Cade Final Exam Review

CH 8
Prokaryotic Cell Cycle vs. Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
Prokaryotic: cells divide like most other cells by replicating DNA
-replication bubble forms and the circular DNA is replicated.
-ring of protein forms
-the two cells separate

Eukaryotic Cells: US!! We are more complicated!!

-Mitosis!!!!
Mitosis: the division of genetic information. It consists of 5 steps
Steps:
1. “pre-mitosis”–Interphase (G1, S, G2)
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
6. Cytokinesis
-Mnemonic= PMAT + C
Meiosis: the process by which gametes are formed
Meiosis I and Meiosis II
SAME STEPS AS MITOSIS JUST WITH A I AND II

Mitosis V. Meiosis:
Mitosis
- One round of replication in the S Phase
- Sister chromatids are pulled apart in anaphase
- All DNA is perfectly divided to create 2
daughter cells that are identical to the parent
cell
Meiosis
- One round of replication prior to meiosis
(Mitosis before meiosis)
- Chromosomes are assorted into first pair of
daughter cells in ANAPHASE I
- PULLED APART ANAPHASE II
- Creates 4 HAPLOID cells that have HALF
DNA of starting cell

Phases of Interphase!!
Must happen before mitosis
- Cell needs to be large enough to divide
- Cell needs to synthesize enough so daughter cells are normal
- CELLS SPEND MOST TIME HERE
G1 Phase
- First intermediate gap stage
- GROWS AND PREPARES DNA FOR REPLICATION
S
- Synthesis stage
- DNA IS REPLICATED
G2
- Second intermediate gap stage
- Cell FINISHES GROWING AND PREPARES FOR DIVISION (MITOSIS)

Phases of Mitosis!
 1. Prophase
a. DNA condenses
b. Centromere connects chromatids
c. Nuclear envelope breaks done
d. Mitotic spindle assembles
2. Metaphase
a. Chromosomes line up down the MIDDLE
b. Centromeres attach to spindle fibers
3. Anaphase
a. Spindle fibers PUSH CHROMOSOMES TO OPPOSITE
POLES OF THE CELL
4. Telophase
a. Nuclear Enveloped material surrounds each set of
chromosomes
b. Chromosomes split into 2 identical nuclei in ONE SINGLE
CELL
5. Cytokinesis
a. Separation of cytoplasm
i. Cleavage furrow-animals
ii. Cell plate-plants
b. TWO IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS!!!

Chromatin: the complex of DNA and proteins

Chromosome: Contain a single long double helix of DNA. Condensed chromatin
Sister Chromatids: two identical DNA molecules. Held together by a single centromere.
Chromatids from the same chromosome
Centromere: specialized region of the chromosome that joins chromatids together
Histone Proteins: what DNA is wrapped around. Alkaline proteins that package DNA into
structural units called nucleosomes. Play a role in gene regulation
Nucleosome: What histone packages DNA into. Basic repeating subunit of chromatin packed
inside the cell’s nucleus. To form a chromosome, nucleosomes repeatedly fold in on themselves
to tighten and condense DNA
Centrioles: barrel shaped organelles located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear
envelope. Organize microtubules that serve as cell’s skeletal system
Spindles: responsible in moving and segregating the chromosomes during nuclear division.
Made of microtubules
Cleavage Furrow: how cytokinesis in animals, fungi, and slime molds occurs
- A ring of actin and myosin filaments contracts inside the cell membrane causing it to
pinch inward in a cleavage furrow.
Cell plate: how cytokinesis in plants occurs. Vesicles fuse to form the cell plate that divides the
cell.
Karyotypes: provide a picture of all of a person’s chromosomes
Karyotypes can reveal changes in chromosome number associated with aneuploid conditions
Autosome vs Sex chromosomes
Downs Syndrome: Down syndrome is a condition in which a person has an extra chromosome.

