UNIT III

3. FORCE, MAGNETIC AND HEADING SENSORS

Syllabus
Strain Gage – Types, Working, Advantage, Limitation, and Applications: Load
Measurement – Force and Torque Measurement - Magnetic Sensors – Types,
Principle, Advantage, Limitation, and Applications - Magneto Resistive – Hall
Effect, Eddy Current Sensor - Heading Sensors – Compass, Gyroscope, and
Inclinometers.

3.1 STRAIN GAGE

 A strain gauge is a device that could measure even a small amount of
strain caused in an object.
 The resistance of this device changes with the strain caused by it. Edward
E. Simons and Arthur C. Ruge invented the strain gauge in 1938.
 It is one of the significant sensors used in the geotechnical field to measure
the amount of strain on any structure (Dams, Buildings, Nuclear Plants,
Tunnels, etc.).
 A strain gauge's resistance varies with applied force, and it converts
parameters such as force, pressure, tension, weight, etc. into a change in
resistance that can be measured later.
 Whenever an external force is applied to an object, it tends to change its
shape and size thereby altering its resistance.
 The stress is the internal resisting capacity of an object while a strain is
the amount of deformation experienced by it.
 Any basic strain gauge consists of an
insulating flexible backing that supports a
metallic foil pattern.
 The gauge is attached to the object under
stress using an adhesive.
 The object's deformation causes the foil to
get distorted, changing its electrical
resistivity.
 This change in resistivity is measured by a
Wheatstone bridge related to strain by the
gauge Factor.
3.1.1 How does a Strain Gauge work?
A strain gauge depends on the electrical resistivity of any conductor. The
resistance in any conducting device is dependent on its length as well as the
cross-section area.
Suppose L1 is the original length of the wire and L2 is the new length after
an external force is applied to it, the strain (ε) is given by the formula:
ε = (L2-L1)/L1
Now, whenever an external force changes the physical parameters of an
object, its electrical resistivity also changes. A strain gauge measures this
deformity by using the Gauge Factor formula.
In the case of real-life monitoring, while constructing concrete structures
or monuments, the load is applied at the load application point of a load cell that
consists of a strain gauge underlying it. As soon as the force is exerted, the strain
gauge is deformed and, this deformation causes a change in its electrical
resistance which ultimately changes the output voltage.
The Gauge Factor is the sensitivity coefficient of strain gauges and, is given by
the formula:
GF = [ΔR / (RG * ε)]
Where,
ΔR = Change in the resistance caused due to strain
RG = resistance of the undeformed gauge
ε = Strain

3.1.2 Working principle of Strain Gauge

A strain gauge works on the principle of electrical conductance and its
dependence on the conductor’s geometry. Whenever a conductor is stretched
within the limits of its elasticity, it doesn’t break but, gets narrower and longer.
Similarly, when it is compressed, it gets shorter and broader, ultimately
changing its resistance.
We know, resistance is directly dependent on the length and the cross-sectional
area of the conductor given by:
R= L/A
Where,
R = Resistance, L = Length, A = Cross-Sectional Area
 The change in the shape and size of the conductor also alters its length
and the cross-sectional area which eventually affects its resistance.
Any typical strain gauge will have a long, thin conductive strip arranged
in a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines. The reason behind aligning them in a zig-
zag fashion is that they don’t increase the sensitivity since the percentage change
in resistance for a given strain for the entire conductive strip is the same for any
single trace.
Also, a single trace is liable to overheating which would change its
resistance thus, making it difficult to measure the changes precisely.

3.1.3 Characteristics of Strain Gauges

The characteristics of strain gauges are as follows:
1. They are highly precise and don’t get influenced due to temperature
changes. However, if they do get affected by temperature changes, a
thermistor is available for temperature corrections.
2. They are ideal for long-distance communication as the output is an
electrical signal.
3. Strain Gauges require easy maintenance and have a long operating life.
4. The production of strain gauges is easy because of the simple operating
principle and the small number of components.
5. The strain gauges are suitable for long-term installation. However, they
require certain precautions while installing.
6. All the strain gauges produced by Encardio Rite are hermetically sealed
and made up of stainless steel thus, waterproof.
7. They are fully encapsulated for protection against handling and
installation damage
8. The remote digital readout for strain gauges is also possible.
3.1.4 Types of Strain gauges & Application
We have different types of strain gauges used for various applications. Knowledge of this
will help you choose the right one for the right application.
 Linear Strain Gauges
 Measuring uniaxial strain in a single direction.
 Common Uses: Structural components, machine parts, and stress
analysis.
 Shear Strain Gauge
 Measuring shear strain, which occurs when a material is subjected to
forces that cause it to deform in a twisting or sliding manner.
 Common Uses: Torsion testing, adhesive strength measurement,
and analysis of shear stresses in structures.
 Rosette Strain Gauge
 Measuring multi-directional strain, providing information about both
the magnitude and direction of strain at a specific point.
 Common Uses: Advanced stress analysis, material testing, and
strain measurement in complex structures.
 Chain Strain Gauge
 Measuring strain over a relatively long distance.
 Common Uses: Large structures, such as bridges, dams, and
buildings, where strain distribution over a significant length is of
interest.
 Full-bridge Strain Gauge
 Providing high sensitivity and temperature compensation.
 Common Uses: Precision measurement applications, such as load
cells, torque transducers, and force sensors.
 Half-bridge Strain Gauge
 Simpler configuration compared to full-bridge, often used in
applications where temperature compensation is less critical.
 Common Uses: General-purpose strain measurement, such as in
simple load cells or strain indicators.
3.1.5 Advantage & Disadvantage of Strain gauge
 Advantages of Strain Gauge

