220ee305 Unit 3 Ae

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22EE305 – ANALOG ELECTRONICS
Department: Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Batch/Year: 2023-27/II
Created by: Dr. Y. Sukhi / Dr. P. Kavitha
Date: 02-09-2024
Table of Contents
S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO
1 Course Objectives 06
2 Pre Requisites 07
3 Syllabus 08
4 Course outcomes 10
5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11
6 Lecture Plan 12
7 Activity based learning 13
8 Lecture Notes 19
9 Assignments 93
10 Part A Q & A 94
11 Part B Qs 100
12 Supportive online Certification courses 102
13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 103
14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 104
15 Assessment Schedule 106
16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 109
17 Mini Project suggestions 110

Course Objectives
Ability to understand the structure and underlying semiconductor

physics concepts.
Ability to design circuits employing electronic devices
Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic circuits

involving OP-AMP

involving timer 555

involving ADC and DAC other specializes
Pre Requisites
Basic
algebra Electricity Ohm's law
Trigonome
try Magnetism Kirchhoff's
laws
Nodal
Calculus Semiconductors analysis
and mesh
analysis
Engineering Engineering
Physics Basic Circuit
Mathematics
Theory
ANALOG ELECTRONIS
22EE305 ANALOG ELECTRONICS LTPC 3024
OBJECTIVES:
To be familiar with the structure of basic electronic devices.
To be exposed to the operation and application of electronic devices and their
circuits
To analyze circuit characteristics with signal analysis using Op-amp Ics
To design and construct application circuits with Ics as Op-amp, 555, 566 etc
To study internal functional blocks and the applications of special ICs like Timers,
PLL circuits, regulator ICs and DAC/ADCs
UNIT I ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 15
PN junction diodes – structure, operation and VI characteristics, drift and diffusion

current, transient capacitance – BJT, JFET, MOSFET: structure, operation and
characteristics; biasing ; UJT based relaxation oscillator.
UNIT II AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS 15
BJT small signal model – Analysis of CE amplifier, Gain and Frequency response –
Differential Amplifier - Multi-stage amplifier - Common mode and Differential mode
analysis - Current mirror circuits - Introduction to internal circuit of typical OPAMP
UNIT III OPAMP AND CHARACTERISTICS 15
Ideal OPAMP characteristics, DC characteristics, AC characteristics, Voltage -series

feedback and voltage -shunt feedback - Frequency response of OPAMP - Basic
applications: inverting, non-inverting and differential amplifier circuits, Adder-
subtractor circuits - Differentiation and integrator circuits.
UNIT IV APPLICATION OF OPAMPS 15
Instrumentation amplifiers, First-order and Second order active filters, V to I and I

to V converters, Comparators and multi-vibrators, Waveform generators, Clippers
and Clampers, Peak detector, D/A converters (Weighted resistance type and R-2R
ladder type), A/D converters (Flash type, Dual slope type and Successive
Approximation types) List of Experiments 1. Implementation of Square wave
oscillator/ tri-angular wave oscillator. 2. Implementation of OPAMP based RC –phase
shift oscillator .
UNIT V SPECIAL ICS 15
555 Timer circuit: Functional block diagram, characteristics & applications – astable
and monostable multivibrator -566 Voltage Controlled Oscillator circuits - PLL Phase
Locked Loop applications - Function generator circuit – Linear Voltage regulators.
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to
CO1 Understand the structure and underlying semiconductor physics concepts.
CO2 Design circuits employing electronic devices.
CO3 Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic circuits involving OP-AMP
CO4 Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic circuits involving timer
555.
CO5 Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic circuits involving ADC and
DAC other specializes.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. David A bell, " Electronic circuits", Oxford University Press, 2011
2. Ramakant A Gayakwad , " Opamps and Linear Integrated Circuits" , IV Edition,

Pearson Education/ PHI, 2015
3. D. Roy Choudary, S.B. Jain, " Linear Integrated Circuits", Sixth edition, New Age
Publishers.
REFERENCES:
1. Millman and Halkias, " Integrated Electronics", McGraw Hill Publications,
2. Muhammad H. Rashid, " Linear Integrated Circuits", Cengage Learning, 2014

Course outcomes
After successful completion of the course, the students should

be able to
Highest
CO No. Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level
Understand the structure and underlying semiconductor

C304.1 K2
physics concepts
C304.2 Design circuits employing electronic devices. . K2
Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic

