System of electric traction: AC electrification, Transmission lines to sub-stations

Electric traction systems, particularly those using AC electrification, are vital for powering
modern railway networks. These systems involve the transmission of electrical power from power
stations to trains through overhead lines and substations. Let’s break it down further to
understand the major components and processes in more detail.

1. AC Electrification System

In an AC electrification system, the electrical power used to drive the trains is transmitted in the
form of alternating current (AC). Most rail systems use single-phase AC at 25 kV, 50 Hz or 60 Hz,
a common standard in many countries. AC electrification offers significant advantages,
especially for long-distance railway lines.

Why AC?

Efficient Power Transmission: Alternating current can be transmitted over long distances at
high voltage with much less energy loss compared to direct current (DC). High-voltage AC
transmission reduces current for a given power, which reduces resistive losses in the cables.

Cost Efficiency: AC allows for fewer substations because it can be transmitted over longer
distances between each substation.

2. Transmission Lines

High-voltage transmission lines are used to carry the electricity from power plants to railway
traction substations. These transmission lines are often part of the national or regional power
grid. The typical voltage in these high-voltage transmission lines can be as high as 110 kV or 132
kV, depending on the system’s design.

From Grid to Railways:

The power is transmitted from generating stations to traction substations via high-voltage
transmission lines. This reduces the number of substations needed along the route and
minimizes power losses.

Once the high-voltage power reaches the substation, it is converted to the necessary
voltage (e.g., 25 kV) for use in rail traction.

Catenary System (Overhead Lines):

After the voltage is stepped down in the substation, electricity is supplied to the trains via
an overhead wire system called the catenary.

The overhead wire is suspended above the railway tracks, and trains draw power through
a device called a pantograph, which makes contact with the overhead wires as the train moves.

Overhead wires are specially designed to ensure consistent contact with the pantograph,
despite changes in height due to uneven tracks or bridges.

3. Sub-Stations

Substations are critical nodes in the railway electrification system, responsible for stepping down
the high voltage from transmission lines and distributing it to the rail network.
 Step-Down Transformers: The core of each traction substation is a step-down transformer that
reduces the high voltage from the transmission network (110 kV, 132 kV, or more) to the lower
voltage used for train operation (typically 25 kV AC).

Power Distribution: After the voltage is stepped down, the power is fed to the overhead lines.
Substations are usually spaced at regular intervals along the railway line (every 30-50 km,
depending on demand), ensuring that there’s always enough power supply for the trains on that
stretch of track.

Types of Substations:

Feeder Substations: These feed power directly to the overhead lines and the rail system.

Switching Substations: These are used to manage the flow of power and can reroute it in the
case of a fault or failure in a section of the line.

Sectioning Posts: These are smaller substations used to electrically isolate sections of the
overhead line for maintenance and fault isolation.

Protective Equipment:

Substations are equipped with circuit breakers, relays, and other protection mechanisms to
safeguard the electrical equipment and ensure safe operation of the rail network. They
automatically disconnect sections of the network in case of faults like short circuits or overloads.

4. Return Current Path

In an electric traction system, the return current path plays an essential role. Once electricity has
powered the train’s motors, the current needs to return to the substation to complete the circuit.
In most AC systems, the return path is provided by the **running rails** of the train tracks.

Current Flow: Electricity flows from the overhead catenary wire to the train’s pantograph, then
through the traction motors to power the train, and finally returns through the rails.

Earthing (Grounding): The rails are typically connected to ground, which helps maintain safety
and prevents excessive voltages from building up on the train or track.

5. Advantages of AC Electrification

Long-Distance Efficiency: AC electrification allows for fewer substations because the high
voltage reduces power losses over long distances.

Higher Power Capacity: AC systems can provide more power than DC systems, making them
ideal for high-speed trains or heavy freight operations.

Scalability: The system can be easily scaled to cover longer distances and more trains by
increasing the capacity of the transmission lines and substations.

6. Challenges of AC Electrification

Electromagnetic Interference: One of the downsides of using high-voltage AC is the

potential for electromagnetic interference (EMI), which can affect nearby communication
systems and electronic devices. Careful design and shielding are needed to mitigate these
effects.
 Infrastructure Costs: Although AC electrification systems offer long-term efficiency,
they require significant initial investment for substations, overhead wires, and transformers.