 They are very small in size, and it is very easy to install. You can
glue it to an object using adhesive, for which you need to conduct
an experiment.
 They are highly precise.
 Also, they have no moving parts. It means there is no chance for
wear and tear, and it can be long lasting.
 Disadvantages of Strain Gauge
 You have to be careful while choosing strain gauges as they have
their own limitations.
 Strain gauges are non-linear. It means they can only function within
their elastic limit. If the strain exceeds its elastic limit, strain gauge
material may fracture. Elastic limit is the point to which an object
could be deformed and can come back to its original shape.
 It is sensitive to temperature. The temperature it could bear depends
on the material used in the strain gauge.
 Also, they have to be regularly calibrated.
3.2 LOAD MEASUREMENT
Load measurement is a critical aspect of engineering and manufacturing,
involving the quantification of forces and torques acting on objects or structures.
This information is essential for understanding the behavior of materials,
designing safe and efficient systems, and ensuring product quality.

3.2.1.1 Types of Load Measurement

a) Force Measurement:
o Static Loads: Constant forces applied over time.
o Dynamic Loads: Forces that vary with time, such as impact loads
or vibrations.
o Tensile Forces: Forces that pull objects apart.
o Compressive Forces: Forces that push objects together.
o Shear Forces: Forces that cause objects to slide past each other.
b) Torque Measurement:
o Rotational Forces: Forces that cause objects to rotate.
o Torque Wrenches: Specialized tools for measuring and controlling
torque.
o Torque Transducers: Devices that convert torque into an electrical
signal.

3.2.1.2 Load Measurement Devices

1. Load Cells:
o Strain Gauge Load Cells: Most common type, utilizing strain
gauges to measure deformation.
o Piezoelectric Load Cells: Generate electrical signals in response to
mechanical stress.
o Hydraulic Load Cells: Measure force based on pressure changes in
a hydraulic system.
2. Force Gauges:
o Spring-Based Gauges: Simple and inexpensive, but less accurate
than load cells.
 o Digital Force Gauges: Provide precise measurements with digital
displays.
3. Torque Wrenches:
o Click-Type Wrenches: Audible clicks indicate when the desired
torque is reached.
o Digital Torque Wrenches: Provide accurate readings and can be
calibrated.

3.2.1.3 Applications of Load Measurement

 Manufacturing: Quality control, process monitoring, and machine tool
calibration.
 Engineering: Structural analysis, material testing, and product design.
 Research and Development: Studying the behavior of materials and
systems under load.
 Automotive: Testing components such as engines, transmissions, and
suspension systems.
 Aerospace: Ensuring the safety and reliability of aircraft structures.

3.2.1.4 Key Considerations for Load Measurement

 Accuracy: The required precision of the measurement.
 Range: The maximum and minimum loads to be measured.
 Environmental Factors: Temperature, humidity, vibration, and
electromagnetic interference.
 Calibration: Regular calibration is essential for accurate measurements.
 Safety: Proper safety procedures must be followed when dealing with large
loads.

