PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS 3B (PCSB301)

TOPIC 6 NOTES – DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL

DATA COMMUNICATION
N.B Prescribed/Recommended Books
Instrument Engineers Handbook (Vol 2): Process Control and Optimization
Programmable Logic Controllers W. Bolton
Programmable Logic Controllers F. Petruzella
Control Guru - Practical Process Control
PCSB NOTES

TOPIC 2 - PID CONTROLLER TUNING

• Refer to Chapter 2.25
 TOPIC 6: PART 1 - DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM
OVERVIEW OF DCS
➢ The control hardware is distributed amongst different parts in the field.
➢ There are different sections in an operating facility, there are DCS units situated where the machinery is,
each of the DCS is designated to a specific a production equipment; device will have its own DCS like a
tank or pumps.
➢ The DCS hardware is responsible for the control of the device it is designated to.
➢ DCS units do not work in isolation, they work in conjunction with one another.
➢ Each of these is connected to a network and that is why DCS topology is advantageous over the PLC
which is a centralized type of control (one PLC will control many different I/Os in the plant).

WHY USE DCS/ADVANTAGES

▪ If there is a failure in one part of the plant, it does not mean the other parts of the plant will be affected.
▪ When maintaining it, one part of the plant can be maintained while the other part of the plant is running.
▪ DCS is a Decentralized Control using different units connected to a network.
1. Reduction in Cable Cost – instead of a PLC located in one venue such as substation or control room, and
all the field devices connected to the PLC.

There will be a lot of wires from the field to the PLC, which is costly having the equipment located in the
plant is cost effective.
All the units are connected to one network, this usually employs the use of communication protocols
and optical fibres.
2. Modular Design – PLCs are also modular in such that 10 cards can be removed, and specific function cards
can be put. Same applies for DCS depending on the main requirements whether analog or Digital or handling
specific auxiliary inputs.
3. High Reliability and Deterministic – although designed to operate on a production environment DCS
supersede that, it cost higher than the PLC because of several factors e.g. when designed, the hardware and
software of the DCS is designed.
4. Fault Tolerance – if a hardware goes into some fault, the hardware has mechanism to overcome the fault;
if it goes to fault, the firmware takes over and allows the system to recover from the fault.
5. Localized Intelligence and Self Diagnostics – the hardware and software have intelligence which enables
it to be highly reliable and have a large number of deterministic behaviors. DCS’s are able communicate with
one another, if one device goes into fault the network will recognize that there is a fault.
6. Single Database When Compared to PLC And SCADA Combination – all the field devices are connected
to the DCS (lights, switches, valve etc.). Inside the hardware of a DCS there are tags in a database.
7. Very Long Plant Lifespan – DCS have a lifespan of roughly 25 to 30 years.
8. Specific For Analogue Process Control Application (Petrochemical, Refineries, Pulp and Paper, etc.) –
initially DCS were manufactured for petrochemical, refineries and pulp industry.
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DCS VERSUS PLC

➢ PLCs were initially developed in 1960’s and DCS in 1975, when the oil industry was booming because oil
needed to be processed and needed to be going through distillation, while PLCs were used in a card
manufacturing industry.
➢ PLCs replaced electrochemical relays and DCSs replaced pneumatic and single loop controllers;
pneumatic systems are air operated, if there is a tank and there is a level transmitter and a valve.

Previously to the DCS all these were in a single loop control; Stand-Alone controllers and these were
connected via compressed air, signal from LT (DP Cell).
The DP cell sends air-pressure signal to the LC, then LC operate on a set point manually put by the
operator. The unit was pneumatic hardware which later moved to Analog and became DCS, set point
were made here on the hardware in a control room.
➢ PLCs were used to manufacture in discrete and DCS were used in analog.
➢ Classic application, PLCs used on for automotive and DCS for refining industry.
➢ Type of control is discrete for PLCs and regulatory for DCS or can be analogue control.
➢ Redundancy – to back up a PLC program the process is stopped from running while DCS allows for doing
back up while the system is running.
➢ Engineering mindset – PLC needs programming and DCS is already planned out, only needs configuration.
➢ Operator interaction – in PLC to put HMI or SCADA it is done on exception basis, if the operator does not
want to have it the PLC can still continue run and in the DCS there must be an operator in the loop.
➢ Operator interface – in PLC simple graphics are used and in DCS more sophisticated graphics are used.
➢ Size/Footprint – PLC has a small footprint, whereas DCS has a much larger footprint.

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➢ Upfront cost – PLC cost less than the DCS.
➢ System – PLC is an open system, while DCS is a closed system.

SIMILARITIES OF DCS AND PLC

➢ I/O cards – can be removed, modular design with a backing rack system, I/O cards are specific can be
slotted into and out of the backing rack.
➢ In the software the CPU can be programmed for either the PLC or DCS in order to do some control.
➢ PLC and DCS both have HMIs in the form of graphical user interface and consoles located in the operator
room.
➢ Both PLC and DCS have business integration.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DCS AND PLC

DCS PLC
Configuration mindset (close proprietary) Programming mindset (open system).
Entire system expected to operate as a complete Provisions must be made for integration of
solution. components e.g. SCADA, MES, 3rd party.
Complex control tasks for analogue signals Complex control tasks for digital signals
High analogue I/O density High discrete I/O density.
Redundancy is critical. Downtime is severe. Speed of operation critical (10 – 20 msec).
Programmed using libraries of function blocks, FB’s Programmed using IEC611311 languages. Highly
(out of box and pretested). flexible and generic.
Online configuration may not be warranted and
Online configuration is crucial.
dangerous to the plant operation.

DCS ARCHITECTURE

▪ Controller 1 is connected to a network, which is connected to Remote I/O Devices, and the I/O devices
are connected to the field devices.

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▪ Field devices are connected via a field bus, and that reduces cable costs as they are near the field.
▪ There may be specialized inputs such as RTD, Thermocouples, barcode readers, scanners etc. which send
through information to Controller 1 which is the main controller where the main program resides
(function blocks, how the system is tied up together).
▪ If there’s a Pressure Transmitter (PT) a valve and a pressure controller operating in the plant.
▪ There is a user interaction, and this is done by the consoles. The controller is connected to consoles for
user interface and to the engineering station, where the engineer can engineer and download the
program from the controller or input the PID block inside the controller.
▪ The engineer can also have HMI or console configuration which they can program, like graphics and
adding on/off valves and program HMI devices to show that.
▪ The Upper Level goes to the business integration, manufacturing execution and the inventory control
subsystems.

PLC ARCHITECTURE
➢ This shows that PLC also has an engineering computer where all the engineering of a PLC is done.

DEPENDABILITY OF DCS

➢ DCS is designed for reliability and for it to be a feel safe system. Dependability entails Security, Ease of
Use, and Availability.
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1. Security – means there are passwords, you do not want to have anyone interrogating the DCS system.
→ These passwords and lockout mechanism prohibit unauthorised access.
→ In order to program the DCS, one must have a password to a specific key; only the engineer can program
the DCS.
2. Ease of Use – the system is closed, and the tags can be manipulated easily.
3. Availability – this stems from integrity of the system, redundancy and the maintenance part of it.
➢ The system is designed to be full proof, in terms of the hardware these devices are tested, soak tested,
and stress tested to improve integrity.
➢ There may be more than one network, if one network faults the system automatically switches to
another network available.
➢ Maintenance aspects are built into the software, they may be schedule reports generated to when to do
the hardware check.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES - Chapter 4.4, pg. 99

Star Network/Topology
▪ The host device is the main hub or master; the terminals can be
controllers, I/Os devices or HMIs, and these are Slaves.
▪ Each device has equal rights to the system.
▪ Each device has a specific time on which to send information and
receive information.
▪ Star Network or Topology is slower compared to other networks;
however, its main advantage is that it is fully deterministic.
▪ A failure in a line of a network affects only that part or device.