Maintenance: Overhead catenary systems are exposed to weather conditions and wear,
so regular maintenance is needed to ensure continuous operation.

Conclusion:

An AC electrification system is highly efficient for powering modern railway networks, especially
for high-speed trains and freight operations. The use of high-voltage AC allows for long-distance
power transmission with fewer substations, reducing overall losses and enhancing operational
efficiency. Substations play a key role in transforming and distributing the power along the railway
line, ensuring a consistent power supply to the trains. Despite the high setup costs and
maintenance needs, AC systems are preferred for large, busy rail networks due to their ability to
handle heavy loads and cover long distances efficiently.

Sub-stations: feeding and distribution system of AC traction

In an AC traction system, the substations play a key role in ensuring that electrical power is
efficiently supplied to trains running on the railway network. They manage the conversion,
feeding, and distribution of power from the grid to the trains via overhead lines (catenary system).

1. AC Electrification System Overview

AC traction systems typically use a voltage of 25 kV, 50 Hz or 60 Hz for electrifying railway lines.
Power is sourced from the national or regional grid, which operates at a much higher voltage (e.g.,
110 kV or 132 kV). The substations handle the step-down of this high voltage to the appropriate
level needed to power trains. Once stepped down, power is supplied through overhead lines to
trains, where the trains’ motors convert the electrical energy into mechanical movement.

2. Traction Substations

A traction substation is a facility responsible for supplying electrical power to the railway
system. It receives electricity from high-voltage transmission lines and converts it to a lower
voltage suitable for the railway’s traction system.

Functions of Traction Substations:

- Voltage Transformation: Traction substations contain large transformers that step down the
high-voltage electricity from the grid (e.g.,110 kV or 132 kV) to the railway’s operating voltage,
typically 25 kV AC.

-Power Distribution: Once the power is stepped down, the substation feeds it into the overhead
contact system (OCS) that powers the trains.

-Protection and Control: Substations also include protection mechanisms like circuit
breakers, relays, and fuses to safeguard the system against overloads or faults.

Components of a Traction Substation:

-Step-Down Transformer: The primary function of the transformer is to reduce the high-voltage
AC from the transmission lines to the required voltage (usually 25 kV).
 -Circuit Breakers: These are critical safety devices that disconnect sections of the line in case
of faults such as overloads, short circuits, or other issues.

-Switchgear: Switchgear allows for manual or automatic control of power flow. It can isolate
parts of the network for maintenance or in case of faults.

-Control Room: Modern substations include control systems to monitor and manage the power
flow in real-time, ensuring efficient operation and fault detection.

3. Feeding System in AC Traction

The feeding system is the way electrical power is delivered to the trains from the traction
substations. This system comprises high-voltage lines, transformers, and the overhead catenary
system, which supplies power to the trains.

Steps in the Feeding Process:

- Transmission to Substations: Power is transmitted from a central power generation plant to

traction substations via high-voltage transmission lines (110 kV or higher). This high voltage helps
reduce transmission losses over long distances.

-Voltage Step-Down: At the substation, the high-voltage electricity is stepped down to the
required 25 kV AC using large step-down transformers.

-Overhead Catenary System (OCS): The power is then fed into the overhead catenary system,
which runs above the railway tracks. This system consists of wires suspended above the train that
carry the 25 kV AC power.

-Contact Wire: The contact wire is the lower wire in the catenary system that the train’s
pantograph touches to collect electrical power.

-Pantograph: The pantograph is a spring-loaded arm mounted on the top of the train. It
maintains continuous contact with the overhead wire to collect the electricity needed to power
the train.

-Neutral Sections: Neutral sections are installed between substation zones to prevent
interaction between different power supplies. When trains pass through these sections, they
temporarily stop receiving power until they re-enter the next feeding zone.

4. Distribution System in AC Traction

The distribution system ensures that electrical power is evenly distributed to different parts of
the rail network. It manages power flow between substations, sections of overhead lines, and
trains.

Key Components of the Distribution System:

-Feeding Zones: The railway line is divided into several **feeding zones**, each powered by a
specific substation. Substations are typically spaced 30-50 km apart, though this can vary based
on the power demand and the terrain.

