Lecture 1

ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS
Gilden G Magande
Arusha Technical College
October 4, 2023
Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 1 / 70

ETT 04101 -Analogue Electronics
Module Name: Analogue Electronics

Module Code: ETT 04101
No. of credit: 12
Assessment methods:
CA: 50 marks
Final Exam: 50 marks

ETT 04101 -Analogue Electronics
At the end of this Module you should be able to:
Identify passive components
Identify active components
Describe active components
Identify types of semiconductor devices.
Explain semiconductor theory
Describe PN junction device
Describe current and voltage controlled devices
Build Power supply
Build simple amplifier
Use computer software for circuit simulation

Introduction to Analogue Electronics
Introduction
The world of electronics is all about electrical circuits, electronic
components, and interconnected technologies. All these elements can
be primarily categorized as digital, analogue, or a combination of
both. However, here we will be focusing on the basics of the
analogue category in detail.
What is Analogue electronics

Analogue electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with a
continuously variable signal. It’s widely used in radio and audio
equipment along with other applications where signals are derived
from analogue sensors before being converted into digital signals for
subsequent storage and processing.
Let’s first try to analyse the word ‘Analogue’.
What is Analogue?
Analog means continuous and real. The world we live in is analogue
in nature, implying that it’s full of infinite possibilities. The number
of smells we can sense, the number of tones we can hear, or the
number of colours we can paint with; everything is infinite. The
people working in the field of analogue electronics are basically
dealing with analogue devices and circuits.
Example
if we build a circuit and it counts values like 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; the
values are neither infinite nor continuous. On the other hand, if the
circuit counts like 1.00000, 1.00001, 1.00002, 4.99999, 5.00000, the
amount of information would be infinite.

Analogue Circuit
Analog circuits can be defined as a complex combination of op amps,
resistors, caps, and other basic electronic components. These circuits
can be as simple as a combination of two resistors to make a voltage
divider or elegantly built with many components. Such circuits can
attenuate, amplify, isolate, modify, distort the signal, or even convert
the original one into a digital signal.

Identify Passive Components
Introduction
Passive components are the cornerstone of all electronics, both in
terms of physical design and the language of circuit models that
describe electrical behaviour in more complex systems. Many
integrated circuits include passive electronic components and many
circuit boards contain some discrete passive components.
What are Passive Electronic Components?
A passive component is an electronic component which can only
receive energy, which it can either dissipate, absorb or store it in an
electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any
form of electrical power to operate.
As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain
or amplification. Passive components cannot amplify, oscillate, or
generate an electrical signal.
2 Common properties that all passive electronic components have:
1. No Power Generation
Passive electronic components do not generate electrical power; they

only dissipate power (in resistive components) or store unused power
(in reactive components).
2. No Power Source
All passive electronic components function without a power source;

they only influence the flow of power and the electrical output cannot
be modified by some external power source.
All components used in modern electronics can be classified
as active or passive and linear or nonlinear.
Basic Passive Components
The three basic passive electronic components are;
Resistors
Capacitors and
Inductors
Other passive components include transformers, diodes,
thermistors, varactors, transducers, and many other common
components.

RESISTORS
What is a resistor?
A Resistor is an electrical device that resists the flow of electrical
current. It is a passive device used to control, or impede the flow of,
electric current in an electric circuit by providing resistance, thereby
developing a drop in voltage across the device.

RESISTORS
Explain Resistance
Resist is the word which means “to oppose”. Resistance is the
property of opposing the flow of electrons, in a conductor or a
semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic component which has the
property of resistance.
Or we can say that, Resistance is a measure of the opposition to
current flow in an electric circuit.
The unit of resistance is Ohms, which is indicated by Ω omega.
Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-1854), a
German physicist who studied the relationship between
voltage, current and resistance. He is credited for formulating
Ohm’s Law.

RESISTORS
From ohm’s law the formula for resistance is
Resist is the word which means “to oppose”. Resistance is the
property of opposing the flow of electrons, in a conductor or a
semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic component which has the
property of resistance.
Or we can say that, Resistance is a measure of the opposition to
current flow in an electric circuit.
The unit of resistance is Ohms, which is indicated by Ω omega.
Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-1854), a
German physicist who studied the relationship between
voltage, current and resistance. He is credited for formulating
Ohm’s Law.

Resistors
From ohm’s law the formula for resistance is:
V
R=
I
Where: V is Voltage and I is Current.
It would really be difficult to manufacture the resistors with each and

every value. Hence, few values are chosen and the resistors of such
values are only manufactured. These are called as “Preferred
Values”. In practice, the resistors with near values are chosen to
match the required applications.