3.2.2 Force Measurement: A Detailed Overview

Force is a physical quantity that causes an object to accelerate. It has both
magnitude (how much force is applied) and direction. The unit of force in the
International System of Units (SI) is the Newton (N).
3.2.2.1 Force Measurement Techniques
a) Direct Measurement:
a. Using a force gauge or load cell to directly measure the applied force.
b) Indirect Measurement:
a. Calculating force based on other measured quantities, such as
acceleration, displacement, or pressure.
b. For example, using Newton's second law (F = ma) to calculate force
from mass and acceleration.
3.2.2.2 Force Measurement Devices
a) Strain Gauge Load Cells
 Principle: Strain gauges are resistive elements that change resistance
when deformed. When bonded to a load cell, they measure the deformation
caused by the applied force.
 Construction: Typically consists of a load-bearing structure (e.g., a beam
or column) with strain gauges bonded to it. The gauges are arranged in a
Wheatstone bridge configuration to maximize sensitivity and minimize
temperature effects.
 Advantages: High accuracy, wide measurement range, and versatility.
 Disadvantages: Can be sensitive to temperature variations and requires
careful installation.
b) Piezoelectric Load Cells
 Principle: Piezoelectric materials generate an electrical charge when
subjected to mechanical stress. This charge is proportional to the applied
force.
 Construction: Often made from piezoelectric ceramics (e.g., quartz or
barium titanate). The load is applied to the piezoelectric element, causing
it to generate a voltage.
 Advantages: High sensitivity, fast response time, and rugged construction.
 Disadvantages: Can be susceptible to drift and requires careful
conditioning of the output signal.

c) Hydraulic Load Cells

 Principle: A hydraulic pressure transducer is used to measure the
pressure exerted by a force acting on a piston. This pressure is
proportional to the applied force.
 Construction: Typically consists of a hydraulic cylinder with a piston and
a pressure transducer. The force is applied to the piston, creating a
pressure that is measured by the transducer.
 Advantages: High capacity, rugged construction, and can be used in
harsh environments.
 Disadvantages: Requires a hydraulic power supply, can be bulky, and
may have slower response times compared to other types of load cells.
3.2.2.3 Factors Affecting Force Measurement Accuracy
 Calibration: Regular calibration is essential to ensure accurate
measurements.
 Environmental Conditions: Temperature, humidity, vibration, and
electromagnetic interference can affect measurement accuracy.
 Device Resolution: The smallest detectable force change.
 Nonlinearity: The deviation from a linear relationship between force and
the measured signal.
 Hysteresis: The difference in readings when the force is applied and
removed in opposite directions.

3.2.2.4 Applications of Force Measurement

 Manufacturing: Quality control, process monitoring, and machine tool
calibration.
 Engineering: Structural analysis, material testing, and product design.
 Research and Development: Studying the behavior of materials and
systems under load.
 Automotive: Testing components such as engines, transmissions, and
suspension systems.
 Aerospace: Ensuring the safety and reliability of aircraft structures.
 Biomechanics: Studying human movement patterns, joint forces, and
muscle strength.
3.2.3 Torque Measurement
Torque is a rotational force that causes an object to twist or rotate around
an axis. It is the product of force and the perpendicular distance from the axis
of rotation to the point where the force is applied.
Units of Torque
 Newton-meter (Nm): The SI unit of torque.
 Pound-foot (lb-ft): A commonly used unit in the United States.
 Foot-pound (ft-lb): Another unit used in the United States, but it's
important to note that this is a unit of energy, not torque.

Methods of Torque Measurement

1. Direct Measurement:
o Torque Wrenches: These tools are specifically designed to measure torque
applied to a fastener. They often have a click mechanism or a digital
display to indicate when the desired torque is reached.
o Torque Sensors: These sensors are attached to a rotating shaft or other
component and measure the torque directly. They can be strain-gauge-
based, piezoelectric, or magnetic.
2. Indirect Measurement:
o Force and Distance Measurement: By measuring the force applied to an
object and the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation, torque
can be calculated using the formula: Torque = Force × Distance
o Power and Speed Measurement: For rotating machinery, torque can be
calculated from power and rotational speed using the formula: Torque =
Power / Angular Velocity

Applications of Torque Measurement

 Manufacturing: Ensuring proper tightening of bolts and screws in
machinery and assemblies.
 Automotive: Measuring torque applied to engine components, wheels,
and steering systems.
 Aerospace: Testing the torque of aircraft components to ensure structural
integrity.
  Research and Development: Studying the torque characteristics of
various mechanical systems and devices.
 Quality Control: Verifying that products meet torque specifications.
Factors Affecting Torque Measurement
 Accuracy of Measurement Devices: The precision of torque wrenches,
sensors, and other measurement tools affects the accuracy of torque
measurements.
 Calibration: Regular calibration of torque measurement devices is
essential to ensure accurate readings.
 Environmental Factors: Temperature, humidity, and vibration can
influence the performance of torque measurement equipment.
 Friction: Friction between the rotating components can affect torque
measurements, especially in high-precision applications.
By understanding the principles of torque measurement and the factors
that can affect it, engineers and technicians can make accurate and
reliable torque measurements in various industries.

3.3 MAGNETIC SENSORS

Magnetic sensors measure magnetic fields in terms of flux, intensity, and direction.
For several years, magnetic field sensing has been crucial in many industries.
Magnetic sensor readings (changes and variations in the magnetic field) may be
used to monitor item locations, directions, revolutions, and angles, the existence of
an electric current, and so on. As a result, magnetic sensors are used in many
applications such as automotive, military, robots, medical equipment, space equipment,
geoscience, and industrial measurements.