-Parallel Operation: In many cases, multiple substations can operate in parallel, feeding power
to the same overhead line section. This provides redundancy and ensures that if one substation
fails, others can maintain power supply.
 -Sectioning Posts (SPs): Sectioning posts are small substations that allow certain sections of
the overhead line to be isolated for maintenance without shutting down the entire system. They
do not supply power but ensure operational flexibility.

-Paralleling Posts (PPs): Paralleling posts are used to connect two or more feeders from
adjacent substations in parallel. This helps distribute power more evenly along the railway line
and reduces voltage drops.

-Autotransformer Feeding: In long-distance rail systems, an autotransformer feeding system

is sometimes used. Autotransformers are installed at regular intervals along the track to boost
voltage levels and reduce losses, making the system more efficient over longer distances.

5. Return Current Path

In an electric traction system, the current supplied to the train must complete a circuit by
returning to the substation. In AC systems, the rails themselves serve as the return path for the
electrical current.

-Flow of Current: When the train's motors use electrical power, the current flows back through
the steel rails of the track. These rails are connected to the substation, where the current is
grounded and safely returned to the power grid.

-Earthing: Proper earthing (grounding) of the rails ensures that stray currents are minimized,
reducing the risk of electrical hazards.

6. Protection and Control Systems

Substations and the overall feeding system are equipped with numerous safety and control
mechanisms to ensure reliable operation and protection against faults.

-Circuit Breakers: These are installed at substations to disconnect power in case of overloads,
short circuits, or other faults. They protect both the equipment and the rail network from damage.

-Relays: Relays monitor the flow of current and voltage levels. When they detect abnormal
conditions, they trigger the circuit breakers to prevent damage.

-Load Monitoring: Modern systems use load monitoring and SCADA (Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition) systems to continuously track the flow of power across the rail network. This
allows operators to balance power loads between substations, prevent overloading, and quickly
detect and isolate faults.

7. Types of Substations in AC Traction

Traction substations can be categorized based on their role in the power distribution network.

-Main Traction Substations: These are the primary substations along the railway line. They
receive high-voltage power from the grid and step it down to 25 kV AC, feeding it into the overhead
lines.

-Feeder Substations: These substations provide additional power to areas where train traffic is
heavy or the demand for power is high.

-Switching Substations: These are used to switch the power supply between different
substations or to reroute power in case of an outage or fault in one area.
 -Sectioning and Paralleling Posts: As mentioned, these posts help manage the flow of
electricity between different sections of the overhead lines and ensure redundancy in the system.

8. Energy Management and Load Balancing

Efficient energy management is critical in AC traction systems, particularly in large railway

networks where multiple trains are running simultaneously.

-Load Flow Control: Load flow control ensures that the power demand from the trains is evenly
distributed across the substations. This prevents one substation from being overloaded while
another is underutilized.

-Reactive Power Compensation: AC systems often experience voltage drops and require
reactive power compensation to maintain voltage stability. Substations use capacitor banks or
synchronous condensers to improve power factor and reduce losses.

-Regenerative Braking: Many modern trains use regenerative braking, where the train’s motors
act as generators when braking, sending power back to the overhead lines. This energy is either
consumed by nearby trains or returned to the grid through substations.

9. Neutral Sections and Transitions

Neutral sections are short, isolated segments of track between two feeding zones, ensuring that
the electrical supplies from adjacent substations don’t interfere with each other. When a train
crosses a neutral section, it temporarily loses power for a brief moment until it enters the next
feeding zone.

-Purpose of Neutral Sections: These sections prevent the two feeding zones (operating under
different phases or substations) from interacting. This protects the system from phase
imbalances or conflicts in power supply.

-Train Power Transition: Modern trains are equipped to handle the brief loss of power as they
pass through neutral sections without noticeable disruptions to operation.

Conclusion:

The feeding and distribution system in AC traction relies on a network of traction substations,
overhead catenary systems, and protective devices to efficiently power trains. Traction
substations transform the high-voltage power from the national grid into lower voltages suitable
for railways, feeding it into the catenary lines that supply power to trains. The system includes
mechanisms like sectioning posts, paralleling posts, and neutral sections to ensure continuous,
safe, and reliable power distribution across the railway network.
Feeding and Distribution system for DC tramways

The feeding and distribution system for DC tramways is essential for supplying electric power to
the tram network in an efficient and reliable manner. Here's an overview of how such systems
typically work:

1. Power Supply Source

-Substations: Power for DC tramways come from substations that convert high-voltage AC
(alternating current) from the national grid into DC (direct current). The voltage is usually stepped
down to the desired level, typically around 600-750V DC for tramways.

