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A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerized control
system for a process or plant usually with many control loops, in
which autonomous controllers are distributed throughout the
system, but there is no central operator supervisory control. This
is in contrast to systems that use centralized controllers; either
discrete controllers located at a central control room or within a
central computer. The DCS concept increases reliability and
reduces installation costs by localizing control functions near the
process plant, with remote monitoring and supervision.

Structure

Functional levels of a manufacturing control operation

The key attribute of a DCS is its reliability due to the

distribution of the control processing around nodes in the
system. This mitigates a single processor failure. If a processor
fails, it will only affect one section of the plant process, as
opposed to a failure of a central computer which would affect
the whole process. This distribution of computing power local to
the field Input/output (I/O) connection racks also ensures fast
controller processing times by removing possible network and
central processing delays.
The accompanying diagram is a general model which shows
functional manufacturing levels using computerised control.
Referring to the diagram;

 Level 0 contains the field devices such as flow and

temperature sensors, and final control elements, such
as control valves
 Level 1 contains the industrialised Input/Output (I/O)
modules, and their associated distributed electronic
processors.
 Level 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collect
information from processor nodes on the system, and provide
the operator control screens.
 Level 3 is the production control level, which does not
directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring
production and monitoring targets
 Level 4 is the production scheduling level.
Levels 1 and 2 are the functional levels of a traditional DCS, in
which all equipment are part of an integrated system from a
single manufacturer.
Levels 3 and 4 are not strictly process control in the traditional
sense, but where production control and scheduling takes place.

SCADA system consists of human machine interface

(HMI), remote terminal units (RTU), programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), communications and network infrastructure,
computers, embedded and other controllers, and appropriate
software support at various levels.
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems
that monitor and control entire sites, or complex processes
spread out over large areas (from a single industrial plant to
many plants in many countries). Most control actions are
performed automatically by RTUs or PLCs.
At the present, the logic solver technology and the network
technology have grown such that the logic solver is still
localized, and takes a new meaning as programmable
automation controller or programmable application controller
(PAC).
Note that the name change from logic controller to automation
or application controller is now armed with all types of
communication capability to meet the needs of a control
network.
It has higher memory capability for much wider application
software. I/O or logic solver is simply an IP address irrespective
of the way it connects to the network and the method of
connection to the network. The connection can be by radio or
Ethernet, transparent to HMI since it uses the point address.
With that in mind, we are going to identify various components
of SCADA in a logical sequence and then elaborate
on these components.

The main components of SCADA are

1. Field I/O—This can be rack mount with CPU or networked
with CPU or RTU style wall mount.
2. Logic solver—This can be rack-mounted CPU or RTU
style wall-mounted CPU.
3. Network and network components—Most widely
used media for control network is Ethernet. We will
not go into details of the network but further information
can be obtained in Parts 5 and 6 of this book.
4. HMI hardware—This can be industrial ruggedized PC or
HMI hardware from various vendors, such as
5. HMI software—Software such as Wonderware, InTouch, or
iFix for developing graphical user interface
(GUI), historian, and alarm management.
7. Engineering/maintenance workstation—PC with all
development software loaded along with necessary
licenses.

Suppliers examples:
Allen-Bradley (www.ab.com)
GE-Intelligent Platform (www.ge-ip.com)
Schneider Electric (www.schneider-electric.com)
Sixnet (www.sixnet.com)
Siemens (www.siemens.com)
Omron (www.ia.omron.com)
Rockwell (http://www.integratedautomation.com/)
ABB (http://www.abb.com/)
Citect (http://www.citect.com/)
Scada International (http://scada-international.com/)

Similar to the SCADA systems are the Distributed

Control Systems (DCS).
The DCS is usually used in factories and located
within a more confined area. It uses a high-speed
communications medium, such as local area network
(LAN). In a DCS, the data acquisition and control
functions are performed by a number of distributed
microprocessor-based units situated near to the
devices being controlled or the instrument from which
data is being gathered. DCS systems have evolved
into systems providing very sophisticated analog (e.g.
loop) control capability
A significant amount of closed loop control is present on the
system The SCADA system covers larger Geographical areas.
SCADA has the connotation of remote or distant operation