Bus/Single Highway Network/Topology

X
▪ This is also known as Slave master system or Bus Arbitration system.
▪ If there’s a breakage at X, all devices before the breakage will be affected.
▪ The master controls the network traffic, if HMI1 wants to get information from C2 it sends the request
to the master and the master will direct the information/traffic to and from the slave devices.
▪ This system is deterministic, and it operates in high speed.
Ring System/Network
➢ With ring-based networks, two commonly used methods that are employed to avoid two stations talking
at once and so giving rise to confusion are token passing and slot passing.
➢ Token Passing, a special bit pattern called a token is circulated round the network. When a station wants
to transmit into the network, it waits until it receives the token, then transmits the data with the token

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 attached. Another station that wants to transmit cannot do so until the token has been freed by removal
from the data by a receiver.
➢ Slot Passing, empty slots are circulated into which stations can deposit data for transmission.

▪ Each unit is Daisy chained to another, each unit gets a token, and that token
is passed down.
▪ This is a deterministic system, any breakage on the network will cause
issues.

DCS DESIGN
➢ DCS design is similar to that of PLC with that there is also a top-down approach on its design.
➢ Different parts of the plants are isolated when programming the DCS.

All the controllers are connected to a network; Operator Workstation 1 can be for boilers and Operator
Workstation 2 can be for Services / Storage tanks.
Each of the controllers will have unique tags, tag conversion is unique to different manufacturing plants;
and different; process tags are global, tag conversion is important when dealing with DCS.

DCS DESIGN

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Function Block Call
DCS system is programmed using function blocks, given by the manufacturer. These function blocks are
designed, tested and proven by the manufacturer.
On the function block there is a Function Block Call, which responds to event flows.
If the DCS is switched, it will run through a firmware and comes to some part where it sees the PID and
that PID block is run for every one second.
If the PID control is connected to a tank level control it will call it every one second.
The Function Block Call every one second, it will call it and move to the event flow.
Function Block Type
Inside the Function Block there is an algorithm.
If there is a set of data inputs (Set Point and PV) the data out will be an output to the valve or to the
motor.
To do PID Control, the PID algorithm will be inside the function block, same applies for ON/OFF control.
On everyone second it will call the Function Block Call, open up the Function Block Type, read the inputs,
compute the output, and send data across.
The function block can be called at different times.
Internal Data is specific to the PID block, things like PID parameters, tune values and scan rate.
Function Block Type PID
➢ DCS is foolproof system, high integrity, if there’s an error inside the block, it will be outputted and sent
to the HMI to indicate there’s an error on the block.

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 TOPIC 6: PART 2 - INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATION
DATA
➢ In the sense of industrial communication, the data is represented in a bit stream 1s and 0s and that bit
stream is sent from a transmitter over to a receiving device.

Tx 01 0001 Rx
➢ Data can be in a form of pictures, speech, text etc and these can be represented in a binary format.
➢ Manipulated variables, tank levels, flowrate variables, temperature variables can be taken from the field,
then converted to a binary system and sent along a communication network.

LT

➢ A level transmitter, sent from the PLC to the HMI, this can be done using 4 – 20 mA, but this sends only
1 bit of information across.
➢ Industrial data communication has an advantage in that a whole lot of information (set points, control
valves signal, manipulated variables) signals can be sent across the network over to the HMI and the
operator can then view these variables and control the plant.
➢ Information is carried using the network in a digital formal.

WHY DIGITAL AND NOT ANALOG?

1. Lower engineering and hardware costs.
2. More plant information can be sent – in analog the manipulated variable can be sent over 4 – 20 mA and
only one type of manipulated variable can be sent across the loops.
3. Improved sensor and plant equipment diagnostics – information of the device can be obtained, and the
device can be configured, information may include calibration date, tag name of the plant/device, units the
device is operating on.
4. Faster transmission speeds can be achieved – errors can be minimized; the errors can be accounted for
by sending a response through and receiving a response.
5. Easier access to plant data – All the devices are connected to one network; plant data is easier to obtain
and access diagnostic information to do fault checks and do system analysis on each loop.

THE EARLY DAYS

Morse Code Working Principle
➢ A dot is a 0 and a dash is a 1.
➢ On the transmitter the transmission key is tapped; a short tap indicates a 0 and a long tap indicate a 1.
➢ On the receiver there is a Coil, the Coil gets energized and pulls down the lever which has a Pen Tip to
draw out the morse code.

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ASCII (AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE)

➢ This was used to transmit one information from one computer to another computer.
➢ The first 3 bits represent columns 000 to 111 and the last 4 bits represent the rows 0000 to 1111; for
example, “b” would be 110 0010.
➢ The information is sent using copper cable, this is sent using the following (0 volt indicate ‘0’ bit and 5
volts indicate ‘1’ bit.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WIRED SYSTEMS AND PROTOCOLS – Study together with this
➢ Wired system is the electrical standard (RS232, RS485, Ethernet)
➢ Protocol is how the packet data is structured (ASCII, HART, MODBUS, PROFIBUS, PROFINET)
Forerunners Of Early Digital Data Communication Standards and Protocol
1. RS-232
2. RS-422
3. RS-485 – this is a defective standard in transmitting information over a serial network bus.
4. HART
5. MODBUS
➢ RS-232, RS-422 and RS-485 are the wired standards and HART and MODBUS are the protocols.
Serial and Parallel Data
Serial Data PLC PLC
Parallel Data

Tx Rx Tx Rx

A transmitter sending data across a receiving device such as PLC or HMI, this can be done using 2 wires,
which is a Serial Data. Data can also be transmitted using many wires which is Parallel Data.
In Serial Data a packet frame is sent one bit at a time, while in Parallel Data, the information is sent all
at once.
Advantage of a serial data is that it outweighs the advantages of parallel data.
If each transmitter is connected using many cables, this may result in high costs for the cables.
Crosstalk is the interference between the cables, which is the impact of electrical noise/electrical
interference and in parallel data it is higher.

PARALLEL TO SERIAL HARDWARE

UART – Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter

UART Data Transmission Example

This has 2 points to send information to, this is done such that the microprocessor has a Data bus, it
forms a packet.
It has a shift register and a clock or bit rate in which to send the information across, this is done using
asynchronous communication which means there is no clock pulse shared between the transmitter and
the receiver, it is done on a start and stop bit.

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 Upon receiving a start bit, the receiving device knows that there are incoming packets of data, and the
receiver stops it to know the information has been received.
The packet is based on a certain protocol and put together.
Information can be packaged on an Arduino in the form of MODBUS, and it is sent over to a PLC and that
physical layer or link could be RS-485.
To resend ‘b’ from the transmitter to the receiver (110 0010), the parallel information is converted to
serial information in the form of ASCII.
Start bit is ‘0’ and stop bit is ‘1’.
This is sent to a receiving device which is a UART device, serial data goes into the device, then it is
converted to parallel.

Full Duplex Data Transmission

➢ This is transmission and receiving done simultaneously.

Half Duplex Data Transmission

➢ Transmission and receiving done one at a time.

Simplex Data Transmission

➢ Transmission is only one point to the receiver, no bidirectional communication.

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Asynchronous Data Transmission

A Start bit ‘0’ and Stop ’1’ is used to send information serially through the receiver.
The timing errors are reduced using Start and Stop bits, when a ‘0’ is first picked, the packet data is
counted.
Error bit is an added-on piece of information so that if there is a crosstalk or error coming into the
communication signal, it is picked up then the transmitter sends the signal again.
In Asynchronous there is no clock pulse, it is done using Start and Stop bit.
With Synchronous it is necessary to have a clock pulse embedded on the cable.