-These substations are strategically located along the tramway route to minimize power losses
during transmission.

2. Overhead Catenary System (OCS)

-Overhead Line: The most common way to supply power to trams is through an overhead
catenary system (OCS), where a wire runs above the tram tracks. The trams draw power using a
pantograph (a type of device mounted on top of the tram that makes contact with the overhead
wire).

-The overhead wire is energized by the DC supply from the substations, ensuring a continuous
flow of electricity to moving trams.

3. Feeder Cables and Conductors

-The DC power from substations is delivered to the overhead wire via feeder cables. These
cables are often buried underground or attached to structures along the route.

-Return Circuit: The electrical circuit is completed by the tram’s wheels and tracks. The current
flows from the tram to the tracks and back to the substation via return conductors or the rails
themselves.

4. Sectioning and Isolation

-To ensure efficient operation and maintenance, the tramway network is divided into sections.
Each section can be isolated or de-energized for maintenance or in case of faults. This is done
through circuit breakers and section insulators that prevent current flow between sections when
needed.

5. Power Distribution Management

-Voltage Regulation: To avoid voltage drops over long distances, substations are placed every
few kilometres along the tramway. They regulate and ensure that the voltage remains within the
desired range.

-Remote Monitoring: Modern systems use SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)
systems to remotely monitor and control the power distribution network. Operators can detect
faults, switch sections on/off, and manage power flow in real-time.

6. Underground Tramway Systems (Optional)

-In some cases, especially in historic or scenic areas where overhead wires may not be desired,
ground-level power supply (APS) systems are used. Instead of overhead wires, trams are supplied
power via a third rail or embedded conductors in the road, which energize only when the tram is
directly above them for safety.

7. Battery Backup (Optional)

-Some modern tramways may also feature on-board energy storage systems (ESS) such as
batteries or supercapacitors. These systems allow the tram to travel short distances without
relying on external power, which is useful for wire-free sections of the route.

This combination of substations, feeder cables, overhead catenary, and advanced control
systems ensures that the tramway receives consistent, reliable power, with redundancy and
safety mechanisms in place.

Electrolysis by currents through Earth

Electrolysis by currents through the Earth, also known as stray current electrolysis or earth return
currents, occurs when unintended electrical currents pass through the ground. This
phenomenon can lead to corrosion of underground structures, such as pipelines, metal
reinforcements in concrete, and other buried conductive materials. The process of electrolysis
involves the transfer of electrical charge through an electrolyte (in this case, the moist soil), which
can cause material degradation.

Key Concepts:

1. Stray Currents:

-Stray currents refer to electrical currents that inadvertently flow through unintended paths,
such as the ground. These currents can be introduced by various sources, including electrical
railways, tramways, power systems, or faulty grounding of electrical equipment.

- In tramways or railways using DC systems, the return current (after passing through the train's
motors) is typically designed to flow through the rail tracks and return to the substation. However,
if the rail-to-earth resistance is low or if there are poor electrical connections, some of the current
may leak into the ground.

2. Electrolysis Mechanism:

-When stray DC currents pass through the Earth, they can cause electrolysis at points where the
current enters, or leaves buried metallic structures.

-Electrolysis involves the decomposition of materials due to an electric current passing through
a conductive liquid or medium (electrolyte). In this case, moist soil serves as the electrolyte.

-At the anode (where current leaves the metal and enters the earth), oxidation reactions occur,
often leading to corrosion of the metal.

-For example, in the case of iron:

𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −
The iron is oxidized to iron ions, which then dissolve into the soil, causing degradation of the
metal.
 -The cathode (where current enters the metal) typically doesn't suffer corrosion but may
experience deposition of certain materials from the soil.

3. Effects on Underground Structures:

-Pipelines: Stray current can cause severe corrosion in metal pipelines. If a section of the
pipeline is exposed to stray currents, the part where the current exits the pipe into the ground acts
as an anode, leading to localized corrosion.