Why do we measure Resistance
Resistance measurements are taken to indicate the condition
of a component or a circuit.
The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. If
abnormally high, one possible cause (among many) could be
damaged conductors due to burning or corrosion. All conductors
give off some degree of heat, so overheating is an issue often
associated with resistance.
The lower the resistance, the higher the current flow. Possible
causes: insulators damaged by moisture or overheating.
Many components, such as heating elements and resistors, have a
fixed-resistance value. These values are often printed on the
components’ nameplates or in manuals for reference.

How do we measure Resistance
Resistance is measured using an instrument such as an analog
multimeter or digital multimeter. Both types of instruments
can measure not only resistance, but also current, voltage,
and other parameters, so they can be used in a variety of
situations.
However, resistance measurement does not involve measuring the

circuit’s resistance value itself. Instead, resistance is calculated by
measuring the current and voltage applied to the circuit. When a
current is applied to the circuit under measurement, the circuit
(resistance) exhibits a voltage (or more precisely, a voltage drops).
Resistance can be calculated by measuring the current and voltage
using Ohm’s Law

How do we measure resistance
As a result, a circuit’s resistance value can be determined if the
current and voltage measured values are known. Analog multimeters
and digital multimeters employ the measurement principle of Ohm’s
Law to measure resistance.

Resistor Color Coding
A process called color coding is also used to determine the value of
resistance for a resistor, just as shown in the above figure. A resistor
is coated with four color bands where each color determines a
particular value.
The below table shows a list of values which each color

indicates.


The first two colored bands indicate the first and second digit
of the value and the third color band represents the multiplier
number of zeroes added. The fourth color band indicates the
tolerance value.

Tolerance
Tolerance is the range of value up to which a resistor can withstand
without getting destroyed. This is an important factor.
The color code is given by several bands. Together they specify the
resistance value, the tolerance, and sometimes the reliability or failure
rate.
The number of bands varies from three to six. At a minimum, two
bands indicate the resistance value and one band serves as multiplier.
The resistance values are standardized; these values are called
preferred values.

Tips for Reading Resistor Codes
In the sections below, examples are given for different numbers of
color bands. But, first, here are some general tips for reading the
color code:
The reading direction might not always be clear. Sometimes the

increased space between bands 3 and 4 provide an indication of
the reading direction. Also, the first band is usually the closest
to a lead. A gold or silver band (the tolerance) is always the last
band.
It is a good practice to check the manufacturer’s documentation
to be sure about the color coding system used.
When in doubt, measure the resistance with a
ohmmeter(multimeter). In some cases this might even be the
only way to figure out the resistance; for example when the color
bands are burnt off.
Calculating Resistor Color Codes
3 Band Resistor Color Code
For a 3-band resistor color codes, the first two bands always denote
the first two digits of the resistance value while the third band
represents the multiplier.

In the example we have, sthe bands are brown, black and brown. The
first band is the brown band closest to the edge. We look up our
resistor color code chart, and find that brown has the 1st significant
value of 1 and black has the second significant value of 0. The third
band is brown, which means that the multiplier is 1. Using the
formula, the resistance is thus calculated to be:
As the 3-band resistor has no fourth tolerance band, the

default tolerance is taken to be at 20%.

The 4-band resistor color code is the most commonly used resistor.
Similar to the 3 band resistor, the first two bands always give the first
2 digits of the resistance value. The third band represents the
multiplier while the fourth band represents tolerance.

For a 4 band resistor color code, we can begin by first finding the
tolerance band as it is usually gold or silver. The tolerance band is
also easily identified due to the increased gap between the tolerance
band and the multiplier band.
±
In this example, it is gold and thus gives a tolerance of 5% when we
look up the resistor color code chart. Starting from the other end,
the first band is thus identified to be brown which has a 1st
significant digit of 1. The second band is red and has a second
significant digit of 2.
The 3rd band is green which means that the multiplier is 105. Using
Ö
the formula. The resistance obtained is 12 105 = 1,200 kΩ.
Lastly, the tolerance band which we identified to be gold gives a
tolerance value of 5%. ±
Sometimes for a 4 band resistor color code, the tolerance band can
be left blank, resulting in a 3-band resistor. In this case, the
resistance value would remain the same, except that the tolerance
±
would be 20% as if it were a 3-band resistor.

5 band resistors are resistors with higher precision, and they have an
extra band for a 3rd significant digit. As such, the first three bands
denote the significant digits of the resistance and everything else
shifts to the right, making the fourth band the multiplier and the fifth
band the tolerance.