Types of Magnetic Sensors

Several magnetic sensors such as Hall Effect sensors, perovskite magneto
resistors, fluxgate sensors, anisotropic magneto resistive (AMR) sensors, and
inductive magnetometers have been produced. Hall Effect sensors are among the
most extensively used sensors for sensing magnetic fields.
However, anisotropic magneto resistive (AMR) detectors with embedded
switching and feedback coils have recently become typical off-the-shelf
components for use in medium-accuracy technologies such as digital device
compasses. AMR detectors have 100 times the field accuracy of Hall Effect
sensors of the same dimensions and power usage

Working Principle of Magnetic Sensors

The magnetic sensor is made up of a chip with a magneto resistive
component for detecting magnetic vectors and a magnet for magnetic vector
biasing that can be recognized by the magneto resistive component
The chip utilized in the sensor may be used to detect changes in the
magnetic vector. This vector observes the activity of a magnetic body as the
electrical resistance of the magneto resistive component changes.
When the electromagnetic vector biasing occurs due to the magnet
cooperating with the magnetic body, it brings a motion within the sensor chip.
The sensor may be used to enable compass functionality in the Navigation menu.
Soft magnetic materials play an important role in a broad range of sensors
that monitor magnetic properties, electric currents, displacements, and
mechanical forces. The most popular soft magnetic materials utilized in
producing magnetic sensors include crystalline, nanocrystals, and polymorphic
soft magnetic compounds such as nickel-iron and nickel-cobalt alloys.
Magnetic Sensors: Advantages and Limitations
Magnetic sensors' key benefits are their cheap cost and robustness.
Magnetic force lines are not intercepted by plastic, aluminum, copper, or other
nonmagnetic materials and flow through to the other side. Magnetic sensors may
take advantage of these properties to detect objects.
Furthermore, they may be employed for a variety of sensor tasks such as
location detecting, speed measuring, and movement direction sensing.
At the same time, external ferromagnetic interference might affect a
magnetic field existing in a magnetic sensor. Because of this vulnerability to
stray magnetic fields, measurement accuracy may suffer.
Magnetic sensors cannot measure current flow at distances greater than
10 cm. The only way to solve this problem is to utilize an extremely powerful
magnet capable of producing a large magnetic field.
High temperatures can have an impact on magnetic sensing capabilities,
influencing the mobility of the charge carrier as well as the sensitivity of Hall
Effect sensors.

Applications of Magnetic Sensors

Magnetic sensors are extremely helpful in a wide range of sectors. They
may be grouped into magnetic field detectors, magnetic positioning and range
sensors, magnetic proximity switches, magnetic force, torque detectors,
magnetic flowmeters, and current sensors.
Magnetic sensors' primary use is position measurement. Most magnetic
sensors for positional measurement are built around a Hall Effect sensor and a
tiny permanent magnet.
Another major area of industrial expansion is robotics and the use of
robots for manufacturing automation. Magnetic sensors, particularly linear and
angular position sensors, play an important role in keeping production processes
working properly. Magnets are employed to assess the precision and accuracy of
the robots' motor motions.
Adaptable electronics have resulted in unique applications in the sectors
of healthcare, recreation, and home appliances in recent years. As a result, a
healthy and fast-rising market emerged.
Hall Effect Sensor
The hall effect sensor is a type of magnetic sensor which can be used for
detecting the strength and direction of a magnetic field produced from a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet with its output varying in proportion to
the strength of the magnetic field being detected.
One of the main uses of magnetic sensors is in automotive systems for the
sensing of position, distance and speed. For example, the angular position of the
crank shaft for the firing angle of the spark plugs, the position of the car seats
and seat belts for air-bag control or wheel speed detection for the anti-lock
braking system, (ABS).
Magnetic sensors are designed to respond to a wide range of positive and
negative magnetic fields in a variety of different applications and one type of
magnet sensor whose output signal is a function of magnetic field density around
it is called the Hall Effect Sensor.
Hall Effect Sensors are devices which are activated by an external
magnetic field. We know that a magnetic field has two important characteristics
flux density, (B) and polarity (North and South Poles).
The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function of magnetic field
density around the device. When the magnetic flux density around the sensor
exceeds a certain pre-set threshold, the sensor detects it and generates an
output voltage called the Hall Voltage, VH. Consider the diagram below.