-Metal Reinforcements: Similarly, stray currents can damage the steel reinforcement bars in
concrete structures. The electric current passing through the metal causes electrochemical
reactions that weaken the metal, leading to potential structural failure over time.

-Cathodic Protection: To protect against such electrolysis, cathodic protection systems are
often employed. In this system, an external sacrificial anode is connected to the structure to
ensure that the structure itself acts as a cathode and is not corroded.

4. Sources of Stray Currents:

-DC Transit Systems: Tramways, railways, and trolleys using DC power supply systems are
major contributors to stray current issues. If the rails used as return conductors are poorly
insulated from the ground, current leakage into the earth occurs.

-Electrical Grounding Faults: Poor or faulty grounding of electrical systems can also cause
stray currents to flow into the earth, especially when there is a failure in the intended ground
return path.

5. Preventing and Mitigating Stray Current Corrosion:

-Rail Insulation: In systems where the rails are used as return conductors, insulating the rails
from the ground can reduce the amount of current leakage. This is usually done using insulating
materials or better design practices.

-Cathodic Protection: Installing cathodic protection systems can mitigate the effects of stray
current corrosion on pipelines and underground structures. This can be done using either
sacrificial anodes (which corrode instead of the protected structure) or impressed current
systems that apply a protective voltage to counteract corrosion.

-Current Drainage Systems: Sometimes, specially designed systems are used to drain stray
currents from the affected structures and redirect them to the intended return path, preventing
current leakage into the soil.

6. Electrolysis Effects in Specific Applications:

-Pipelines in Proximity to DC Railways: For example, when a pipeline runs parallel to a DC-
powered railway, stray current from the railway can flow into the pipeline, especially if the pipeline
is grounded at multiple locations. This can cause severe corrosion at the points where the current
exits the pipeline.

-Monitoring: Specialized equipment, such as corrosion probes and reference electrodes, can
be used to monitor the extent of stray current electrolysis and corrosion in buried structures.
Real-World Implications:

Stray current electrolysis is a significant problem in industries where large-scale infrastructure,

such as pipelines, bridges, or rail systems, interacts with electrical systems. It can lead to:

- Premature failure of infrastructure due to corrosion.

- Increased maintenance and repair costs.

- Safety hazards if critical systems (e.g., gas pipelines) are affected by corrosion.

Preventive measures like cathodic protection, monitoring systems, and better insulation design
are essential to reduce the risks associated with stray current electrolysis in DC-powered
systems and other environments with significant underground metallic structures.

Negative Booster

A negative booster is a separately excited DC generator whose armature is connected with

negative bus-bar at the far end of the track through negative feeder. The connection diagram of
the negative booster is shown in the figure below.

As in case of DC traction system, the return current flows through the rails to the substations.
Because of this current flow through the rails, some voltage drop exists along the track. Due to
potential difference along the track, some of the return currents leak out to the earth and follow
the path of low resistance provided by water pipes, gas pipes, cable sheaths, etc.

These leakage currents cause electrolytic corrosion to occur at the places where the current
leaves the pipes as they carry the metal of the pipe to the electrolytic solution, where pipe acts
as anode and the moisture and salts in the surrounding soil act as electrolytic solution.

According to the statutory regulations, the voltage drop in the rails is limited to 7 volts and the
voltage between the pipe and rails is limited to 1 volt positive and 3 volts negative, so that the
corrosion of pipes and cable sheaths adjacent to the track is to be minimized.
Methods to Maintain the Voltage Drop:

The following three methods are used for maintaining the voltage drop in the track rails within the
limit of 7 volts −

• By making the return path of very low resistance, which may be achieved by providing
good bonds or by using insulated negative feeders.

• By discouraging the entry of current into the pipes by inserting occasional insulating
joints.

• By employing negative booster.

From the connection diagram of the negative booster, it can be seen that the negative bus-bar is
connected to the track rail through negative feeder and the positive bus-bar is connected to the
trolley wire near the generating stations.

In the whole assembly, there are two boosters used, one is positive booster which adds voltage
to the line and the other is the negative booster which lowers the potential of the point to which it
is connected. Both the boosters are mechanically coupled together and are driven by a DC motor.