In this example, the tolerance band is brown and is identified by the

increased space between itself and the multiplier band. From the
±
resistance color code chart, we obtain a tolerance value of 1% for
brown.
Beginning from the other end, the first band and second band is
yellow and violet, which gives the 1st and 2nd significant digit of 4
and 7 respectively.The extra third band is blue and so the 3rd
significant digit is 5. The fourth band is black and gives the
multiplier value of 100. Using the formula, we get the resistance
Ö
value of 475 100 = 475 Ω.

A 6 band resistor is essentially a 5 band resistor with an extra ring
that denotes the temperature coefficient or sometimes, the failure
rate. The most common color for the sixth band is brown (100

ppm/K), which means that for every 10 change in temperature, the
resistance value changes by 0.1%.

For this example, the resistor color code bands can be grouped into 2
groups according to the space between the multiplier band and the
tolerance band. Place the larger group on the left and the smaller
group on the right and read the resistor from left to right.
Again, we check the resistor color code chart for red, violet and
yellow, and the first, second and third bands give the significant
digits of 2,7 and 4 respectively. The fourth band is black, giving a
multiplier value of 100 .
Ö
Hence, we will get a resistance value of 274 100 = 274Ω. The fifth
±
tolerance band gives a tolerance value of 2%. The sixth band is
black and gives a temperature coefficient value of 250 ppm/K.

Resistor Color Band Exceptions
Single black band or zero-ohm resistor
Zero-ohm resistors are resistors that can be easily recognized by their
single black band. Basically, it is a wire link with the only function of
connecting traces on a printed circuit board. But why not use a
regular jumper wire for that purpose?

Resistor Color Band Exceptions
Single black band or zero-ohm resistor
The reason behind why they are fashioned to look like
resistors is because components in most printed circuit boards
are placed using automatic insertion machines instead of
being manually placed by hand. By looking like a resistor,
manufacturers can make use of the same automated machine
to place for placing components on a circuit board. This
eliminates the need for a separate machine for installing
jumper wires.
In addition, zero-ohm resistors can be more easily removed than

jumper wires. This enables any design changes to be easily made if
necessary. The zero-ohm resistor can be easily removed and replaced
by new components.

CAPACITORS
What is a capacitor?
A Capacitor is a passive component that has the ability to
store the energy in the form of potential difference between
its plates.
It resists a sudden change in voltage. The charge is stored in the
form of potential difference between two plates, which form to be
positive and negative depending upon the direction of charge storage.
A non-conducting region is present between these two plates which is

called as dielectric. This dielectric can be vacuum, air, mica, paper,
ceramic, aluminum etc. The name of the capacitor is given by the
dielectric used.

CAPACITORS
Image of some practical capacitors

CAPACITORS
Symbol and Units
The standard units for capacitance is Farads. Generally, the values of
capacitors available will be in the order of micro-farads, pico-farads
and nano-farads. The symbol of a capacitor is as shown below.
The Capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the distance

between the plates and is inversely proportional to the area of the
plates. Also, the higher the permittivity of a material, the higher will
be the capacitance.

CAPACITORS
The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric flux is
being generated per unit charge in that medium.
When two plates having same area A, and equal width are placed
parallel to each other with a separation of distance d, and if some
energy is applied to the plates, then the capacitance of that parallel
plate capacitor can be termed as;

CAPACITORS

CAPACITORS
Consider a parallel plate capacitor
With some voltage applied, the charge deposits on the two parallel
plates of the capacitor. This charge deposition occurs slowly and
when the voltage across the capacitor equals the voltage applied, the
charging stops, as the voltage entering equals the voltage leaving.
The rate of charging depends upon the value of capacitance. The
greater the value of capacitance, the slower the rate of change of
voltage in the plates.
CAPACITORS
Working of a Capacitor
A Capacitor can be understood as a two-terminal passive component
which stores electrical energy. This electrical energy is stored in
electrostatic field.
Initially, the negative and positive charges on two plates of the

capacitor are in equilibrium. There is no tendency for a capacitor to
get charged or discharged. The negative charge is formed by the
accumulation of electrons, while the positive charge is formed by the
depletion of electrons.
As this happens without any external charge given, this state

is electrostatic condition.

CAPACITORS
The figure below shows the capacitor with static charges.
The accumulation and depletion of electrons according to the varying

positive and negative cycles of the AC supply, can be understood as
“current flow”. This is called as Displacement Current. The direction
of this current flow keeps on changing as this is AC.

CAPACITORS
Charging of a Capacitor
When an external voltage is given, the electric charge gets converted

into electrostatic charge. This happens while the capacitor is
charging. The positive potential of the supply, attracts the electrons
from the positive plate of the capacitor, making it more positive.
While the negative potential of the supply, forces the electrons to the
negative plate of the capacitor, making it more negative. The figure
below explains this.