C304.3 K2
circuits involving OP-AMP.
C304.4 K2
circuits involving timer 555
C304.5 K2
circuits involving ADC and DAC other specializes.
CO- PO/PSO Mapping
Program Specific
Program Outcomes Outcomes
Cours
K3,
e Out Level
K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 K2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K4 K4 K4
Come of CO
K6
s
PO- PO- PO- PO- PSO PSO
PO-1 PO-2 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-10 PSO-2 PSO-3
3 9 11 12 -1 -3
C304. K2 3
3 2
1 1 1 1
C304. K2 2 2 1 2
3
2 2 1 2
C304. K2 3 1 1 1
3 2 - 1
C304. K2 3 1
3
4 2 - 2
C304. K2 3 3 3 2 3
5 2 - 1
3
3 3 3 3 2
C303
2 2 3
Lecture Plan
UNIT – III ANALOG ELECTRONICS
S.N Topic No. of Proposed Actual pert Taxono Mode
o Periods date Lecture ainin my of
Date g CO level Deliver
y
1 Ideal OPAMP 1 30.08.2024 CO3 K3 Chalk
&Talk
characteristics
2 DC characteristics 1 30.08.2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

&Talk
3 AC characteristics 1 31.08.2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

&Talk
4 Voltage -series 1 02-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

&Talk
feedback and voltage
-shunt feedback
5 Frequency response 1 05-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk
&Talk
of OPAMP
6 Basic applications: 1 12-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

&Talk
inverting, non-
inverting and
differential amplifier
circuits
7 Adder-subtractor 1 13-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk
&Talk
circuits
8 Differentiation 1 13-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

&Talk
9 integrator circuits. 1 14-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

&Talk
8
ACTIVITY BASED
LEARNING
Blooms Taxonomy Level : K4
To analyze the applications of OPAMP by constructing simulation circuits.
To download software: https://www.scilab.org/
13
Activity -1
Guess the circuit by observing the circuit diagram and write
its name in the blanks
S.no Circuit Name of the

circuit
14
Activity -2
Identify the IC.
(a)
(b)
(c)
15
Activity -2
Identify the monolithic IC
(a)
(b)
16
Activity-3
Analogies and Metaphors in OPAMP characteristics

Voltage Amplification as a Lever
Virtual Short Circuit
Op-Amp as a Math Operator
Op-Amp as a Water Balancer
17
Activity-4
Simple projects using OPAMP

Simple Mobile Phone Detector Circuit using Op-Amp
Over Heat Detector with Auto Cut-Off System using Op-Amp.
Triangular Wave Generator Circuit with Op Amp
Square Wave Generator Circuit with Op-Amp
Sound pressure meter
Sound Operated Flip Flop
18
9
LECTURE NOTES
19
Unit-III OPAMP AND CHARACTERISTICS
1.Operational Amplifier
The term operational amplifier denotes a special type of amplifier by proper

selection of its external components could be configured for a variety of applications.
1.1.Basic Information of Op-Amp

Circuit Symbol:
➢ Circuit schematic of an Op-Amp is a Triangle.
➢ It has Two input terminals and one output terminal.
➢ Terminal with a negative(-) sign is called inverting input terminal
➢ Terminal with a Positive sign is called a Non-inverting input terminal
➢ If the signal applied to the input terminal, results in opposite polarity output then
input terminal is called inverting input, and if output is of same polarity input
terminal is called non-inverting input.
➢ An Op-Amp is a very high gain differential amplifier with very high input
impedance (typically a few Mega ohm) and a low output impedance (less than
100). Fig.1 shows the symbol of Op-Amp.
Fig.1.1 Symbol of Op-Amp
20
1.2. Packages
Three types of popular Packages:
1.The Metal can (TO) package.
2.The dual-in-line package(DIP).
3.The flat package or flat pack.
➢ Op-amp packages contain single , two(dual) or four(quad) op-amps.
➢ 8-terminal packages are CAN,DIP or mini DIP
➢ 10 terminal packages are flat packs and some cans.
➢ 14 terminals packages are DIP and the flat pack.
➢ µA741 is a single op-amp are 8-pin CAN,8-pin DIP,10-pin flat pack or 14-pin DIP
➢ µA747 is a dual 741 are 10-pin CAN or 14-pin DIP
Fig1.2 and Fig 1.3 show the OPAMP Packages
Fig1.2 OPAMP Packages
21
Packages:
Fig1.3 OPAMP Packages
22
1.3.Power Supply Connections Op-amp (Two Sources):
Fig. 1.4 Power Supply Connections for Op-amp (Two Sources)
➢ V+ or V- power supply terminals are connected to two dc voltage sources.