1. RS-232

This is a wired standard, designed to link computers together.

The main limitation of RS-232 is that there can only be 2 devices on the network.
It has a fairly small link cable (< 15 m); therefore, it is not appropriate for field devices which need to be
hooked up in the plant which can run for many hundreds of meters.
It has a low baud rate (= 20 kbps), Baud Rate is the number of bits that can be sent in a second; a packet
frame of ASCII code has a limited number of bits that can be sent across, which period time or point in
time.
→ Each bit requires specific amount of time to be sent across the network.
→ Baud Rate is the determining factor when deciding when the type of wired system that would be required
by a particular network.
RS-232 is known as unbalanced communication, where the signal is driven around ground.
If this is a ground, the signal would be driven between + 15 V and – 15 V.
+ 15 V
0V
- 15 V
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 A balanced system would have 0 V and + 15 V.
+ 15 V
0V

➢ RS-232 is asynchronous communication, where there are starts and stops bits.
➢ RS-232 is unsophisticated error checking (parity bit even, odd or none).
Balanced Communication

In order to send a + 12 V or + 15 V the signal goes in the C Direction and the return path is over Switch 1
and Switch 2.
-12 V or - 15 V goes in the D Direction and returns through the E Direction through Switch 3 and Switch
4.
The signal can either be sent into Positive (+) or into Negative (-).
If Tx is a transmitter and Rx is the receiving device, it goes from balanced to an unbalanced system.
When the signals are sent across over a period of time and length of a cable, part of the signal reflects
back, bounces off the transmitter and goes back and corrupt the signal, this is Back emf.
Electrostatic Interference and Cable Screens

Cable screens prevent electrostatic interference from occurring.

Electrostatic interference comes from high voltage cables, example include signal wires coupled to high
voltage cable, these signal wires have Capacitance (C), and the capacitance stores electric charge and
the insulation around the cables form dielectric.
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 There may be a charge on the signal wires because of the high voltage cable near the signal wire if there
is a high capacitance between the 2 cables (signal cables and high voltage cable) shielding is used to
prevent that.
A Metal Shield is put around the cable and it is grounded, any capacitance on the cable is negated, there
is no direct capacitance on the cable, but it is on the shielding cable.
The capacitance is directly proportional to the area (cross-sectional area) of the cable exposed to
electrostatic interference multiplied by the insulator and combined with air separating the 2 cables,
divided by the distance.
Decrease in distance causes an increase in the capacitance, increase in distance causes a decrease in
capacitance (signal wires must be kept apart from high voltage cables to prevent Crosstalk and
interference).
Magnetic Interference and Cable Screens

➢ This is due to magnetic induction; this also stems from high voltage cables; high voltage can run on AC
with 50 Hz. The 50 Hz impose itself on the signal wires and induce a current on the wires and it is added
on the crosstalk.
➢ Screen cables have aluminium-copper as the shielding to prevent electrostatic coupling from the
capacitance.
Aluminium-Copper

Signal
Wires

Steel

➢ The steel shielding prevents any electromagnetic effects on the signal wires.
➢ The Aluminium Copper shielding is at 50 Hz, it is at 1 Skin depth which is 9 dB attenuation.
➢ Attenuation is the signal loss; the crosstalk is reduced by 1 Skin depth using the Aluminium Copper
shielding.
➢ The Steel Shielding is roughly 1.2 mm in thickness.
➢ As the graph goes to higher frequencies the shielding is less effective, higher frequencies need thicker
shielding.
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Unshielded Straight Cables (Untwisted)
➢ The current affects these cables, Magnetic induction affects the signal on this cable if they are near a
high voltage or high inductance cable or power cable.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cables

➢ These cables are twisted to reduce magnetic coupling and capacitance.
➢ The currents are circulating because of the twisting, these currents are negated by the cable.

Copper Wiring System / Twisted Cable Pair

➢ The twisted cable is a copper wire, which is a shield twisted pair.

➢ Aluminium copper is the electrostatic shield, and it is grounded on one side.
➢ Steel is for electromagnetic induction shielding.
➢ Putting these 2 shielding together prevent severe crosstalk from affecting the signal wires.

2. RS – 422
➢ This is an improvement of RS-232 which had 2 devices, transmitter and the receiver.
➢ With RS-422 there is a master and 12 slaves, it is a full duplex.
➢ The master device determines when each device can talk on the system, instead of having 2 devices on
the network there may be 12 devices; with one master, this is a full duplex (bidirectional communication).
➢ This can transmit and receive from slaves, 1 up to slave n, this can go up to 10 Mbps and this can be
maximum length of 1500 m.
➢ Terminators are resistors, the terminating resistors prevent the back emf (a rectification coming back on
the line).

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 Example, if Tx is transmitting information to the Slave Device 1, Slave 1 will have an ID address, it knows
that the packet of information is for it.
The information goes through A Direction, if there are no Terminating Resistors, the information is
reflected back and corrupts the original signal.
Use of Terminating Resistors
➢ This eliminate the back emf, which distorts the original signal.

3. RS-485

➢ This is used in PLC, and this was used for serial communication.
➢ This has 32 devices; all the devices have equal status. Each device can transmit and receive at the same
time.
➢ It does not require a master; token passing can be employed in a daisy chain network or ring network.
➢ It has a baud rate of 35 Mbps; it can be a full or half duplex.
➢ The cable or transmitter range can be up to 4000 m and uses repeaters to increase range.
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➢ Repeaters are electrical devices put at the far end of the network to extend capacity or range of the
network.
➢ This also needs the terminating resistors on each end.
Active Termination

➢ This is also known as bias resistors. This prevents undefined states when all Tx devices are active.
➢ This ensures that the logical states are read correctly.
➢ If the bias Resistor 1 is absent, even when sending a ‘0’ it can be read as a ‘1’.
➢ By adding the bias Resistor 1, it is guaranteed that when A > B there is a Logical ‘1’, when A is greater
than B by more than 200 mV and there is a Logical ‘0’ when B is less than A by more than 200 mV.
Synchronous Data Transmission
Manchester Encoding
➢ The Clock Pulse is sent across the transmission, but it is unique in a sense that the clock pulse is added
to the Actual Bit Stream.
➢ Manchester Encoding relies on signal changes. The Clock Pulse is added using an Exclusive OR(XOR)
gate.
➢ On the receiving end, there is an Extracted Clock Pulse on each transmission, it does a reversal of the
XOR and ends up with the Bit Stream/signal of the original bit sequence.

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ERROR CHECKING METHODS
1. Even/Odd Polarity Error Check

➢ The Start bit is ‘1’ and Stop bit is ‘0’. Error bit (E) is either a ‘0’ or ‘1’.
➢ The most common type of error checking is Even/Odd Parity Error Check.
➢ Even Parity total number of 1’s in the code including the parity bit should be Even, starting from 1st ASCII
bit to Last ASCII bit.
➢ Odd Parity total number of 1’s in the code including the parity bit should be Odd, starting from 1st ASCII
bit to Last ASCII bit.
➢ To check this error, it counts the number of ‘1’s in data – on this example there are 3 ‘1’s, when counting
starting from Parity bit to 1st ASCII Bit.
➢ If it is an Even Parity Error Check, it will see it’s an odd count and put a ‘1’ on the Error bit for Even Count.
➢ If it is an Odd Parity Error Check, and there are 3 ‘1’s it would put a ‘0’ on the Error bit for Odd Count.
➢ This works at low bit rates, it is an added over head and cannot detect 2/4/6-bit errors.
2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

➢ This is a much more advanced error checking method. 16 or 32 zeroes are added on the bit system.
➢ The Original Binary Bit is divided by ‘11100000000000011’.
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➢ The Remainder is added to the added 16/32 zeroes.
➢ On the receiving end, the Transmitted Bit Stream is received, and the same divisor will be used to divide
the original data.
➢ If the Remainder/R-Data matches up with what is received in the end, and if the difference is all zeroes,
then the data received is correct – no error.
➢ If there are any discrepancies, then the received data is incorrect, then the system tells the receiver to
send the message again.