CAPACITORS
Charging of a Capacitor
During this process of charging, the electrons move through the DC

supply but not through the dielectric which is an insulator. This
displacement is large, when the capacitor starts to charge but reduces
as it charges.
The capacitor stops charging when the voltage across capacitor
equals the supply voltage.
CAPACITORS
Charging of a Capacitor: [Accumulation of Charge]
To charge the capacitor, one terminal (usually marked as positive or

+) is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source, and
the other terminal (usually marked as negative or -) is connected to
the negative terminal of the voltage source.
When the voltage source is connected, electrons flow from the

negative terminal of the source to the negative plate of the capacitor,
while an equal number of electrons are drawn from the positive plate
to the positive terminal of the source. This creates an electric field
between the plates.

CAPACITORS
Charging of a Capacitor: [Accumulation of Energy]
As electrons accumulate on one plate and are removed from the

other, electric potential energy is stored in the electric field between
the plates.
The energy stored in a capacitor can be calculated using the formula:
1
E= ∗ C ∗ V2
2
Where;
E is the energy in joules, C is the capacitance in farads (F), and V is
the voltage across the capacitor in volts (V).

CAPACITORS
Charging of a Capacitor: [Charging Time]
The rate at which the capacitor charges depends on several factors,

including the capacitance of the capacitor, the voltage of the source,
and any resistance in the circuit.
In an ideal circuit with no resistance, the voltage across the capacitor

would increase linearly with time. However, in practice, there may be
some resistance in the wires and components, which can affect the
charging time.

CAPACITORS
Charging of a Capacitor: [Fully Charged State]
When the voltage across the capacitor reaches the same voltage as
the source, it is considered fully charged. At this point, no more
current flows, and the capacitor stores the maximum amount of
energy it can hold for the given voltage and capacitance.
It’s important to note that the rate of charging is determined by the

RC time constant of the circuit, where R is the resistance in the
circuit and C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
A larger resistor or capacitance will result in a slower charging
time, while a smaller resistor or capacitance will result in a
faster charging time.

CAPACITORS
Capacitor Charging Graph

CAPACITORS
Capacitor Charging Graph
The Capacitor Charging Graph is the graph that shows how many
time constants a voltage must be applied to a capacitor before the
capacitor reaches a given percentage of the applied voltage.
Capacitors take a certain amount of time to charge. Charging

a capacitor is not instantaneous. Therefore, calculations are
taken in order to know when a capacitor will reach a certain
voltage after a certain amount of time has elapsed.

CAPACITORS
Dielectric behaviour of a capacitor
Let us see what happens to the dielectric when the capacitor

begins to charge.
As the charges deposit on the plates of the capacitor, an electrostatic
field is formed. The strength of this electrostatic field depends upon
the magnitude of charge on the plate and the permittivity of the
dielectric material.
Permittivity is the measure of dielectric whether how far it

allows the electrostatic lines to pass through it.
The dielectric is actually an insulator. It has electrons in the outer

most orbit of the atoms.

CAPACITORS
Let us observe how they get affected.

When there is no charge on the plates, the electrons in the dielectric
move in circular orbit. This is as shown in the figure below.

CAPACITORS
When charge deposition takes place, the electrons tend to move

towards the positive charged plate, but still they keep on revolving as
shown in the figure.

CAPACITORS
If the charge increases further, the orbits expand more. But if it still
increases, the dielectric breaks down shorting the capacitor. Now, the
capacitor being fully charged, it’s ready to get discharged.
It is enough if we provide a path for them to travel from negative to

positive plate. The electrons flow without any external supply as
there are too many numbers of electrons on one side and barely any
electrons on the other.
This imbalance is adjusted by the discharge of the capacitor.

CAPACITORS
Also, when a discharge path is found, the atoms in the dielectric

material tend to get to their normal circular orbit and hence forces
the electrons to get discharged.
This kind of discharge enables capacitors to deliver high currents in a

short period of time, just as in a camera flash.

CAPACITORS
Discharging of a capacitor
Discharging a capacitor is the process of releasing the electrical

energy stored in the capacitor’s plates.
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field between two
conductive plates separated by an insulating material called a
dielectric.
When you connect a circuit across the terminals of a charged
capacitor, the stored energy is released. Here’s how the discharging
process works:

CAPACITORS
Discharging of a capacitor: [Initial Charged State]
Before discharging, the capacitor is in a charged state, with a voltage

difference (potential difference) across its plates.
The voltage across the capacitor is determined by the amount of
charge stored and its capacitance and can be calculated using the
formula;
Q
V =
C
Where V is the voltage (in volts), Q is the charge stored (in
coulombs), and C is the capacitance (in farads).