Chromosomes are small “packages” of genes in the body. They determine how a baby's body
forms and functions as it grows during pregnancy and after birth. Typically, a baby is born with
46 chromosomes
Edwards Syndrome: A baby with Edwards' syndrome has 3 copies of chromosome number 18
instead of 2. This affects the way the baby grows and develops. Having 3 copies of chromosome
18 usually happens by chance, because of a change in the sperm or egg before a baby is
conceived.
Turner Syndrome: Turner syndrome, a condition that affects only females, results when one of
the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or partially missing. Turner syndrome can
cause a variety of medical and developmental problems, including short height, failure of the
ovaries to develop and heart defects.
Klinefelter Syndrome: Klinefelter syndrome (sometimes called Klinefelter's, KS or XXY)
is where boys and men are born with an extra X chromosome. Chromosomes are packages of
genes found in every cell in the body. There are 2 types of chromosome, called the sex
chromosomes, that determine the genetic sex of a baby.
Patau Syndrome: Patau's syndrome is a serious rare genetic disorder caused by having an
additional copy of chromosome 13 in some or all of the body's cells. It's also called trisomy 13.
Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, which carry the genes you inherit from
your parents.
Cancer: Cancer is a disease in which some of the body's cells grow uncontrollably and spread to
other parts of the body. Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up
of trillions of cells
Tumor: A tumor is an abnormal growth of body tissue. Tumors can be cancerous (malignant)
or noncancerous (benign)
Malignant vs benign

Importance of Growth Factor genes: Growth factors play an important role in promoting
cellular differentiation and cell division, and they occur in a wide range of organisms, including
insects, amphibians, humans, and plants.
Proto-oncogenes: the cell before mutation. Plays role in regulating normal cell division
Oncogenes: a mutated gene that has the potential to cause cancer
Tumor-suppressor genes: encodes a protein that acts to regulate cell division
- When it is inactivated-uncontrolled cell division occurs-development of cancer

CH 9
Beneden: Belgian embryologist and cytologist best known for his discoveries
concerning fertilization and chromosome numbers in sex cells and body cells. Van Beneden
revealed the individuality of single chromosomes in his study of a subspecies of Ascaris (A.
megalocephala univalens) having only two chromosomes in its body cells. He further
demonstrated that the chromosome number is constant for every body cell of a species.
Gametes: A gamete is a reproductive cell of an animal or plant. In animals, female gametes are
called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm. Ova and sperm are haploid cells,
with each cell carrying only one copy of each chromosome
Haploid vs diploid:

Somatic cells: Somatic cells are the cells in the body other than sperm and egg cells (which are
called germ cells). In humans, somatic cells are diploid, meaning they contain two sets of
chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. DNA mutations in somatic cells can affect an
individual, but they cannot be passed on to their offspring.
Zygote: zygote, fertilized egg cell that results from the union of a female gamete (egg, or ovum)
with a male gamete (sperm). In the embryonic development of humans and other animals, the
zygote stage is brief and is followed by cleavage, when the single cell becomes subdivided into
smaller cells
Meiosis I and II

How to increase genetic variation:

Gene duplication, mutation, or other processes can produce new genes and alleles and increase
genetic variation. New genetic variation can be created within generations in a population, so a
population with rapid reproduction rates will probably have high genetic variation.