Hall Effect Sensor Principles

Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type
semiconductor material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide
(InSb) or indium arsenide (InAs) passing a continuous current through itself.
When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines
exert a force on the semiconductor material which deflects the charge carriers,
electrons and holes, to either side of the semiconductor slab. This movement of
charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience passing through
the semiconductor material.
 As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is
produced between the two sides of the semiconductor material by the build-up
of these charge carriers. Then the movement of electrons through the
semiconductor material is affected by the presence of an external magnetic field
which is at right angles to it and this effect is greater in a flat rectangular shaped
material.
The effect of generating a measurable voltage by using a magnetic field is
called the Hall Effect after Edwin Hall who discovered it back in the 1870’s with
the basic physical principle underlying the Hall effect being Lorentz force. To
generate a potential difference across the device the magnetic flux lines must be
perpendicular, (90o) to the flow of current and be of the correct polarity, generally
a south pole.
The Hall effect provides information regarding the type of magnetic pole
and magnitude of the magnetic field. For example, a south pole would cause the
device to produce a voltage output while a north pole would have no effect.
 Generally, Hall Effect sensors and switches are designed to be in the
“OFF”, (open circuit condition) when there is no magnetic field present. They only
turn “ON”, (closed circuit condition) when subjected to a magnetic field of
sufficient strength and polarity.
Hall Effect Applications
Hall effect sensors have a wide range of applications across various industries.
Here are some common uses:
Automotive:
 Engine management: Measuring crankshaft position, camshaft position,
and cylinder pressure.
 Anti-lock braking system (ABS): Detecting wheel speed and slip.
 Electronic stability control (ESC): Measuring yaw rate and lateral
acceleration.
 Steering angle sensor: Measuring steering wheel angle.
 Fuel level sensor: Measuring fuel tank level.
Industrial:
 Proximity sensing: Detecting the presence of objects without physical
contact.
 Position sensing: Measuring linear or angular position.
 Current sensing: Measuring electrical current flow.
 Magnetic field sensing: Detecting and measuring magnetic fields.
 Flow measurement: Measuring the flow rate of liquids or gases.
Consumer electronics:
 Smartphones and tablets: Measuring magnetic field for compass and
navigation.
 Smartwatches: Measuring heart rate and activity levels.
 Gaming consoles: Detecting controller buttons and joysticks.
Medical:
 Blood flow measurement: Measuring blood flow velocity.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Detecting and measuring magnetic
fields.

Other applications:
  Robotics: Measuring joint angles and position.
 Security systems: Detecting intrusion and unauthorized access.
 Energy management: Monitoring and controlling energy consumption.

Eddy current sensors

Eddy current sensors are primarily used for displacement and position
measurement of electrically conductive targets. They are generally used for
measuring ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.
They are suitable for applications in harsh industrial environments due to
their superior tolerance for oil, dirt, dust, moisture and magnetic interference
fields. Available in miniature and sub-miniature models, they can also be used
for measurement in a space where area is restricted.
Eddy current sensors are devices that utilize the principle of
electromagnetic induction to detect the presence and proximity of conductive
materials. They work by generating an alternating magnetic field and then
measuring the induced electrical current (eddy currents) in the conductive
material.

How They Work

 Magnetic Field Generation: An alternating current is passed through a
coil within the sensor, creating a pulsating magnetic field.
 Eddy Current Induction: When a conductive material enters the
magnetic field, eddy currents are induced within it. These currents oppose
the change in magnetic flux, creating a secondary magnetic field that
interacts with the sensor's primary magnetic field.
  Signal Detection: The sensor's circuitry measures the change in the
primary magnetic field due to the interaction with the secondary magnetic
field. This change is proportional to the proximity and conductivity of the
conductive material.
Applications of Eddy Current Sensors
Eddy current sensors have a wide range of applications across various
industries, including:
 Industrial Automation: Proximity sensing, position sensing, thickness
measurement, and flaw detection in metals.
 Automotive: Brake wear monitoring, tire pressure monitoring, and engine
component monitoring.
 Aerospace: Material testing, crack detection, and foreign object detection.
 Medical: Bioimpedance analysis for medical diagnostics.
 Security: Metal detection for security screening.

Advantages of Eddy Current Sensors

 High Sensitivity: Can detect very small changes in conductivity or
proximity.
 Non-Contact Measurement: Does not require physical contact with the
target material.
 Fast Response Time: Can provide immediate measurements.
 Versatility: Can be used for various applications and materials.

Limitations of Eddy Current Sensors

 Affected by Conductivity: The sensitivity of the sensor depends on the
conductivity of the target material.
 Limited Range: The sensing range is typically limited to a few millimeters.
 Susceptible to Interference: External magnetic fields can interfere with
the sensor's operation.
Heading Sensors – Compass, Gyroscope, and Inclinometers.
A heading sensor is a device used to determine the direction or orientation
in which an object is facing, relative to a specific reference point, usually
magnetic north.
A heading sensor, commonly known as a compass sensor or digital
compass, is a type of sensor used to determine the orientation or heading of an
object relative to the Earth's magnetic field. It provides the direction (north,
south, east, west) in which a device or object is facing, and it's widely used in
navigation systems, smartphones, drones, and other devices requiring
directional data.