TRANSMISSION MEDIUMS
1. Copper
➢ Copper has limiting factors when looking at crosstalk, error checks.
Copper Limiting Factors
• Voltage drops
• Cable length limitation
• High cost
• Electrostatic and magnetic interferences
• Cable degradation
• Limited bandwidth
• Theft
2. Fiber Optic

➢ In fiber optic light is transmitted in a glass medium.

➢ The light is used to transmit bits ‘0’s or ‘1’s.
➢ It is faster in speed, operates in a speed of light (299 793 km/s).
➢ This has minimum cross talk (no electrical capacitance or electromagnetic/electrostatic interference).
➢ Light is shone inside a glass medium (silicon dioxide) which has a low reflective index.
➢ The signal is bounced off with a minimum loss of light.
➢ This usually has a plastic cladding, to prevent other light sources from affecting the transmitted signal.

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 Types of Fiber Optic
a) Step-Mode Fiber (Long Distance, Low Bandwidth)
➢ This is used for long distances at low bandwidth.
➢ This has a much thicker cladding, and the optic fiber is very thin (narrow optic fiber conduit).
➢ Step mode is used for inter-continental transmission of data.
125µm

9µm
b) Multimode-Mode Fiber (Short Distance, High Bandwidth)
➢ This is used for short distances at high bandwidth.
➢ Fiber optic is thicker, and the cladding is thin (wider optic conduit).
➢ Multimode is used for in land data transmission.

125µm 125µm

50µm 62.5µm

MULTI-MODE VS SINGLE-MODE

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Private Connections of Optic Fiber
▪ Maximum bend radius
▪ Undersea cables (TAT8)

Different Connections of Fiber Optic Cables

Hyperlink Image

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3. Wireless (Wireless Radio)
➢ Electromagnetic waves through air.
➢ There are Low Waves, Short Waves, Very High Frequency, Ultra High Frequency, Super High Frequency.
➢ This has a wide bandwidth.
➢ Electromagnetic waves can be absorbed or reflected.
➢ Distance is affected by Tx/Rx antenna type.
➢ Wireless radio band is approximately 2.4 GHz.

2.4 GHz ISM Band

Wireless (Radio) Table

➢ Zigbee was used in monitoring and control.
➢ A field device was mounted in the plant and the device transmitted information to the control room,
there is no physical connection between the field device and the actual controller or PLC in the control
room.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
4. Protocols
➢ Protocol is a set of rules for communication between Rx and Tx.
The Main Purpose of Protocols
▪ To establish connections
▪ To direct traffic
▪ To perform error detection and to provide a recovery if there are errors detected
▪ It is for message routing
▪ Packaging
▪ Connection to the application
➢ Standards like Profinet should be able to perform all the above purposes and be able to transmit
information from field devices through to a main network and over to an HMI screen or SCADA package.

ISO/OSI 7 Layer Model

➢ This is a framework of different levels.
➢ All People Seem To Need Data Processing
➢ Each part of the structure or layer is given a specific task, this is the foundation of all protocols.
➢ OSI model is a generic model, it does not apply to any specific protocol.

Application Layer – this gives access to the main application e.g. email server (Microsoft Outlook), the
application links to Microsoft outlook, when send button is clicked the application layer open up the rest
of the layers.
→ The ISO/OSI is attached to the main network. The Application Layer passes the message to the
Presentation Layer.
→ Application layer enables flow control and error recovery.
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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
 Presentation Layer – this is where the email or message written is converted into a usable format.
→ Presentation Layer converts the message to ASCII code, it converts, encrypt/decrypt and performs
compression to make the message package smaller.
Session Layer – this is for synchronizing and sequencing control of the dialog of the packets coming
through.
Transportation Layer – connects upper layers to the bottom layers of the protocol.
→ Provides data to move at set of speeds, controls the speed of the data in order to maintain the quality of
data.
Network Layer – this determines the networks address or ID. It is responsible for routing of traffic and
maintaining connection until the whole message is sent.
Data Link Layer – responsible for framing of the package. Once all the ASCII code is converted, it is put
in a package.
→ Data Link Layer is unique to that protocol depending on the protocol.
Physical Layer - responsible for converting the ‘0’s and ‘1’s in a package to an electrical signal.
→ This has the actual physical hardware, like signal levels and speeds.
Example of Email Message

Application Layer: The email is composed and sent using an email client (like Outlook or Gmail) which
uses SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
Presentation Layer: The email data is translated into a format that can be transmitted over the network,
ensuring compatibility between different systems.
Session Layer: A session is established between the sender’s and receiver’s email servers to manage the
communication.
Transport Layer: The email is broken down into smaller packets using TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) to ensure reliable transmission.
Network Layer: Each packet is assigned an IP address and routed through various networks to reach the
recipient’s email server.
Data Link Layer: Error detection and correction are performed, and the data packets are framed for
transmission over the physical medium.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
 Physical Layer: The packets are converted into electrical signals or other forms suitable for transmission
over the physical medium (like cables or wireless).
➢ On the receiving end, the process is reversed, and the email is reassembled and presented to the
recipient. Presentation layer converts ASCII back to the text/message.
➢ Application layer hooks up back to Microsoft outlook and the email is read by Microsoft outlook.
Reasons for Using Full Model
➢ Industrial applications are different.
▪ No need for translation/encryption/companding
▪ No security needs, the network is isolated no one can temper with the network.
▪ Communication is in single packets only; packets are sent one at a time.
▪ No path optimization
▪ Communication is greatly simplified

INDUSTRIAL PROTOCOLS AND FIELD BUSES 1

➢ HART and Modbus are the legacy type systems.
➢ In industry there are I/Os connected to the field devices like level transmitters, valves etc all these are
remotely connected.
➢ The reason for the remote connection is moving the CPU near the plant so that the cables are minimized,
and remote connections also reduce the costs of cabling and noise effects on the cable.
➢ The field devices may require intrinsic safety if located in hazardous zones, to prevent explosion in case
there is a fault in these devices.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
INDUSTRIAL PROTOCOLS AND FIELD BUSES 2
➢ The Controller is connected to an I/O Subsystem and each of the devices like valve, motor, bulb are
connected to this I/O Subsystem using analog signal.
➢ Field Bus System (FCS) has reduced equipment, it has an Intrinsic Safety Device (IS) which links the main
control network to the Field Bus System.
➢ The field devices are daisy chained, the field bus package sends information to the valves, bulbs etc. for
control purposes.

INDUSTRIAL PROTOCOLS AND FIELD BUSES 3

➢ In the traditional 4-20 mA one variable can be sent in one direction.
➢ Field bus can send multiple variables in both directions.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
INDUSTRIAL PROTOCOLS AND FIELD BUSES 4
➢ Fieldbus gives information like tag, value, unit of the transmitter, whether the status is good or bad, is it
in alarm mode or not.
➢ The standard for 20 mA gives the manipulated variable.