Before we go into details of the structure of SCADA, it is

important to highlight the necessary requirements for
configuring and using it. The natural progression of deliverables
for engineering can be listed as follows:
1. P&IDs (piping and instrumentation diagrams)—This is the
starting point for I/O count.
2. Instrument data sheets—This will help confirm signal
requirements of I/O.
3. I/O list—This is the list of every input and output points of
SCADA.
4. Electrical plot plans—Physical location and area
classification of control panels.
5. Control block diagrams—Line diagram connectivity of
various components involved in control scheme. This can be
further enhanced to create interconnect diagrams.
6. Control network diagrams—This is a detailed network
diagram.
7. Inter connect diagrams—Cable routing and drawings.
8. Control panel layouts—It includes bill of material and
planned location of each panel component.
9. PLC schematics—Wiring to/from PLC, PAC, and I/O. Some
time PLC schematics can be enhanced to include more details of
field instruments so that instrument loop drawings are not
required. In cases where the loop is complex and has
connections in various panels, loop drawings have to be
prepared.
10. Panel wiring diagrams—Wires by number and terminations
by number.
11. Panel bid packages—Comprising of panel layout,
schematics, and wiring drawings along with standards required
on the project and the commercial details.
12. Control panel vendor selection based on qualifications and
commercial details.
13. Cause and effect diagram—This is done to understand
operations safety requirements. It can be incorporated with
Hazard in Operations (HAZOP) study.
14. HMI screen concept and acceptance—This is done to
understand customer needs.
15. Commissioning plan and forms—Plan and schedule of
commissioning to mitigate risks of start-up.
Includes forms for point-to-point checkout.
16. Operations manuals—Step-by-step guide for operators.
17. Maintenance manuals—Maintenance and troubleshooting
resources.
18. Customer acceptance test forms—To go through complete
functionality with customer. Operations manual can be used as a
guideline for this.

SCADA COMPONENTS
We will now delve into details of components of SCADA.
Field I/O
Field I/O is hardware installed in the field for all inputs and
outputs of SCADA. I/O list and control block diagram drawings
are needed in evaluation and selection of field I/O details. Field
I/O can be rack mounted, single-mount RTU style, or individual
mount. The following are the basic types of Field I/Os.
Digital input: Typical points are equipment status, status of
remote switches, thresholds of concerned process
parameter, such as Lo Lo, Lo, Hi, and Hi Hi. For example, a
pressure switch can have status of PSLL,
PSL, PSH, and PSHH.
Further classification can be made based on voltage
requirements of equipment, sourcing, sinking, and high density.
High speed pulse: This is a specialized digital input that can
handle high-speed pulse typically used in the flow totalization.
Digital output: Typical points are equipment commands to turn
it ON/Off, or Open/Close. Further classification
can be made based on voltage requirements of equipment,
current requirement, and high density.

Relay output: Digital output card that provides voltage

flexibility. Every output point is a relay contact and
can have a range of voltages.
Analog input: Typical points are process variable, such as
temperature, pressure, flow. It is available in the following
broad categories:
4–20 mA input: Most popularly used for field transmitter
input. In some cases, it can be modified for 0–20 mA,
which is rarely used.
2–10 V input: Process signal based on the voltage.
Thermocouples: Input signal conditioner cards developed
just for thermocouples. They are available for various
types of thermocouples.
RTDs: Input signal conditioner cards developed just for
RTDs. They are available for various types of RTDs.
Analog output: Typically used in current or voltage versions.
Most applications are modulation of valves or variable
frequency drives (VFDs) as final control elements.