Working Principle
Heading sensors typically use one or more of the following technologies to
detect the direction:

1. Magnetometer (Digital Compass):

o A magnetometer detects the Earth's magnetic field to determine the
heading relative to magnetic north. It works similarly to a traditional
magnetic compass, but with electronic precision. By measuring the
magnetic fields along the X, Y, and Z axes, it calculates the
orientation.
2. Gyroscope:
o A gyroscope measures the rate of rotation and helps determine
changes in orientation. It is often combined with magnetometers in
modern heading sensors to correct for any errors and maintain
accurate heading data during movement or sudden turns.
3. Accelerometer:
o Sometimes, heading sensors also incorporate accelerometers to
correct tilt and ensure accurate readings even when the device is not
held perfectly level.
Applications
1. Navigation Systems: Used in GPS devices and smartphones for map
navigation to show the user’s current heading.
2. Drones and Robotics: Helps guide the movement and orientation of
drones, ensuring they follow a correct path.
3. Augmented Reality (AR): Enables AR applications to correctly overlay
virtual content in real-world environments.
4. Marine and Aerospace: Used in ships and aircraft for navigation and
positioning.
Advantages
 Accuracy: Provides precise directional information, crucial for navigation
and location-based services.
 Compact: Can be integrated into small devices like smartphones or drones
without taking up much space.
 Low Power Consumption: Typically consumes very little power, making
it ideal for portable electronics.
 Real-Time Data: Provides immediate orientation updates, which is
essential for dynamic systems like drones or vehicles.
Disadvantages
 Magnetic Interference: Susceptible to interference from nearby metallic
objects or electrical devices, which can distort readings.
 Calibration: Regular calibration is often required to maintain accuracy,
especially after exposure to strong magnetic fields.
 Limited in Indoor Environments: Indoor magnetic interference from
buildings and electronics can affect performance, making it less reliable
for indoor navigation.
Compass sensor
Compass sensor is the device whose function is to give the right directions
with respect to the North and South magnetic poles of the earth. The needle
present on a compass always points towards the geometric North of Earth. This
device makes use of principles of magnetism for operation.
But this magnetic force of the earth is so weak that people previously used
to design compass by suspending a thin magnetic strip. In the Compass present
in smartphones magnet is not used as a component because it causes
interference in communication.
Digital Compass Sensor is actually a magnetometer that can measure the
Earth’s magnetic field. With the use of ‘Hall Effect’ and by calculating the
ultralow frequency signals coming from the North or South direction, this sensor
can calculate the orientation and direction.
Working Principle
The first compass used in the 11th century was a simple structure with a
bowl of water containing a magnetic needle floating on it. Later many improved
and reliable versions were developed. Digital Compass Sensor that is used in the
smartphone is based on the magnetometer sensor.
The resistance of the magnetic sensor present in magnetometer changes
in proportional to the magnetic field present in a particular direction. The
magnetometer measures the magnetic field strength and orientation.
This information from magnetometer is stored by the CPU as digital data.
This Sensor always points towards the Geometric North. The Compass found in
electric devices is a solid-state sensor. Usually, two or three magnetic sensors
are present on the device from which the microprocessor can read data and
detects the orientation of the device.

Magnetic Compass Sensor

There are two configurations of Compass Sensors available based on there
working principle. They are the Magnetic Compass and Gyro Compass. Magnetic
Compass contains a magnetic element to detect the magnetic field. This magnetic
element aligns itself with magnetic lines of Earth’s magnetic field. Magnetic
Compass points towards the magnetic pole Earth. Whereas Gyro compass points
towards the true poles of the earth. Gyro compass consists of a rapidly spinning
wheel.

GYROSCOPE
Microelectromechanical systems, popularly known as MEMS, is the
technology of very small electromechanical and mechanical devices. Advance in
MEMS technology has helped us to develop versatile products. Many of the
mechanical devices such as Accelerometer, Gyroscope, etc… can now be used
with consumer electronics. This was possible with MEMS technology. These
sensors are packaged similarly to other IC’s. Accelerometers and Gyroscopes
complement each other so, they are usually used together. An accelerometer
measures the linear acceleration or directional movement of an object, whereas
Gyroscope Sensor measures the angular velocity or tilt or lateral orientation of
the object. Gyroscope sensors for multiple axes are also available.

What is A Gyroscope Sensor?