INDUSTRIAL PROTOCOLS AND FIELD BUSES 5

Industrial Protocol Field Bus System
➢ The control network has Operator Station and the Plant Asset Management.
➢ Field devices are connected to the field bus.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
1. HART PROTOCOL
➢ Developed by Rosemount in 1989.
➢ Highway Addressable Remote Transducer
➢ It was a 1st open standard which can be used to communicate information to other types of control.
→ There is no restriction as to which device can use it.
➢ Allowed enhancement of traditional analogue signals
➢ It was the first De facto instrument standard.
The HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) Protocol is the global standard for sending and
receiving digital information across analogue wires between smart devices and control or monitoring
system.
HART is a bi-directional communication protocol that provides data access between intelligent field
instruments and host systems. A host can be any software application from technician's hand-held device
or laptop to a plant's process control, asset management, safety or other system using any control
platform.
HART technology is reliable and offers the benefits of intelligent devices with digital communication.
Most applications cannot retrofit their existing automation systems with a system that can accept the
digital data which is provided by the HART Protocol.
Because most automation networks in operation today are based on traditional 4-20mA analogue wiring,
HART technology serves a critical role because the digital information is simultaneously communicated
with the 4-20mA signal.
HART technology is easy to use and very reliable when used for commissioning and calibration of smart
devices as well as for continuous online diagnostics.
There are several reasons to have a host communicate with smart devices. These include:
▪ Device Configuration or re-configuration
▪ Device Diagnostics
▪ Device Troubleshooting
▪ Reading the additional measurement values provided by the device
▪ Device Health and Status
HART Communicator

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Wireless HART Protocol
➢ Wireless HART is a wireless mesh network communications protocol for process automation
applications.
➢ It adds wireless capabilities to the HART Protocol while maintaining compatibility with existing HART
devices, commands, and tools.
➢ Each Wireless HART network includes three main elements: Wireless Field Devices connected to process
or plant equipment. This device could be a device with Wireless HART built in or an existing installed
HART-enabled device with a Wireless HART adapter attached to it.
➢ Gateways enable communication between these devices and host applications connected to a high-
speed backbone or other existing plant communications network.
➢ A Network Manager is responsible for configuring the network, scheduling communications between
devices, managing message routes, and monitoring network health.

Hardware of HART Protocol

➢ This is a 2-wire configuration with a power supply which sends power to the transmitter, there is a
Returning Path to the signal.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
➢ The signal is at 1 – 5 Vdc, the signal change depending on the transmitter output.
➢ Analog Signal is read on the Returning Path.
➢ The HART signal is added to the analog signal whether it being in voltage or current signal.

➢ If the device Potentiometer (Pot-Res) is HART enabled, it will send out an Additional Pulse on the
Original Analog Signal and that is the HART communication added on the analog signal.
➢ These signals occur at 2 different frequencies, Higher Frequency and Lower Frequency.
➢ The Lower Frequency Component is 1200 Hz, and it would enable bit ‘1’. The Higher Frequency
Component is 2200 Hz, and it is bit ‘0’.
➢ The analog signal is sent to the DCS or PLC and at the same time the digitized small signals are added
through the frequency shift key method.
➢ The additional signals are picked by the receiving device, the receiving device which is also HART enabled.
➢ If Rx is HART enabled, it will pick up the small discrepancies.
➢ It will read the zeroes and ones and use that information to pick up things like the transmitter tag names,
status of the transmitter.
➢ Communication is in one direction; a handheld HART device can be put to interrogate the transmitter,
calibrate settings, change the units etc.
HART Handheld Device
Universal Commands:
▪ Read primary PV
▪ Read/write transmitter range
▪ Read/write tag, descriptor and date
▪ Read unique identifier
▪ Write polling address
Device Specific Commands: Common Practice Commands:

▪ Start, stop & clear totalizer ▪ Calibrate (set zero, set span)
▪ Read/write special calibration factors ▪ Perform self-test
▪ Write PV unit

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
2. MODBUS
➢ Developed in 1978 by Modicon.
➢ It is the 1st open bus standard.
➢ Newer protocols are based on Modbus.
➢ Can be implemented on various physical levels – RS232, RS485, TCP/IP
➢ A PLC and a VSD can be connected using Modbus.

PLC
Modbus
VSD M

▪ This uses one cable running from the PLC to the VSD. It has a slave arbitration system where there is 1
master and 247 slaves.
▪ Packet data can be ASCII or RTU modes, ASCII is 7 bits and RTU is 8 bits.
▪ It is more convenient to use RTU, ASCII was designed for text.
Types of Strategies or Concepts of Modbus
1. Unicast System – The master sends a request to a specific ID of a Slave, the ID of the Slave or the Slave
will receive that request and put a packet together on the information required by the Master and it will
respond.
→ This is a two-way communication

2. Broadcast System - The master sends a request to all the devices/Slaves simultaneously, which ever Slave
device called or pulled for that information will send the reply back.
→ This is a one-way system.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Packet Frame Structure

▪ ID – slave address
▪ FC – function code (read/write to register/coil)
▪ ADDR – address of data
▪ DATA – actual binary data
▪ ERROR – cyclic redundancy check/longitudinal redundancy check.

ASCII Packet

RTU Packet

➢ ADDR - a PLC or any field device has a memory register which has an actual data.
➢ Based on the Function code, information is requested or pulled from a specific data register.
➢ Information can be requested from many data registers all at once.

Example:

➢ The SCADA package is the Master and PLC 2 is the Slave.

➢ The Master requests information from PLC 2, it will put a unique identifier for PLC 2, and it will call a
Function Code to enable PLC 2 to obtain the correct information by going to the correct set of addresses.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Register Mapping
➢ This is an example of a Modicon PLC.
I/O Range Description
00001 - 10000 Read/Write discrete output or coils.
10001 - 20000 Read discrete inputs
30001 - 40000 Read input registers – 16 bit registers such as analog inputs
40001 - 50000 Read/Write holding registers – 16-bit storage or I/O.
Function Code
➢ To read a set of registers, a function code has to be used into the package frame.

Query Response Cycle

➢ This is how the actual system work.
➢ Query response comes from the Master, then it goes to unique device address, it then develops a
function code depending on what the system requires.
➢ The Slave picks up the query and puts the packets together and send it back to the Master.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Example 1 – Digital Values
➢ Read coil status from PLC (SCADA -> PLC).
➢ Coils 20 – 56 from PLC 17.
Query (Hex)

The address is 17 in Hex it is 11.

Function is 01, which is read by coils (coils are discrete outputs).
Start Data is 20 (Lower Bit) in Hex it is 14 – 1 (14 minus 1) because the actual coil Starts from 20 – 56.
The coil Start from 20 – 56 to read up, that is an additional 37 registers, starting from 20 – 36 +1 in Hex
is 25.
Coils from 20 – 56 are covered, all registers or coils from PLC 17 are pulled out.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check
Add all data bytes in Hex → 11 + 1+13+25 = 4A
Subtract value from FFFF(Hex) → FFFF (16 bits) – 4A = FFB5
Add 1 to the Result → FFB5 + 1 = FFB6
Response (Hex)

The PLC will get the request to fill information from those specific coils, then it needs to put in its own
packet.
Then the PLC works out the checks, all the bytes are added →11 + 1 + CD + 6B + B2 + 0E + 1B = 22A.
Then subtract valve from FFFF → FFFF (16 bits) – 22A = FDD5.
Add 1 to the result → FDD5 + 1 = FDD6.
Example 2 – Analog Values
➢ Read registers 40108 through 40110 from slave PLC 17.
Query (Hex)

The function is 03 which is read, holding registers. 108 in Hex is 6C – 1 = 6B.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Longitudinal Redundancy Check
Add all data bytes → 11 + 3 + 6B + 3 = 82
Subtract value form FFFF(Hex) → FFFF – 82 = FF7D
Add 1 to the result → FF7D + 1 = FF7E
Response (Hex)