Logic Solvers
Logic solver is the CPU of the hardware platform. It can be
integral with RTU style individual-mounted field I/Os or
separate card in RACK mounted I/Os. SCADA system can have
multiple localized CPUs networked together. As the name
suggests, logic for corresponding I/O points are solved here.
Special considerations may have to be given for the memory
requirements, the network connectivity, and the speed of
the control implemented.

Networks and Network Components

SCADA network depends on geographical spread of the field
I/O. Typical control network is implemented on the Ethernet
using hardware and manufacturer’s protocols.
Network media: This is typically combination of copper wires
and fiber optics. Due consideration should be given for
redundancy. Appropriate accessories have to be selected for
the network installations.
Network switches: Due considerations for selection are
redundancy, network media, and a number of channels at
each location and non control devices such as the cameras.
Field I/Os: Appropriate network connectivity has to be provided
to field I/O. Distance limitations if any should be noted and
resolved.
-SENSORS & TRANSMITTERS
Field Instrumentation refers to the devices that are
connected to the equipment or machines being
controlled and monitored by the SCADA system.
These are sensors for monitoring certain parameters;
and actuators for controlling certain modules of the
system

These instruments convert physical parameters (i.e.,

fluid flow, velocity, fluid level, etc.) to electrical
signals (i.e., voltage or current) readable by the
Intelligent Instruments and Sensors
Instrument and sensor networks are one of the most important
elements of process and automation industries. Although
intelligent instruments and sensors are applied extensively,
in some cases, there is still no intelligence associated
(particularly with the sensors) as they behave as mere sensing
elements. However, there has always been a need to monitor
the processes with the classical elements of network
management, such as faults, configuration, performance,
accounting, and security. At this moment in time, most of the
sensor networks in processes lack a standardized method of
handling these classical requirements.
Intelligent instruments are computerized devices distinguished
from non-intelligent ones by the inclusion of a microprocessor
to fulfill the signal-processing functions. The effect of
computerization of an instrument is an improvement
in the quality of the output, measurements, and the general
simplification of the signal-processing task. Some examples
of the signal processing that can be performed include
correction of the instrument output for biases caused by
environmental variations (e.g., temperature, humidity), and
ability to produce a linear output from a transducer whose
characteristic may be highly nonlinear.

Intelligent instruments have functionality of learning and

adaptation capabilities. Intelligent instruments contain
embedded processing functionality that provides the
computational
features to perform complex sensing and actuating
tasks. A typical structure of intelligent instrument is shown
in Figure 2
The functions of an intelligent instrument can be summarized
as compensation, information processing, communications,
integration, self-calibration, adaptation, and evaluation of the
validity of collected data. Information processing encompasses
the data-related processing that aims to enhance and interpret
the collected data and maximize the efficiency of the system,
through signal conditioning, data reduction, event detection, and
decision making.
The communication component of intelligent instrument
systems incorporates the standardized network protocol,
which serves to link the distributed instruments in a coherent
manner, enabling efficient communications and fault tolerance.
Traditional task-specific instrument systems often contain a
number of limitations in terms of complexity, cost,
and flexibility. Intelligent instruments aim to overcome these
limitations through the utilization of standardized transducer
interfaces and communication protocols, resulting in
an autonomous, distributed, and reconfigurable instrument.
As far as the user is concerned, an intelligent instrument
behaves as a black box, and no knowledge of its internal mode
of operation is required in normal measurement situations.
They offer many advantages over their non-intelligent
counterparts,
principally because of the improvement in accuracy
achieved by processing the output of transducers to correct
for errors inherent in the measurement process.
Intelligent instruments usually provide many other functions,
such as:
1. Signal damping with selectable time constants
2. Switchable ranges (using several primary transducers
within the instrument, which each measure over a different
range)
3. Switchable output units (e.g., display in Imperial or SI
units)
4. Diagnostic facilities
5. Remote adjustment and control of instrument options
6. Self-calibrations
7. Various output options, 4–20 mA, Ethernet, Internet,
wireless, etc.
8. Self-learning ability
-VALVES & CONTROLLERS
Digital O/P & ANALOG O/P
Digital outputs are used to differentiate the discrete
status of the equipment. Usually, <1> is used to mean
EQUIPMENT ON and <0> for EQUIPMENT OFF
status. This may also mean <1> for FULL or <0> for
EMPTY.
Actuators are used to turn on or turn off certain
equipment. Likewise, digital and analog inputs are
used for control. For example, digital inputs can be
used to turn on and off modules on equipment. While
analog inputs are used to control the speed of a motor
or the position of a motorized valve.