➢ V+ pin is connected to the positive terminal of one source.
➢ V- pin is connected to the negative terminal of the other source.
➢ Two sources are 15 volts batteries.
➢ power supply range from ±5 V to ±22V.
➢ Common terminal of the power supply connected to ground.
Fig 1.4 shows the Power Supply Connections for Op-amp using two sources.
1.3.1.Power Supply Connections for Op-amp (Single Source):
Fig 1.4 shows the Power Supply Connections for Op-amp using single sources.
Fig. 1.5 Power Supply Connections for Op-amp (Single Source)

23
➢ Figure c , Resistor R should be greater than 10 KΩ ,does not draw more current
from the supply and two capacitors provide decoupling of the power supply range
from 0.01 to 10 µF
➢ Figure d, Zener diode provide symmetrical power supply and Resistor Rs supplies
sufficient current to the zener diode to operate in avalanche mode.
➢ Potentiometer is used to provide V+ and V- power supply and Diodes D1 and D2
protect the IC if positive and negative leads of the power supply accidently
reversed .
2. Ideal Operational Amplifier
➢ Fig 2.1 a shows the schematic symbol of op-amp.

➢ It has two input terminals and one output terminal.
➢ + and – are the non-inverting and inverting input terminals.
➢ If V1 is 0,output Vo is 180º out of phase with the input signal V2
➢ If V2 is 0,output Vo is in phase with the input signal V1.
Fig. 2.1 Ideal Operational Amplifier
24
2.1.Ideal op-amp has the following characteristics:

➢ 1.Open loop voltage gain, AOL = ∞
➢ 2.Input impedance , Ri = ∞
➢ 3.Output impedance , Ro = 0
➢ 4.Bandwidth , BW = ∞
➢ 5.Zero offset , ie., Vo=0,when V1=V2=0.
Points to be noted from the characteristics:

➢ Because of Infinite input impedance an ideal op-amp draws no current at both
the input terminals.i1=i2=0,any signal source can drive it and no loading effect on
preceding stage.
➢ Gain is infinite, differential input voltage Vd=V1-V2=0 for finite output voltage Vo.
➢ Because of Output impedance is zero, output voltage is independent of current
drawn from the output . Output can drive infinite number of other devices.
3.Non-Ideal op-amp or Practical op-amp

Fig. 3.1 shows the practical op-amp circuit diagram and Fig. 3.2 shows
the open loop operation of op-amp.
Fig. 3.1 Practical op-amp
25
Fig. 3.2 Open loop operation of op-amp
➢ Physical amplifier is not an ideal one.

➢ Equivalent circuit of op-amp is shown in figure.
➢ AOL ≠ ∞, Ri ≠ ∞ and Ro ≠ 0.
➢ Op-amp is a voltage controlled voltage source.
➢ AOL Vd is equivalent thevenin’s voltage source.
➢ Ro is the thevenin equivalent resistance
➢ Output voltage is v0= AOL vd = AOL (v1- v2)
➢ Equation shows the op-amp amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages.
4.Open loop operation of op-amp

➢ Signals are applied at v1 and v2 are applied at inverting and non-inverting
terminals.
➢ Gain is infinite , the output voltage vo is either positive saturation voltage +Vsat
or Negative Saturation voltage
➢ Vsat as v1 > v2 or v2 > v1.
➢ output is anyone of the two possible states +Vsat or –Vsat and the amplifier act
as switch.
26
➢ The internal op-amp formula is:

Vout = gain(V+ − V−)
So if V+ is greater than V−, the output goes positive
If V− is greater than V+, the output goes negative
➢ Applications are voltage comparator , Zero crossing detector.
5.Feedback in op-amp
➢ Any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation level
because of very high gain.
➢ Thus when operated in open loop , the output op-amp is either Negative or
positive saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation
levels(comparator).Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in non-linear
applications.
➢ With negative feedback, the voltage gain(ACL) can be reduced and controlled so
that op-amp can function as a linear amplifier.
➢ Fig. 5.1 shows the negative feedback using OPAMP
Assumptions in negative Feedback