CH 10
Heredity: refers to the passing of genetic factors from parents to offspring or from one
generation to the next. The biological definition of heredity may also pertain to the association of
a particular trait with the genetic constitution of an individual organism, rather than with
environmental conditions.
Mendel: father of genetics; Austrian monk
- By experimenting with pea plant breeding, Mendel developed three principles of
inheritance that described the transmission of genetic traits, before anyone knew genes
existed. Mendel's insight greatly expanded the understanding of genetic inheritance and
led to the development of new experimental methods.
Gene: The gene is considered the basic unit of inheritance. Genes are passed from parents to
offspring and contain the information needed to specify physical and biological traits. Most
genes code for specific proteins, or segments of proteins, which have differing functions within
the body. Humans have approximately 20,000 protein-coding genes.
Alleles: the two (or more in the case of mutation) forms of the gene that can be present in an
organism
○ Unless in case of the mutation, one allele stems from the male parent and one allele stems from
the female parent
Dominant: describes the relationship between two alleles of a gene
○ This is the one that is present in the organism if present
○ Tends to be more frequently present as opposed to recessive, however this is not always
the case
Recessive: describes the relationship between two alleles of a gene
○ This is the one that masked in the organism if present if the a dominant gene is present
○ The recessive allele only presents itself if there are two recessive alleles present
■ If a dominant allele is present in anyway, then the recessive allele is masked by the
dominant allele
Homozygous: both alleles that are present are either dominant or
recessive
Heterozygous: the organism has one dominant allele and one recessive
allele
Genotype, ratios: what the gene itself looks like, dominant or recessive
Phenotype, ratios: what is physical presented on the organism, what the gene does
○ This is what is actually depicted in the organism, what you can see
Mendel's 2 laws
- Law of Segregation
o Segregation: there is and equal chance for either allele from the parent to be
passed down to the offspring
○ As the cell goes through meiosis I and II, and as it goes though these processes,
the alleles split into its respective haploid cells
○ Note that there are two haploid cells that have the dominant allele and two
haploid cells that have the recessive allele (for this example)
 Other pairs of initial alleles (T and T or t and t) will differ
- Law of Independent Assortment
o Also known as Mendel’s second law of inheritance, the law of independent
assortment states that a pair of traits segregates independently of another pair
 during gamete formation. As the individual heredity factors assort independently,
different traits get equal opportunity to occur together.
Monohybrid cross vs dihybrid
A monohybrid cross is defined as the cross happening in the F1 generation offspring of parents
differing in one trait only. A dihybrid cross is a cross happens F1 generation offspring of
differing in two traits

What is a test cross and why is it useful?

- A test cross is a cross between an individual with an unknown genotype with a
homozygous recessive genotype. It is a method to determine the genotype of an
organism. The genetic makeup of an individual is known as its genotype. The genotype
exhibits the alleles or the gene pattern carried by an organism
Polygenic inheritance: Polygenic inheritance is defined as quantitative inheritance, where
multiple independent genes have an additive or similar effect on a single quantitative trait.”
Polygenic inheritance is also known as multiple gene inheritance or multiple factor inheritance.
Pleiotropic effects: Pleiotropy describes the genetic effect of a single gene on multiple
phenotypic traits. The underlying mechanism is genes that code for a product that is either used
by various cells or has a cascade-like signaling function that affects various targets.
Complete dominance: Complete dominance is a condition wherein the dominant allele
completely masks the effect of the recessive allele;
consequently, both alleles must be recessive for the recessive
allele to be expressed.
- For instance, for an individual carrying two alleles
that are both dominant (e.g. AA), the trait that they
represent will be expressed.
Incomplete dominance: What is Incomplete Dominance?
Incomplete dominance is a form of Gene interaction in which
both alleles of a gene at a locus are partially expressed, often
resulting in an intermediate or different phenotype. It is also
known as partial dominance.
- Children born with semi-curly or wavy hair are an
example of individuals exhibiting incomplete
dominance because the crossing of parents alleles
both straight and curly hairs to produce such
offspring. Thus, incomplete dominance occurs to produce an intermediate trait between
the two parent traits
Codominance: Codominance. In people, one codominant trait that you can't really observe by
looking at a person, but many people know about themselves, is blood type. People with the AB
blood type have one A allele and one B allele. Because both alleles are expressed at the same
time, their blood type is AB.
- Examples of codominance in animals include speckled chickens, which have alleles for
both black and white feathers, and roan cattle, which express alleles for both red hair and
white hair.