Actually, the negative booster is the separately excited DC generator whose armature is
connected with the negative bus-bar at the far end of the track through negative feeder. The field
winding of the negative booster is connected in series with the positive feeder supplying the
corresponding sections of the trolley wire.

The boost of the feeder is adjusted by means of a diverter rheostat connected in parallel with the
field winding of the positive booster.

Current Collection System in Electric Traction and Types of Current Collection:

There are mainly two systems of current collection system for locomotives, tramways or trolley
buses viz

1. Conductor rail system and

2. Overhead system.

Current collection from overhead system is far superior to that from the conductor rail system.
This is because both theoretically and experimentally current collection system is more difficult
from a rigid body than from an elastic one. Further the insulation of the third rail at high voltages
used on single phase ac traction would also be impracticable and endanger the safety of the
personnel.

1. Conductor Rail System:

Conductor rail system is employed at 600 V for suburban services on account of its relative
cheapness and easier inspection and maintenance. The supporting structure does not interfere
in the visibility of the signals. Also, it is not necessary to protect the rail from accidental contact
by plate players etc., except at stations and in sidings. In this system, current is supplied to the
electrical operated vehicle either through one rail conductor or through two rail conductors. In
case of one rail conductor the track rail is employed as the return conductor. The advantage of
using insulated return rail is elimination of electrolytic action due to return currents on other
public services buried in the vicinity of the railway tunnels. The rails are mounted on insulators
parallel with the track rails at a distance of 0.3 to 0.4 m from the running rail with their upper most
surface acting as contact surface and are fed at suitable points from substations. Conductor rail
with a side running contact, as shown in Fig. 15.2 (a), is also employed. Some railways employ an
under-running contact. Latter systems are supposed to be more protective against accidental
contact. The wearing of the rail conductor is due only to the friction of the collector shoes and
pitting which usually occurs at starting when the current drawn is very large. The rails are designed
from electrical considerations rather than mechanical.

The main considerations are

1. electrical conductivity,

2. cost,

3. wearing qualities,

4. contact surface available for the collector shoes and

5. shape and size of the conductor rail, keeping in view the type of insulators used.

A special steel alloy is used for the rails for economy reasons. The composition is such that it
provides high conductivity and at the same time satisfies all other requirements. A typical
composition is iron 99.63%, carbon 0.05%, manganese 0.2%, phosphorous 0.05%, silicon 0.02%
and sulphur 0.05%. It has a resistance of about 12.0 x 10-8 Ω-m at 18°C (about seven times of that
of copper and about one quarter or one-fifth of that of the running rails). To reduce the voltage
drop at joints, conductor rails are bonded together by short length flexible copper conductors
riveted or welded to the rails. The conductor rail is not fixed rigidly to the insulators in order to take
care of the contraction and expansion of rails. To prevent creepage due to friction of the collector
shoes, however, it is anchored at intervals of 100 to 150 metres.

The current is conveyed from the conductor rail to the train equipment by means of collector shoe
(flat steel shoe about 20 cm in length and 7.6 cm in width) which presses on to the rail with a force
of about 15 kg. In case of top contact the necessary contact force is obtained by gravity and in
case of side and under-running contacts springs are employed to obtain necessary contact force.
The current which can be collected is about 300 to 500 A. Sometimes it may not be convenient to
have the conductor rail on the same side of the track, therefore, it is desirable to provide shoes
on both sides of the locomotive or train. Also, there are going to be gaps in the rails at points and
crossings, at least two shoes must be provided on each side so as to avoid discontinuity in the
current flow. This system is suitable for heavy current collection, top contact system for voltage
up to 750 V and side contact system up to 1,200 V.

2. Overhead System:

This Overhead system is adopted when the trains are to be supplied at high voltage (1,500 volts
or above). In this system with high operating voltage the trains requiring high power may be
supplied through conductors of relatively small cross section and the collection of the current
required by a train can be done by a collector with a sliding contact. Overhead construction is
universal for all ac railways and is also used with dc tramways, trolley buses and locomotives
operating at voltages of 1,500 volts and above. In all these cases the running rails are utilized as
the return conductor, therefore, with dc and single phase system only one overhead wire is
required for each track.