➢ 1.Current drawn by either of the inverting & non-inverting input terminals is zero.
➢ 2.Differential input voltage vd between non-inverting and inverting terminals is
essentially zero.
Fig. 5.1 Negative Feedback
27
6.DC characteristics:
DC Characteristics of op-amp:
➢ Current is taken from the source into the op-amp inputs respond differently to
current and voltage due to mismatch in transistor.
DC output voltages are,
1. Input bias current
2. Input offset current
3. Input offset voltage
4. Thermal drift
6.1. Input bias current:
➢ The op-amp‘s input is differential amplifier, which may be made of BJT or FET.
➢ In an ideal op-amp, we assumed that no current is drawn from the input
terminals. Fig.6.1 shows the input bias current circuit.
➢ The base currents entering into the inverting and non-inverting terminals (IB- &
IB+ respectively)
➢ Even though both the transistors are identical, 𝐼𝐵− and 𝐼𝐵+ are not exactly equal
due to internal imbalance between the two inputs.
➢ Manufacturers specify the input bias current 𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐵− + 𝐼𝐵+
𝐼𝐵 =
2
➢ The input bias current defined as the average value of the base current entering
into the terminals of the op-amp.
Fig.6.1 Input bias current

➢ For BJT op-amp ,IB = 500nA or less ; For FET op-amp, IB = 50PA
➢ If input voltage Vi = 0V. The output Voltage Vo should also be (Vo = 0).The
output voltage is offset by 𝒗𝟎 = 𝑰−
𝑩 × 𝑹𝒇
➢ Op-amp with a 1M feedback resistor

➢ Vo = 5000nA X 1M = 500mV
➢ The output is driven to 500mV with zero input, because of the bias currents
28
➢ In application where the signal levels are measured in mV, this is totally
unacceptable. This can be compensated. Where a compensation resistor Rcomp
has been added between the non-inverting input terminal and ground as shown
in the fig 6.2 below
Fig. 6.2 Input bias current with compensation
➢ Current IB+ flowing through the compensating resistor Rcomp, then by KVL we
get,
➢ -V1+0+V2-Vo = 0 (or)
➢ Vo = V2 – V1 ——> (3)
➢ By selecting proper value of Rcomp, V2 can be cancelled with V1 and the Vo = 0.
The value of Rcomp is derived a
➢ V1 = IB+Rcomp (or)
➢ IB+ = V1/Rcomp ——> (4)
➢ The node ‗a‘ is at voltage (-V1). Because the voltage at the non-inverting input
terminal is (-V1). So with Vi = 0 we get,
➢ I1 = V1/R1 ——>(5)
➢ I2 = V2/Rf ——>(6)
➢ For compensation, Vo should equal to zero (Vo = 0, Vi = 0). i.e. from equation (3)
V2 = V1. So that,
➢ I2 = V1/Rf ——>(7)
29
➢ KCL at node a gives,

➢ IB-=I2+I1
𝑉1 𝑉1
➢𝐼𝐵− = +
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
1 11
➢ 𝐼𝐵− = 𝑉1 +
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
𝐼𝐵− = 𝑉1 (8)
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑉1
𝑉1 =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
➢ Assuming IB- = IB+ and using equations 4 & 8
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
➢ For Compensating bias currents , the compensating resistor Rcomp Should be equal
to the parallel combination of resistors tied to the inverting input terminal.
➢ The effect of input bias current in a non-inverting amplifier can also be

compensated by placing a compensating resistor , Rcomp in series with the
input signal Vi
30
6.2. Input offset current:

Bias current compensation will work if both bias currents IB+ and IB- are equal.
Since the input transistor cannot be made identical. There will always be some small
difference between IB+ and IB-. This difference is called the offset current
|Ios| = IB+-IB- ——>(8)
Offset current Ios for BJT op-amp is 200nA and for FET op-amp is 10pA. Even with
bias current compensation, offset current will produce an output voltage when Vi =
0.
V1 = IB+ Rcomp ——>(9)
And I1 = V1/R1 ——>(10)
KCL at node ‗a‘ gives,
I2 = (𝐼𝐵− −I1)
Again
V0 = I2 Rf – V1
Vo = I2 Rf - IB+ Rcomp
Substitute equation (9) and after algebraic manipulation, So even with bias current
compensation and with feedback resistor of 1M, a BJT op-amp has an output offset
voltage
Vo=Rf (IB--IB+)
Vo=RfIos
Vo = 1M Ω X 200nA
Vo = 200mV with Vi = 0
The offset current can be minimized by keeping feedback resistance small.
Unfortunately to obtain high input impedance, R1 must be kept large.
R1 large, the feedback resistor Rf must also be high. So as to obtain reasonable

gain, the T-feedback network is a good solution. This will allow large feedback
resistance, while keeping the resistance to ground low (in dotted line).
➢ The T-network provides a feedback signal as if the network were a single

feedback resistor.
31
➢ By T to Π conversion, to design T- network first pick Rt<<Rf/2. Fig.6.3 shows the

input offset current circuit.
Fig.6.3 Input offset current
6.3. Input offset voltage:

➢ Inspite of the use of the above compensating techniques, it is found that the
output voltage may still not be zero with zero input voltage [Vo ≠ 0 with Vi = 0].
This is due to unavoidable imbalances inside the op-amp and one may have to
apply a small voltage at the input terminal to make output (Vo) = 0. This voltage
is called input offset voltage Vos. This is the voltage required to be applied at the
input for making output voltage to zero (Vo = 0) Fig. 6.4 .
➢ Let us determine the Vos on the output of inverting and non-inverting amplifier. If
Vi = 0 (Fig 6.4 (b) and 6.4 (c)) become the same as in figure 6.4 (d).
➢ Thus, the output offset voltage of an op-amp in closed loop is given by below
equation
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅1 × 𝑅1
𝑉0
𝐼𝑅1 =
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
𝑉0
𝑉2 = × 𝑅1
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 Fig. 6.4 Input offset voltage

𝑉0 = 𝑉2 = 1 +
𝑅1 𝑅1
32
Fig. 6.4 Input offset voltage

➢ Total output offset voltage: Fig. 6.4 Input offset voltage
➢ The total output offset voltage VOT could be either more or less than the
offset voltage produced at the output due to input bias current (IB) or input offset
voltage alone(Vos). This is because IB and Vos could be either positive or
negative with respect to ground.
➢ Therefore the maximum offset voltage at the output of an inverting and non-
inverting amplifier (figure b, c) without any compensation technique used is given
by
𝑅𝑓
➢𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉𝑖𝑂𝑆 + 𝑅𝑓 𝐼𝐵
𝑅 1
➢ 10K potentiometer is placed across offset null pins 1&5. The wipes connected to
the negative supply at pin 4.
➢ The position of the wipes is adjusted to nullify the offset voltage.
Fig. 6.4 Input offset voltage
33
Fig.6.5 Input offset voltage with external balancing

➢ When the given (below) op-amps does not have these offset null pins, external
balancing techniques are used.
➢ When the given (below) op-amps does not have these offset null pins, external
balancing techniques are used. Fig.6.5 shows the input offset voltage with
external balancing.
➢ With Rcomp, the total output offset voltage is given by
𝑅𝑓
➢𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉𝑂𝑆 + 𝑅𝑓 𝐼𝑖𝑂𝑆
𝑅 1
➢ Inverting amplifier:
Fig. 6.6 shows the Inverting amplifier circuit
Fig. 6.6 Inverting amplifier
Non Inverting Amplifier:

Fig. 6.7 shows the Inverting amplifier circuit
Fig. 6.7 Non Inverting amplifier 34