The RTU (Remote Terminal Unit) is a ruggedized

computer collecting field data connected back to a master
station via a communications system. Disadvantage of the
RTU is its poor programmability.
 However, modern RTUs are now offering good
programmability
The PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is a small
industrial computer usually found in factories. Its
main use is to replace the relay logic of a plant or
process. PLCs have replaced hardwired relays with a
combination of ladder–logic software and solid state
electronic input and output modules

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable

controller is an industrial computer that has
been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing
processes, such as assembly lines, machines, robotic devices, or
any activity that requires high reliability, ease of programming,
and process fault diagnosis.
PLCs can range from small modular devices with tens of inputs
and outputs (I/O), in a housing integral with the processor, to
large rack-mounted modular devices with thousands of I/O, and
which are often networked to other PLC
and SCADA systems. They can be designed for many
arrangements of digital and analog I/O, extended temperature
ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration
and impact.
The main difference from most other computing devices is that
PLCs are intended for and therefore tolerant of more severe
conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold), while offering
extensive input/output (I/O) to connect the PLC
to sensors and actuators. PLC input can include simple digital
elements such as limit switches, analog variables from process
sensors (such as temperature and pressure), and more complex
data such as that from positioning or machine
vision systems. PLC output can include elements such as
indicator lamps, sirens, electric
motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders,
magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The input/output
arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may
have external I/O modules attached to a fieldbus or computer
network that plugs into the PLC.

A PLC is an industrial microprocessor-based controller with

programmable memory used to store program instructions and
various functions. It consists of:
 A processor unit (CPU) which interprets inputs, executes the
control program stored in memory and sends output signals,
 A power supply unit which converts AC voltage to DC,
 A memory unit storing data from inputs and program to be
executed by the processor,
 An input and output interface, where the controller receives
and sends data from/to external devices,
 A communications interface to receive and transmit data on
communication networks from/to remote PLCs.
PLCs require programming device which is used to develop and
later download the created program into the memory of the
controller.

Redundancy
Some special processes need to work permanently with
minimum unwanted downtime. Therefore, it is necessary to
design a system that is fault-tolerant and capable of handling the
process with faulty modules. In such cases to increase the
system availability in the event of hardware component
failure, redundant CPU or I/O modules with the same
functionality can be added to hardware configuration for
preventing total or partial process shutdown due to hardware
failure. Other redundancy scenarios could be related to safety-
critical processes, for example, large hydraulic presses could
require that both PLCs turn on output before the press can come
down in case one output does not turn off properly.
Process of a scan cycle
A PLC works in a program scan cycle, where it executes its
program repeatedly. The simplest scan cycle consists of 3 steps:

1. Read inputs.
2. Execute the program.
3. Write outputs.

The program follows the sequence of instructions. It typically

takes a time span of tens of milliseconds for the processor to
evaluate all the instructions and update the status of all
outputs. If the system contains remote I/O—for example, an
external rack with I/O modules—then that introduces additional
uncertainty in the response time of the PLC system.
As PLCs became more advanced, methods were developed to
change the sequence of ladder execution, and subroutines were
implemented.
Special-purpose I/O modules may be used where the scan time
of the PLC is too long to allow predictable performance.
Precision timing modules, or counter modules for use with shaft
encoders, are used where the scan time would be too long to
reliably count pulses or detect the sense of rotation of an
encoder. This allows even a relatively slow PLC to still interpret
the counted values to control a machine, as the accumulation of
pulses is done by a dedicated module that is unaffected by the
speed of program execution.