CAPACITORS
Discharging of a capacitor: [Connecting the Circuit]
To discharge the capacitor, you connect a circuit across its terminals.

This circuit typically consists of a resistor, which provides a pathway
for the stored charge to flow through. The resistor is often referred to
as a discharge resistor.

CAPACITORS
Discharging of a capacitor: [Connecting the Circuit]
When the circuit is closed by connecting it to the charged capacitor,

current starts to flow from the positively charged plate of the
capacitor through the resistor to the negatively charged plate
The rate of discharge is determined by the resistance (R) in the

circuit and the remaining voltage across the capacitor.

CAPACITORS
Discharging of a capacitor: [Exponential Decay]

CAPACITORS
The discharge process follows an exponential decay pattern. This

means that the voltage across the capacitor decreases over time, and
the rate of decrease is faster initially and gradually slows down as the
voltage approaches zero.
The voltage across the capacitor at any given time (t) during
discharge can be described using the formula:
−t
V (t) = Vo ∗ e R∗C

CAPACITORS
Where;
V(t) is the voltage across the capacitor at time t.

Vo is the initial voltage across the capacitor.
e is the mathematical constant approximately equal to 2.71828.
t is the time elapsed since the start of discharge.
R is the resistance in the discharge circuit.
C is the capacitance of the capacitor.

CAPACITORS
Discharging of a capacitor: [Complete discharge]
As time passes, the voltage across the capacitor decreases until it

becomes zero or very close to zero.
At this point, the capacitor is considered fully discharged, and
all the stored electrical energy has been released into the
circuit.

CAPACITORS
Capacitance of a Capacitor
The capacitance of a capacitor is a measure of its ability to store

electrical charge when a voltage is applied across its terminals. It is a
fundamental property of capacitors and is represented by the symbol
”C.”
Capacitance is measured in units called farads (F).
One farad is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor that

stores one coulomb of charge when a one-volt potential
difference (voltage) is applied across its terminals.

CAPACITORS
Mathematically, capacitance is defined as:

Q
C=
V
Where:
C is the capacitance in farads (F).
Q is the charge stored on the capacitor’s plates in coulombs (C).
V is the voltage across the capacitor’s terminals in volts (V).
In practical electronic circuits, capacitors typically have capacitance

values much smaller than one farad. Common capacitor values are
expressed in microfarads (uF), nanofarads (nF), or picofarads (pF)
CAPACITORS
The physical characteristics that affect the capacitance of a

capacitor include:

CAPACITORS

capacitor include:
Plate Area (A): The larger the surface area of the plates, the greater
the capacitance. A larger area allows for more charge to be stored.
Plate Separation (d): The distance between the plates affects

capacitance inversely; a smaller separation results in greater
capacitance. The closer the plates are, the stronger the electric field
between them.

CAPACITORS

capacitor include:
Dielectric Material: The material placed between the plates
(dielectric) affects capacitance. Different dielectric materials have
different permittivities (a measure of how much they can polarize in
response to an electric field), which can significantly impact
capacitance.

CAPACITORS

capacitor include:
Mathematically

CAPACITORS

capacitor include:
Mathematically
Where;

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ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS

Arusha Technical College

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 1 / 70

Module Name: Analogue Electronics

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 2 / 70

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 3 / 70

What is Analogue electronics

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 5 / 70

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 6 / 70

Passive electronic components do not generate electrical power; they

All passive electronic components function without a power source;

The three basic passive electronic components are;

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Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 10 / 70

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 11 / 70

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 12 / 70

From ohm’s law the formula for resistance is:

It would really be difficult to manufacture the resistors with each and

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Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 14 / 70

However, resistance measurement does not involve measuring the

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The below table shows a list of values which each color

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The reading direction might not always be clear. Sometimes the

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As the 3-band resistor has no fourth tolerance band, the

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In this example, the tolerance band is brown and is identified by the

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In addition, zero-ohm resistors can be more easily removed than

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A non-conducting region is present between these two plates which is

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Image of some practical capacitors

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The Capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the distance

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Initially, the negative and positive charges on two plates of the

As this happens without any external charge given, this state

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The figure below shows the capacitor with static charges.

The accumulation and depletion of electrons according to the varying

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When an external voltage is given, the electric charge gets converted

Gilden G Magande (ATC) ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS October 4, 2023 43 / 70

During this process of charging, the electrons move through the DC