Gyroscope sensor is a device that can measure and maintain the
orientation and angular velocity of an object. These are more advanced than
accelerometers. These can measure the tilt and lateral orientation of the object
whereas accelerometer can only measure the linear motion.
Gyroscope sensors are also called as Angular Rate Sensor or Angular
Velocity Sensors. These sensors are installed in the applications where the
orientation of the object is difficult to sense by humans. Measured in degrees per
second, angular velocity is the change in the rotational angle of the object per
unit of time.

Gyroscope Sensor Working Principle

Besides sensing the angular velocity, Gyroscope sensors can also measure
the motion of the object. For more robust and accurate motion sensing, in
consumer electronics Gyroscope sensors are combined with Accelerometer
sensors.
Depending on the direction there are three types of angular rate
measurements. Yaw- the horizontal rotation on a flat surface when seen the
object from above, Pitch- Vertical rotation as seen the object from front, Roll- the
horizontal rotation when seen the object from front.
 The concept of Coriolis force is used in Gyroscope sensors. In this sensor
to measure the angular rate, the rotation rate of the sensor is converted into an
electrical signal. Working principle of Gyroscope sensor can be understood by
observing the working of Vibration Gyroscope sensor.
This sensor consists of an internal vibrating element made up of crystal
material in the shape of a double – T- structure. This structure comprises a
stationary part in the center with ‘Sensing Arm’ attached to it and ‘Drive Arm’ on
both sides.
This double-T-structure is symmetrical. When an alternating vibration
electrical field is applied to the drive arms, continuous lateral vibrations are
produced. As Drive arms are symmetrical, when one arm moves to left the other
moves to the right, thus canceling out the leaking vibrations. This keeps the
stationary part at the center and sensing arm remains static.
When the external rotational force is applied to the sensor vertical
vibrations are caused on Drive arms. This leads to the vibration of the Drive arms
in the upward and downward directions due to which a rotational force acts on
the stationary part in the center.
Rotation of the stationary part leads to the vertical vibrations in sensing
arms. These vibrations caused in the sensing arm are measured as a change in
electrical charge. This change is used to measure the external rotational force
applied to the sensor as Angular rotation.

Types
With the advance in technology highly accurate, reliable and miniature
devices are being manufactured. More accurate measurements of orientation
and movement in a 3D space became possible with the integration of the
Gyroscope sensor. Gyroscopes are also available in different sizes with different
performances.
Based on their sizes, Gyroscope sensors are divided as small and large-
sized. From large to small the hierarchy of Gyroscope sensors can be listed as
Ring laser gyroscope, Fiber-optic gyroscope, Fluid gyroscope, and Vibration
gyroscope.
 Being small and more easy to use Vibration gyroscope is most popular.
The accuracy of vibration gyroscope depends upon the stationary element
material used in the sensor and structural differences. So, manufacturers are
using different materials and structures to increase the accuracy of vibration
gyroscope.

Gyroscope Sensor in Mobile

To facilitate a good user experience nowadays smartphones are embedded
with various types of sensors. These sensors also provide phone information
about its surroundings and also helps in increased battery life.
Steve Jobs was the first to use Gyroscope technology in consumer
electronics. Apple iPhone was the first smartphone o have Gyroscope sensor
technology. With the help of gyroscope in the smartphone, we can detect motion
and gestures with our phones. Smartphones usually have an electronic version
of the Vibration Gyroscope sensor.

Applications
Gyroscope Sensors are used for versatile applications. Ring laser Gyros
are used in Aircraft and Source shuttles whereas Fiber optic Gyros are used in
racecars and motorboats.
Vibration Gyroscope sensors are used in the car navigation systems,
Electronic stability control systems of vehicles, motion sensing for mobile games,
camera-shake detection systems in digital cameras, radio-controlled helicopters,
Robotic systems, etc…
The main functions of the Gyroscope Sensor for all the applications are
Angular velocity sensing, angle sensing, and control mechanisms. Image
blurring in cameras can be compensated by using Gyroscope Sensor-based
optical image stabilization system.
By understanding their behavior and characteristics developers are
designing many efficient and low-cost products such as gesture-based control of
the wireless mouse, directional control of wheel-chair, a system to control
external devices using gesture commands, etc…
 Many new applications are being created which are changing the way we
can use our gestures as commands to control devices. Some of the Gyroscope
Sensors available in the market are MAX21000, MAX21001, MAX21003,
MAX21100

INCLINOMETERS.
Inclinometers, also known as tilt sensors, are used to measure the
inclination angle or deformation for fixed structures. As a detection tool, it is
often used in bridge erection, railway laying, civil engineering, building safety
and other places.
The inclinometer installation procedure depends on the field of
application. It can be installed vertically to monitor cutting slopes or any
movement of support walls and embankments. It can also be installed
horizontally for foundation trenches and farmland leveling. Monitor and control
flatness.