Byte count is the number of bytes. The Actual data come from the PLC as it is running. Register has 2
bytes (1 word).
PLC adds the values for LRC → 11 + 3 + 6 + 2 + 2B + 64 = AB.
Subtract the value from FFFF → FFFF – AB = FF54
Add 1 to the result → FF54 + 1 = FF55.
➢ This will be sent to the SCADA system which will read the values and unpackage them and present the
information to the application.
Main Drawbacks of The Modbus
▪ Bus arbitration (master/slave) clumsy if too many devices.
▪ Token ring passing and collision based often more flexible.
▪ Determinism, getting data at reliable intervals.
MODBUS +
▪ Token ring passing. (Fully deterministic)
▪ Support redundant links.
▪ 1 Mbps
▪ RS 485

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
3. PROFIBUS (PROCESS FIELD BUS SYSTEM)
➢ Developed in Germany in 1991.
➢ This is a commonly used industrial protocol.
➢ PROFIBUS is based on RS-485, which is a common serial communication method
➢ In a PROFIBUS network, you have PROFIBUS masters and PROFIBUS devices.
➢ The master can be, for example, a PLC, PAC, or DCS. And the devices can be a wide array of devices:
drives, motors, IOs, sensors, field devices, robots, actuators, and more.
➢ The general principle of PROFIBUS is collecting multiple inputs and outputs from the field into a local IO
device, and then transferring the data through just one cable to the master
➢ There are different variations, and they work in conjunction with each other, and each part of the field
bus system plays an integral role.
FMS (Field Message System) - FMS is the older generation Profibus protocol, however it is
superseded by the DP.
DP (Distributed Peripheral)
PA (Process Automation)
➢ Profibus has a larger user base.
➢ Master/slave token ring passing – It depends on a master/slave topology system which can be
interchanged with token ring passing.
➢ Polling is a master/slave system, token ring passing is master to master.
➢ Profibus is implemented over RS485 using asynchronous comms (purple cable).
➢ This is a multi-master system, can employ token ring passing to control the network traffic.
➢ This type of strategy can have a maximum of 126 nodes possible with 32 devices per segment.

Each of the devices can be segmented to a maximum of 32 Field Devices.

DP usually represent the network between the masters and PA represent the network of the field
devices.
FMS can also represent the network of the Masters; FMS is slower than DP.
Profibus has a baud rate of 9.6 Kbps up to 12 Mbps, depending on where it is applied; PA rely on slower
speeds to transmit information from the field device to the master and DP transmits at higher speeds
between masters. At longer distances it transmits at lower speeds.
Profibus Network Topology
➢ The red section is the Profibus DP, and the blue section is the Profibus PA.
➢ Profibus DP works on RS485, the devices represent the slave devices and the PLC, and the HMI represent
the Masters.
➢ A Link Coupler goes from Profibus DP to Profibus PA.
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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
➢ IEC61158-2 is an electrical standard to connect slave devices to the Profibus system using Profibus PA.
➢ The devices on the process should be intrinsically safety.

Profibus DP vs PA
Profibus DP
➢ The DP stands for Decentralized Peripherals. It was developed for various factory and process
automation applications and uses the RS-485 as its physical layer.
➢ The major features of PROFIBUS DP are high transmission speed and simple data exchange, in other
words, the higher the baudrate, the shorter the cable.
➢ Typical devices are remote IO, frequency converters, HMI panels and actuators.
➢ PROFIBUS DP usually uses bus topologies, where all devices are connected parallel to the cable. You can
have up to 32 nodes in one segment.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Typical DP Layout

➢ DP has a multi-master system; it has 126 nodes for the master.

➢ This example has 2 masters and slave devices are connected on one of the masters.
➢ The Profibus DP interchange information between the masters.
➢ The network between the masters can be set to be a polling, one of the masters can be set to be a slave
and the other to be a master.
➢ The network can also be token ring, a token is set between the 2 masters and whichever master has a
token in that point in the time can be able to send instructions request on the network and receive a
response based on the request.
➢ If Master 1 has the token it can request information from Slave 3, for example which could be a flow
transmitter, in the field and that flow transmitter will then send information back to Master 1.
Active Termination
➢ Terminators reduce the effect of crosstalk, reduce the effect of ring or back emf on the communication
network.
➢ The connectors have a Selector Switch, each send and receive (Rx & Tx).
➢ If it is the last device on the network the terminator will switch on.

➢ If the end device is removed, 0.5 V of termination is removed.

➢ If end device is removed, the segment is still terminated.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Typical DP Layout
▪ Multi-master system
Class 1: cyclic control (higher priority).
Class 2: Acyclic communication (low priority)
▪ DP V0 (original DP. Very little config. capabilities).
▪ DP V1: allows online setup. Wireless support.
▪ DP V2: support slave-slave communication.
Telegram (Data) Structure

➢ The master is transmitting information over RS232 to a slave device.

➢ Once the slave device receives the information, it sends a response back.
DP Cable Earthing
➢ The metal sheath must be in a direct contact with the earth.
➢ When a cable enters a panel and exits a panel, it needs to be grounded.
➢ If earth voltages are different at each panel entry, potential equalizing conductor is used.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Profibus DP to PA
➢ This is a master to Slave system; all the slave devices respond to the commands from the master.
➢ Link Module or Segment Coupler can be used to go from Profibus DP to Profibus PA.
➢ The Profibus PA, has a recommended baud rate of 31,25 kbps and for the DP it is 45,45 kbps or 93,57
kbps.
➢ Each device has its own unique address, it may not overlap DP segment address (the device address at
the PA segment should not conflict with the device address at the DP segment).

Profibus PA
▪ This is IEC 1158-2 standard.
▪ PA Profibus is powered/signalled over a pair of wires
▪ Up to 32 devices per segment.
▪ 31.25 kbps, these use lower speeds because the devices connected to the PA are very far apart and the
manipulated variables (pressure, temperature, level) change fast.
The PA stands for Process Automation. It was developed for the process automation environment, which
often requires slower procedures and can be subject to explosive or hazardous conditions. Here, safety
and interoperability are essential.
The physical layer of PROFIBUS PA is Manchester Encoded Bus Powered Intrinsically Safe (MBP-IS), which
allows synchronous data transmission. Unlike the DP variant, PROFIBUS PA transmits data and power
along the same two wires of the cable.
PROFIBUS PA uses 31.25 Kbps, these physical and signaling changes facilitate the use of star and other
topologies
IEC 61158-2: Physical Layer Only
➢ Segment Coupler transmits data packet to each of the transmitters in a range of 9 – 32 Vdc.
➢ The common signal is ± 1 V going through and the current is ± 9 mA and this is because this is used in
intrinsically safe zone, high current may lead to explosions, power consumption is kept to a minimum.
➢ This is a synchronous data communication.
➢ There is no parity bit (there is no error checking).
➢ This uses Manchester encoding.
➢ Termination resistor and a capacitor are for DC blocking.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Overall Preview of Profibus PA Topology
➢ Chicken foot arrangement is where there is one point with multiple devices connected on the same point
on the PA.
➢ Chicken foot/Spur arrangement save cost on cabling.

