GB, 3
i7-920 Q4 2008 4.8 GT/s N 8 MB
w/Turbo Channels
Boost
2.93 GHz;
3.2 GHz 24 GB, 3
i7-940 Q4 2008 4.8 GT/s N 8 MB
w/Turbo Channels
Boost
 Maximum
Amount of
Integrated
i7 Extreme Memory & Cache
Released Speed Transfers/Sec HD
Editions Number of Size
Graphics
Channels
Supported
3.33 GHz;
3.6 GHz 24 GB, 3
i7-980X ( 6 Cores) Q1 2010 6.4 GT/s N 12 MB
w/Turbo Channels
Boost
3.33 GHz;
3.6 GHz
i7-975 (4 Cores) Q2 2009 6.4 GT/s 24 GB, 3 channels N 8 MB
w/Turbo
Boost
3.2 GHz;
3.46 GHz
i7-965 (4 Cores) Q4 2008 6.4 GT/s 24 GB, 3 channels N 8 MB
w/ Turbo
Boost

Maximum Amount
of Memory & Integrated Cache
Processor Released Speed Transfers/Sec
Number of Channels HD Graphics Size
Supported
i3-530 (Dua
Q1 2010 2.93 GHz 2.5 GT/s 16 GB, 2 Channels Y 4 MB
l Core)
i3-540 (Dua
Q1 2010 3.06 GHz 2.5 GT/s 16 GB, 2 Channels Y 4 MB
l Core)
3.46 GHz;
i5-670 (Dua 3.73 GHz
Q1 2010 2.5 GT/s 16 GB, 2 Channels Y 4 MB
l Core) w/Turbo
Boost

Maximum
Amount of
Integrated
Mobile Memory & Cache
Released Speed Transfers/Sec HD
Processors Number of Size
Graphics
Channels
Supported
2.26 GHz
i3-350M (Dual
Q1 2010 (No Turbo 2.5 GT/s 8 GB, 2 Channels Y 3 MB
Core)
Boost)
2.53 GHZ;
i5-540M (Dual 3.066 GHz
Q1 2010 2.5 GT/s 8 GB, 2 Channels Y 3 MB
Core) w/ Turbo
Boost
i7-640UM (Dual Q1 2010 1.2 GHz; 2.5 GT/s 8 GB, 2 Channels Y 4 MB
Core) 2.266GHz
 w/Turbo
Boost
2 GHz; 3.2
i7-920XM
GHz
Extreme (Quad Q3 2009 2.5 GT/s 8GB, 2 Channels N 8 MB
w/Turbo
Core)
Boost

Believe or not, this is not the full list. To see others you can go to Intel's CPU page.
Below are tables showing AMD CPUs specs.

L1 L2
CPU Speed Transfers/Sec Type of Memory Supported
Cache Cache
Athlon II x3 (Three
3 GHz 4.4GT/s 128 KB 512 KB DDR2 & DDR3
Core)
Athlon II x4 (Quad 2.9
4.4 GT/s 128 KB 512 KB DDR2 & DDR3
Core) GHz
Phenom II 3.2
4.0 GT/s 128 KB 512 KB DDR 2 & DDR3
x2 (Dual Core) Ghz
Phenom II 2.8
4.0 GT/s 128 KB 512 KB DDR2 & DDR3
x3 (Three Core) GHz
Phenom II 3.4 DDR2 or DDR3 (Depends on the
4.0 GT/s 128 KB 512 KB
x4 (Quad Core) GHz type of socket)

Mobile CPUs Speed L1 Cache L2 Cache Type of Memory Supported

Turion x2 Ultra Max 2.4 GHz 2 MB DDR2
Turion Neo x2 1.6 GHz 128 KB 1 MB DDR 2