How the inclinometer works

Inclination sensors work by measuring acceleration. Inside a system,
velocity cannot be measured, but its acceleration can be measured. If we know
the initial velocity, we can calculate the linear velocity through integration, and
then we can calculate the linear displacement. So it is actually an acceleration
sensor that uses the principle of inertia. When the inclinometer is stationary,
there is no acceleration in the lateral and vertical directions, so it only has the
acceleration of gravity. The angle between the vertical axis and the sensitive axis
of the sensor is the tilt angle.

What are the types of tilt sensors?

There are different types of tilt sensors. Every inclinometer system requires
a combination of equipment and sensors to measure and collect data. According
to different functions and principles, the classification of tilt sensors is also
different.
Type of tilt sensor based on its construction and principle of operation.
1. Single-axis tilt sensor
A single-axis tilt sensor can only measure angular changes around
one axis. Its measurement principle is based on Newton’s second law,
which uses the principle of inertia to measure the acceleration of an object.
2. Dual axis tilt sensor
The dual-axis tilt sensor can measure the angular change in both
the X-axis and the Y-axis. Comply with the inertial law and integral
calculation method of object motion. The sensor consists of two sensing
elements at a 90-degree angle to each other. Each has an output
determined by its tilt angle from the vertical about an axis.

Types of tilt sensors based working principle

1. Solid pendulum tilt sensor
A force-balanced servo system is widely used in the design of solid
pendulums. It consists of a pendulum, a cycloid, and a bracket. The pendulum
is affected by the gravity G and the pendulum pulling force T, and the resultant
external force is F=Gsinθ=mgsinθ.
Among them, θ is the angle between the cycloid and the vertical direction.
When measuring in a small angle range, it can be considered that F and θ have
a linear relationship, and the strain-type tilt sensor is based on this principle.
2. Liquid pendulum tilt sensor
The principle of the liquid pendulum is that the glass shell has a
conductive liquid, and there are three platinum electrodes connected to the
outside. The three electrodes are parallel and equally spaced.
When the housing is horizontal, the electrodes are inserted into the
conductive liquid to the same depth. If an alternating voltage of equal amplitude
is applied between two electrodes, an ionic current will be formed between the
electrodes, and the liquid between the two electrodes is equivalent to two
resistors RI and RIII. If the liquid pendulum is horizontal, then RI=RIII.

3. Gas pendulum tilt sensor

The “gas pendulum” inertial element is composed of a closed cavity, gas
and hot wire. When the plane where the cavity is located is inclined relative to
the horizontal plane or the cavity is subjected to acceleration, the resistance of
the hot wire changes, and the change in the resistance of the hot wire is the
angle q or a function of acceleration, and thus also has a pendulum effect. The
change in the resistance of the heating wire is caused by the energy exchange
between the gas and the heating wire.

The difference between solid pendulum, liquid pendulum and gas

pendulum：
They each have their own strengths. In the gravitational field, the sensitive
mass of the solid pendulum is the pendulum mass, the sensitive mass of the
liquid pendulum is the electrolyte, and the sensitive mass of the gas pendulum
is the gas. The gas is the only movement in the sealed cavity, its mass is small,
and the inertial force generated in the case of large impact or high overload is
also small, so it has strong anti-vibration or impact ability. But the gas motion
control is more complicated and the precision is not high.
The solid pendulum tilt sensor has a clear pendulum length and
pendulum center, and its principle is the same as that of the acceleration sensor.
The measurement range and accuracy are high. The liquid pendulum angle
sensor is between the two, but the system is stable, and it is widely used in high-
precision systems.

What are the applications of inclinometers？

 The inclinometer is applied on the foundation trench leveling machine,
which is used for the foundation trench and farmland ground leveling.
Monitor and control flatness.
 The inclinometer is applied on the paddy field grader for soil leveling. The
paddy field leveling technology can save irrigation water and improve the
utilization rate of fertilizers in the process of rice production.
 The inclinometer is applied in the vehicle photoelectric tracking device.
Install a dual-axis inclination sensor on the base of the photoelectric
tracking device to monitor the levelness of the base. Ensure the high-
precision work of the on-board photoelectric tracking equipment.
 Inclinometer is used for urban pipeline robots.
 The application of the inclinometer in the process of launching the ship.
 The inclinometer is applied on the ship-borne water platform and is used
for the base of the satellite tracking antenna to keep the antenna always
in a horizontal state. Real-time control of the platform isolates the pitch
and roll motion of the hull to keep the platform level.
 The inclinometer is used to monitor and adjust the swing of the hook of a
large ship.
 Inclinometers are widely used in industrial inclination measurement and
monitoring of dangerous buildings, protection of ancient buildings, bridge
inclination measurement, tunnel monitoring, dam monitoring, drilling
inclination control and other industries.