Profibus PA Rules
▪ Cable noncritical (can use standard instrument cable).
▪ Free topology, flexible and saves on cabling cost.
▪ Maximum cable length 1200 m but can be pushed to 1900 m depending on various noise levels in the
plant.
▪ Voltage drop is the biggest limiting factor because the transmission is at ± 1 V, the signal is degraded at
some point causing large dropouts in the data received.
Profibus DP vs PA Summary
Cable
Type Purpose Technology Baudrate Cable Length and Topology
Restriction
Shielded twisted
PROFIBUS DP Fast RS-485 Up to 12 Mbps pair. Up 1200 m Bus
Data Only.
Shielded twisted
Up to 1900
Explosion 31.25 Kbps pair. Bus, Star
PROFIBUS PA MBP-15 m.
Safety only Data and power and Tree
Ex. Zone
supply

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
4. PROFINET
➢ This was developed from the Ethernet Standard (RJ45).
➢ PROFINET is based on standard Ethernet.
➢ Just like with PROFIBUS, in a PROFINET network, you have PLCs, PACs, and DCSs and also sensors,
actuators, robots, RFID readers, and other I/Os.
➢ In PROFINET, however, we call these controllers and devices, respectively.
➢ PROFINET users have more flexibility when designing a network. There is a variety of topology options:
line, star, tree, and ring. Also, since PROFINET networks are based on Ethernet, specialized switches are
not required.
➢ PROFINET supports WLAN and Bluetooth as part of its specification. Therefore, it enables wireless
connections without limitations, even with safety messages (PROFIsafe)
PROFINET Architecture

Ethernet Standard:
➢ It was developed in 1976 by DEC intel and Xerox.
➢ Defines the lower two layers of the OSI model.
1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
→ All other layers are left out except the application layer.
➢ Profinet uses 10Base5 (10Mbps, max. 500 m), Coaxial with BNC.
➢ Other Cable Types include CAT1-voice; CAT2-4 Mbps; CAT3-10BaseT; CAT4-16Mbps; CAT5-100BaseT.
➢ Profinet relies on CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detection.), it is a non-
deterministic type of protocol, however because of its speed and the data is transmitted it can be made
deterministic
Reason for Using Physical and Data Link Layers Only (Ethernet Standard)

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
➢ Ethernet was not designed for industry using but for communication between two computers via radio
link.
➢ In industry it is used to control physical equipment, while in conventional it is used for data processing
and transfer.
➢ It is an applicable domain for industry is manufacturing, processing and utility distribution while
conventional use is for corporate and home environment.
➢ Failure of the protocol in industry results in high error rate or the failure severity is higher as compared
to conventional use.
➢ It has to be highly reliable for industrial use, and moderate for conventional use.
➢ Round trip times is 250 µs – 10 ms.
➢ For industry needs high determinism, information must be received within a specific time.
➢ The data is composed into small packets of periodic and aperiodic in industry, while it large and aperiodic
only in conventional.
➢ Temporal Consistency is highly required in industrial use.
➢ The use operating environment industry is hostile, conditions often featuring high levels of dust in the
industry.
➢ The Profinet for industrial needs to be tailored for the above conditions, that is why all the other layers
are left out in the industry.
Main Problem with UTP Cable (Ethernet Standard)
➢ This uses shielded twisted pair cable, unshielded twisted pair can also be used however near end
crosstalk has to be considered, this means there is a signal in a bidirectional communication going from
a master to a slave if there is no shielding in-between the shielded twisted pair there will be an
interference or near end crosstalk between the transmitted signal and the received signal.
➢ The shielding negates the effect of noise from other sources, such as a high voltage cable.

HUB vs. Switch vs. Router (Ethernet Standard)

1. HUB
➢ HUB connects all devices on a local network, and it is responsible for message broadcast.
➢ In the plant, to connected 3 PLCs this configuration can be used.
➢ If PLC 1 wants to send information it will send it to the HUB and the HUB transmits the information to
the devices on the network.
➢ The message is broadcasted, and PC 1 does not know that the IP address of other devices.

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Hubs As Repeaters
➢ HUBs are used as repeaters, if Device 1 wants to send information it will send it to all devices and to
another HUB which will broadcast to the other devices on HUB 2

2. Switch
➢ The switch knows the physical MAC address of the local devices connected to it and therefore can direct
traffic from source to destination.
➢ Each device has a MAC address, be it a Computer, HMI or a PLC these need to be connected to a Switch
to communicate.
➢ The Switch learns the MAC address of the device.
➢ If PLC request information from an HMI, the PLC sends a request to the Switch and the Switch sends
information specifically to the HMI and the HMI will send the information back.
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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
➢ This is a Unicast System not a broadcast

Switch Does Error Checking Thus Speeds Up Network

3. Router
➢ Router is used to connect local network to other networks (internet).
➢ Has the ability to read IP addresses from messages sent from the internet.
➢ The Router controls information coming from other networks; information from another network pass
through the Router and the Router sends the information through one of its ports to the network.
➢ IP address of the Router directs the information to the relevant MAC address of the connected device.

Router

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Router Segment Network
➢ The Router table has specific IP addresses.
➢ Devices A, B, C, D is one network and W, X, Y, Z is another network.

Combination of HUB, Switch and Router (Ethernet Standard)

7 Layer Mode (Ethernet Standard)

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM & INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATIONS
➢ On Profinet there is only Physical Layer and the Data Link Layer.
➢ MAC addresses are embedded in the Data Link Layer, which is responsible for error checking, looking at
data integrity; this is important for Profinet to ensure that the correct data is sent through.
➢ Physical Layer is the connection, wiring, signal levels/speeds.
➢ Application Layer connects to the application on the top.
Data Frames of Profinet Protocol (Ethernet Standard)
➢ There are 2 types of Data Frames
1. Ethernet II DIX Frame

2. IEEE 8023 Frame

Profinet (Ethernet Standard)

▪ It sends one packet at a time, with it occupying the whole bandwidth.
▪ Monitor the carrier signals - the device can be in idle state, in transmitting or receiving state; if it
monitors it is in a monitoring mode, idle state.
▪ Waiting for an inter-frame gap then transmits data - once it locates the space in a frame for that to
occur, it sends data through.
▪ If there is a collision, then both parties back off for a random time – the back algorithm stops the
transmission in case of collision.
▪ Delay can increase drastically as loading increases
▪ Collisions cause delays (non-deterministic).
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
➢ This is coupled with the Profinet standard.
➢ Due to the limitations of RS485 network, two more protocols were designed.
➢ IP (Internet Protocol) - flexible data transfer
- Unreliable due to no error checking.
➢ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): was introduced to reduce instability of IP. TCP performs error
checking
▪ Was not intended for use with Ethernet, just happens to be convenient.
▪ Modern protocol.
▪ Allow for log-in from anywhere.
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▪ Allows for switching.
▪ Support for routers that break up networks into subnets.
TCP/IP:
▪ Addressing using (MAC & IPv4/IPv6)
IPv4 – 4 billion unique addresses.
→ (IP = FF.FF.FF. FF)
IPv6 – next gen. address system (128 bit hex).
→ (IP = 8 sets of 16 bits)
▪ Name resolution in the form of domain name system (DNS)
▪ Flow control by checking corrupt missing data and correct baud rates, this is done in a Data Layer Link.
▪ Support for external applications. (Ports: SMTP, FTP, HTTP, etc.)
TCP/IP – ETHERNET NETWORK
➢ Each instrument or hardware on the TCP/IP network has a unique address.
The Advantages of using TCP/IP
An Instrument plugged into the network will automatically be assigned a unique address.
Remote access allows a technician to log onto the network from anywhere in the world.
Conversion between standard analogue signals is not required. All instruments on the network will
transmit data serially.
Disadvantage: Network prone to hacking, security has to be maintained.
External Application Types (TCP/IP)
➢ Data can be connected to any application supporting these application types.

Profinet Recap
▪ Runs on 100Mbps Ethernet. Use RJ45 cable (green).
▪ Higher speed and flexibility over legacy systems since it is Ethernet based.
▪ Profinet I/O similar to DP architecture. Can use gateway to link other bus systems.
Profinet RT (real-time).
Skips the Transport & Network layers.
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▪ Dedicate slot for high priority messages.
▪ Profinet IRT (isochronous real time).
Guaranteed determinism.
EPA (Enhanced Performance Architecture)

➢ OSI model has all the 7 layers

➢ TCP/IP has only Application, Transport, Network and Physical Layer.
➢ EPA only has Data Link Layer and Physical Layer.
Coupling TCP/IP and EPA (Profinet) allows for worldwide connection.
Profinet Topography
➢ The controller is capable of talking to Profinet.
➢ Switching device can be connected to a wireless device, sensors, Remote I/O, Robots.
➢ Gateway is for security or firewall, connected to the internet because of the TCP/IP interlink.
➢ Proxy device converts the Profinet to actual plant devices.