Ladder logic
is widely used to program PLCs, where sequential control of a
process or manufacturing operation is required. Ladder logic is
useful for simple but critical control systems or for reworking
old hardwired relay circuits. As programmable logic controllers
became more sophisticated it has also been used in very
complex automation systems. Often the ladder logic program is
used in conjunction with an HMI program operating on a
computer workstation.
Ladder logic can be thought of as a rule-based language rather
than a procedural language. A "rung" in the ladder represents a
rule. When implemented with relays and other
electromechanical devices, the various rules execute
simultaneously and immediately. When implemented in a
programmable logic controller, the rules are typically executed
sequentially by software in a continuous loop, or "scan". By
executing the loop fast enough, typically many times per
second, the effect of simultaneous and immediate execution is
achieved. Proper use of programmable controllers requires an
understanding of the limitations of the execution order of rungs.
Syntax and examples
The language itself can be seen as a set of connections between
logical checkers (contacts) and actuators (coils). If a path can be
traced between the left side of the rung and the output, through
asserted (true or "closed") contacts, the rung is true and the
output coil storage bit is asserted (1) or true. If no path can be
traced, then the output is false (0) and the "coil" by analogy to
electromechanical relays is considered "de-energized".
Ladder logic has contacts that make or break circuits to control
coils. Each coil or contact corresponds to the status of a single
bit in the programmable controller's memory. Unlike
electromechanical relays, a ladder program can refer any
number of times to the status of a single bit, equivalent to a relay
with an indefinitely large number of contacts.
So-called "contacts" may refer to physical ("hard") inputs to the
programmable controller from physical devices such as
pushbuttons and limit switches via an integrated or external
input module, or may represent the status of internal storage bits
which may be generated elsewhere in the program.
Each rung of ladder language typically has one coil at the far
right. Some manufacturers may allow more than one output coil
on a rung.

Rung input
Checkers (contacts)

 —[ ]— Normally open contact, closed whenever its

corresponding coil or an input which controls it is
energized. (Open contact at rest.)
 —[\]— Normally closed ("not") contact, closed whenever
its corresponding coil or an input which controls it is
not energized. (Closed contact at rest.)

Rung output
Actuators (coils)
 —( )— Normally inactive coil, energized whenever its
rung is closed. (Inactive at rest.)
 —(\)— Normally active ("not") coil, energized whenever
its rung is open. (Active at rest.)
The "coil" (output of a rung) may represent a physical
output which operates some device connected to the
programmable controller, or may represent an internal
storage bit for use elsewhere in the program.
A way to recall these is to imagine the checkers (contacts)
as a push button input, and the actuators (coils) as a light
bulb output. The presence of a slash within the checkers or
actuators would indicate the default state of the device at
rest.
Logical AND[edit]

-----[ ]-------------[ ]------------------( )

Key switch 1 Key switch 2 Door motor

The above realizes the function: Door motor = Key switch

1 AND Key switch 2
This circuit shows two key switches that security guards
might use to activate an electric motor on a bank vault
door. When the normally open contacts of both switches
close, electricity is able to flow to the motor which opens
the door.
Logical AND with NOT

------[ ]--------------[\]----------------( )
Close door Obstruction Door motor

The above realizes the function: Door motor = Close

door AND NOT(Obstruction).
This circuit shows a push button that closes a door and an
obstruction detector that senses if something is in the way
of the closing door. When the normally open push button
contact closes and the normally closed obstruction
detector is closed (no obstruction detected), electricity is
able to flow to the motor which closes the door.

Logical OR

--+-------[ ]-------+-----------------( )
| Exterior unlock | Unlock
| |
+-------[ ]-------+
Interior unlock

The above realizes the function: Unlock = Interior

unlock OR Exterior unlock
This circuit shows the two things that can trigger a
car's power door locks. The remote receiver is always
powered. The unlock solenoid gets power when either set of
contacts is closed.