Morgan: One day in 1910, American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan peered through a hand
lens at a male fruit fly, and he noticed it didn't look right. Instead of having the normally brilliant
red eyes of wild-type Drosophila melanogaster, this fly had white eyes.
- DISCOVERED SEX LINKEAGE
- Morgan and his colleagues confirmed the chromosomal theory of inheritance: that genes
are located on chromosomes like beads on a string, and that some genes
are linked (meaning they are on the same chromosome and always inherited together).
Nondisjunction: Nondisjunction is the failure of the chromosomes to separate, which produces
daughter cells with abnormal numbers of chromosomes
- Some of the important examples are: Down's syndrome – Trisomy of autosomes, i.e.
chromosome 21. It contains one extra chromosome 21.
Aneuploidy: The occurrence of one or more extra or missing chromosomes leading to an
unbalanced chromosome complement, or any chromosome number that is not an exact multiple
of the haploid number
- Aneuploidy is a genetic disorder where the total number of chromosomes doesn't equal
46. If there's an extra chromosome copy (trisomy) you'll have 47. If you're missing a
chromosome copy (monosomy), you'll have 45. Any change in the number of
chromosomes could affect the outcome of a pregnancy
Types of sex chromosome nondisjunction's
Normally, females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y.
Nondisjunction can cause individuals to be born female with one X (Turner syndrome), female
with three X chromosomes (Trisomy X), male with XXY (Klinefelter syndrome), or male with
XYY (XYY syndrome).
Importance of a pedigree: A pedigree provides a graphic depiction of a family's structure and
medical history. It is important when taking a pedigree to be systematic and use standard
symbols and configurations [1]. A pedigree helps to identify patients and families who have an
increased risk for genetic disorders [2]
Downs: see above. Result of nondisjunction
Cystic fibrosis: Cystic fibrosis is an example of a recessive disease. That means a person must
have a mutation in both copies of the CFTR gene to have CF. If someone has a mutation in only
one copy of the CFTR gene and the other copy is normal, he or she does not have CF and is a CF
carrier.
Sickle cell: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in both copies of
a person's HBB gene. This gene encodes a component of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying
protein in red blood cells. The mutation causes hemoglobin molecules to stick together, creating
sickle-shaped red blood cells.
- You inherit 1 set from your mother and 1 set from your father. To be born with sickle cell
disease, a child has to inherit a copy of the sickle cell gene from both their parents. This
usually happens when both parents are "carriers" of the sickle cell gene, also known as
having the sickle cell trait.
Tay-sachs: Tay-Sachs disease is a rare genetic disorder passed from parents to child. It's caused
by the absence of an enzyme that helps break down fatty substances. These fatty substances,
called gangliosides, build up to toxic levels in the brain and spinal cord and affect the function of
the nerve cells.
- A child can only have it if both parents have this faulty gene. The parents themselves
don't usually have any symptoms – this is known as being a "carrier"
Hemophilia: Hemophilia is caused by a mutation or change, in one of the genes, that provides
instructions for making the clotting factor proteins needed to form a blood clot. This change or
mutation can prevent the clotting protein from working properly or to be missing altogether.
These genes are located on the X chromosome.
- The chances of a child inheriting the haemophilia changed gene depends on which of
their parents has the changed gene.
Muscular dystrophy: Muscular dystrophy can run in families, or a person can be the first in
their family to have a muscular dystrophy. There may be several different genetic types within
each kind of muscular dystrophy, and people with the same kind of muscular dystrophy may
experience different symptoms.
- Duchenne muscular dystrophy is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern. Males have
only one copy of the X chromosome from their mother and one copy of the Y
chromosome from their father. If their X chromosome has a DMD gene mutation, they
will have Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Procedures for genetic screening: Genetic screening is the process of testing a population for a
genetic disease in order to identify a subgroup of people that either have the disease or the
potential to pass it on to their offspring.
 Molecular tests look for changes in one or more genes. ...
 Chromosomal tests analyze whole chromosomes or long lengths of DNA to identify
large-scale changes. ...
 Gene expression tests look at which genes are turned on or off (expressed) in different
types of cells.
Regular complete dominance Punnet squares (monohybrid and
dihybrid)
Complete autosomal dominant and recessive pedigrees
Complete X-linked dominant and recessive pedigrees