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TECHNICAL COMPARISON: PROFIBUS VS PROFINET
PROFIBUS PROFINET
Organisation PROFIBUS & PROFINET International
Hardware definition GSD Files
Application Profiles Same
Physical Layer RS-485 Ethernet
Speed 12 Mbps 1 Gbps or 100Mbps
Telegram 244 bytes 1440 bytes (cyclic)
Address Space 126 Unlimited
Technology Master/Slave Provider/Consumer
Wireless Possible IEEE 802.11, 15.1
Motion 32 axes > 150 axes
Machine-to-Machine No Yes
Vertical Integration No Yes
Connectivity PA + others Many buses

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5. FOUNDATION FIELDBUS
➢ Developed by the fieldbus foundation in 1991.
➢ Primary used in the process industry such as the petrochemical industry.
➢ Has a similar communication protocol to Profinet but there are some distinct differences which make it
unique.
➢ It was based on using the Standard 420 mA signal wires and coupling that to a digital communication
strategy, used in smart field devices.
➢ They reduce wiring, transmitters can be daisy chained on a single network bus.
➢ Multiple devices can be connected together to get true interrupt operability between different
manufacturers.
➢ Allows for simple integration of different manufacturers devices.
➢ The control aspect is moved to the field devices, a computer running HMI software a network link a field
device, level transmitter on a tank, level flow control valve.
➢ Two protocols: H1 at 31.25 Kbps & HSE (High speed Ethernet) at 10/100 Mbps.
➢ Works in publish/subscribe protocol, Token ring passing network, fully deterministic and Control is done
in the field.

There is no physical controller (PLC or DCS) the control is moved to the field devices.
The control is done on the field.
Works on publish/subscribe protocol, the field device connection on Foundation Field bus network, if
the valve is programmed to only receive data from the Level Transmitter.
When the Level Transmitter sends out information it is sent to the entire network when it is polled or
the information is called through; it will send information based on a scheduled time or unscheduled
time known Acyclic – whatever device is subscribed to that information will receive it, all other devices
will be ignored.
Token ring passing network, it is fully deterministic.
Network Topology of Network Fieldbus
➢ High Speed Ethernet (HSE) is run at 100 Mbps.
➢ Operator receives information on the HMI.
➢ The information is pulled from the Field devices.
➢ The Lower Speed Fieldbus runs at 32.25 kbps, no need for high speed at the field because it is pure for
process automation purposes.
➢ There is no control on the topology.

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H1 Similar to PA
➢ This has a maximum of 32 devices.
➢ Depending on the number of cables, cable thickness, wiring of the cable the maximum possible cable
length can be 1900 m.
➢ This is intrinsically safe, IS barrier can be mounted in a safe zone on a cabinet connected to each of the
field devices separately.

H1 Wiring (Similar to PA)

➢ 9 – 32 Vdc power up the transmitter (Tx1 and Tx2).
➢ The standard STP cable loop power these transmitters as well as sends the Foundation Field bus protocol
data packet with ± 1 V.
➢ It is intrinsically safe; it is transmitting at a current of ± 9 mA.
➢ The RC Network/Terminator is for DC blocking and eliminate any possible errors for noise.
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➢ RC network only allows a certain frequency to go through which is the frequency of Foundation Fieldbus
signal.
➢ It is synchronous, there is no parity bit.
➢ It uses Manchester Encoding.
➢ Clock pulse is embedded on the Data Signal.

Layers 3 – 6 Not Used

➢ Layer of the Foundation Field bus is also designed by the OSI model.
➢ 3 – 6 layers are not used, Physical Layer, Data Link Layer and Application Layer are the only layers used.
➢ Physical Layer is based on the IEC-61158-2; Data Link Layer has a link active schedule, responsible for
controlling the traffic on the network where there is a request or a polling activity.
➢ Control activities on a network based on cyclic schedule manner or acyclic unscheduled manner.
➢ Fieldbus Message Specification and Field Access Sublayer make up the Application layer, this allows for
communication between the Lower layers of the OSI model to the Application Layer.
➢ The User Layer connects devices in a standardized manner; The Messages are coming through the
Foundation Field Bus User layer takes that information and present it into standardized format for a
particular transmitter or valve.
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➢ User Layer consists of Function block shell where there are function blocks; the information coming
through can be programmed and used in these function blocks, it also has a Device Descriptor service to
make those devices unique.
➢ Also has the ability for the system management and network controlling.
User Layer

Fieldbus Standard Function Blocks

➢ All the function blocks on the PLC or DCS are moved to the field devices.

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Indication of 2 Field Devices

The Level Transmitter (LT-4) has a Foundation Fieldbus enabled, it has a function block embedded in it
which sends information to the Application Layer, and it goes down to the Data Link Layer.
Data Link Layer checks for active scheduling, whether it is cycling or a-cycling, then it moves out to the
Physical Layer.
H1 Bus has Manchester Encoding, depending on whether it is active at that point it sends information
across, the Level Control Valve (LCV-4) reads that value.
The information is unpacked from the Physical Layer to the Application Layer and the User Layer.
The User Layer has the PID Block and an Analog Output.
The value is read, which shows the level in the tank (PV).
PID Block is linked up to HSE network and the computer running the relevant software for the operator
to change the setpoint.
The Setpoint goes into the PID Block, the PID Block does the calculation inside LCV-4.
The Output is sent to the Analog Output Block which changes the valve position.
The information can be sent back to the PC to tell the Operator that the level has changed.

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Linkage Between Two Loops
➢ Depends on how the plant is connected, where it is Cascade, Loop, Ratio Control, Split Range Control,
ON/OFF, PID Control, Feedforward Control; it can be coded to the specific field devices, connect these
elements together and fit them to control the plant.

Multiple Blocks Running at Different Scan Rates

➢ If Loop 1 runs at 1 sec and Loop 2 at 500 ms, Handheld programmer can be used to interrogate devices
remotely and program them with the relevant control strategy required.

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Intrinsic Safety in Foundation Fieldbus System

Foundation Fieldbus (Likely System)

HSE is running at 100 Mbps; Operator station, Engineering Station, Maintenance Calibration Asset
Management all are connected to a Switch.
The Switch connects all other devices or servers like SAP Servers and OPC Servers.
OPC – Open Process Control, is used to get information like process information through and use it for
third party application, can be used to connect third party software to it for analysis.
SAP Servers are used for maintenance for planning, for drawing reports.
Wi-Fi Link, this is a wireless communication for operators, for maintaining the plant wirelessly.
Linking Device is linked to H1 Protocol which is Manchester encoded.
Fiber Link is connected to VSD, VSD can be coupled to HSE for improved handling.
Unique identifier for each device like Device Number, Bus Segment Number, Network Number and
Plant Number; every device will have its own unique identifier.
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You must research the following industrial communications on your own:
▪ Device Net
▪ Control Net
▪ Interbus
▪ EtherCAT
➢ Determine what makes each communication method unique.
➢ What are its advantages and disadvantages?

References:
▪ Introduction to Industrial control Networks
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=6248648
▪ Introduction to Ethernet
https://www.ccontrols.com/pdf/ExtV1N3.pdf
▪ Introduction to Modbus
https://ccontrols.com/pdf/Extv9n4.pdf
▪ Foundation Fieldbus Overview
http://www.ni.com/pdf/manuals/370729c.pdf

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