6.4.Thermal drift:
➢ Bias current, offset current, and offset voltage change with temperature.
➢ A circuit carefully nulled at 25ºC may not remain. So when the temperature rises
to 35ºC. This is called drift.
➢ Offset current drift is expressed in nA/ºC.
➢ These indicate the change in offset for each degree Celsius change in
temperature.
35
7. AC Characteristics:
➢ For small signal sinusoidal (AC) application one has to know the ac characteristics
such as frequency response and slew-rate.
7.1.Frequency Response:
➢ The variation in operating frequency will cause variations in gain magnitude and
its phase angle. The manner in which the gain of the op-amp responds to
different frequencies is called the frequency response. Op-amp should have an
infinite bandwidth Bw =∞ (i.e) if its open loop gain in 90dB with dc signal its gain
should remain the same 90 dB through audio and onto high radio frequency. The
op-amp gain decreases (roll-off) at higher frequency what reasons to decrease
gain after a certain frequency reached. There must be a capacitive component in
the equivalent circuit of the op-amp. For an op-amp with only one break (corner)
frequency all the capacitors effects can be represented by a single capacitor C.
Below fig 7.1 is a modified variation of the low frequency model with capacitor C
at the output.
Fig. 7.1 Low frequency model with capacitor C at the output.
➢ There is one pole due to R0 C and one -20dB/decade. The open loop voltage gain
of an op-amp with only one corner frequency is obtained from above fig.
➢ The magnitude and phase angle characteristics from eqn (29) and (30)
➢ For frequency f<< f1 the magnitude of the gain is 20 log AOL in dB.
➢ At frequency f = f1 the gain in 3 dB down from the dc value of AOL in dB. This
frequency f1 is called corner frequency.
➢ For f>> f1 the fain roll-off at the rate off -20dB/decade or -6dB/decade.
36
➢ The open loop voltage gain of an op-amp for small signal sinusoidal (AC) with
only one corner frequency is obtained from the above figure as
𝑨𝟎𝑳 𝑽𝒅
𝑽𝟎 = × −𝒋𝑿𝒄
𝑹𝟎 − 𝒋𝑿𝒄
Where, -jXc = Capacitive reactance due to C
𝟏
𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄
𝑽𝟎 = × 𝑨𝟎𝑳 𝑽𝒅
𝟏
𝑹𝟎 +
𝟏
𝑽𝟎 = × 𝑨𝟎𝑳 𝑽𝒅
𝑹𝟎 𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 + 𝟏
𝑨𝟎𝑳 𝑽𝒅
𝑽𝟎 =
𝑹𝟎 𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 + 𝟏
𝑽𝟎 𝑨𝟎𝑳
𝑨= =
𝑽𝒅 𝑹𝟎 𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 + 𝟏
𝑽𝟎 𝑨𝟎𝑳
𝑨= =
𝑽𝒅 𝒇
𝟏+𝒋
𝒇𝟏
𝟏
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟎 𝑪
Where
f1= corner frequency or break frequency or upper 3dB frequency of the op-
Amp.
➢ The magnitude and the phase angle of the open loop voltage gain are
function of frequency.
𝑨0𝑳
𝑨 =
2
𝒇
1+
𝒇𝒓
37
𝒇
∅ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−
𝒇𝟏
Fig. 7.2 Magnitude characteristics Fig. 7.3 Phase characteristics
➢ From the phase characteristics in Fig 7.3 that the phase angle is zero at frequency
f =0. Fig. 7.2 shows the magnitude characteristics for single corner frequency.
➢ At the corner frequency f1 the phase angle is -450 (lagging and a infinite frequency
the phase angle is -900 . It shows that a maximum of 900 phase change can occur
in an op-amp with a single capacitor C. Zero frequency is taken as the decade
below the corner frequency and infinite frequency is one decade above the corner
frequency. Fig. 7.4 shows the magnitude characteristics for different corner
frequency.
Fig. 7.4 Magnitude characteristics for different corner frequency
38
➢ From magnitude curves it is seen that

(i)For frequency f <<f1, the magnitude of the gain is 20 log AOL in dB,Gain is
constant.
(ii)At frequency f=f1,the gain is a 3 dB down from the dc value OF AOL in dB. This
frequency f1 is called corner frequency.
(iii)For f>>f1 ,the gain rolls off at the rate -20 dB/decade or -6dB/octave.
➢ It cab be seen from the phase characteristics that the phase angle is zero at
Frequency f=0.
➢ At corner frequency f1,the phase angle is -45 degree and at infinite frequency the
phase angle is -90 degree.
➢ This shows that a maximum of 90 degree phase shift can occur in an op-amp with
a single capacitor.
➢ The voltage transfer function in s-domain can be written as
𝑨𝟎𝑳
𝑨= 𝒇
+𝒋𝒇
𝟏
𝑨𝟎𝑳
𝑨= 𝝎
+𝒋
𝝎𝟏
𝑨𝟎𝑳 𝝎𝟏
𝑨=
𝝎𝟏 + 𝒋𝝎
𝑨=
𝝎𝟏 + 𝒔
𝑨= 𝝎
𝟏+𝒋
𝝎𝟏
➢ It may be mentioned here that zero frequency does not occur in log scale. From
all practical purposes, zero frequency is taken as one decade below the corner
frequency and infinite frequency is one decade above the corner frequency.
39
➢ A practical op-amp however has number of stages and each stage produces a
capacitive component . Thus due to a number of RC pole pairs, there will be a
number of different break frequencies. Fig. 7.5 shows the open loop Magnitude
characteristics.
Fig. 7.5 Open loop Magnitude characteristics
➢ The transfer function of an op-amp with three break frequencies can be assumed
as
𝑨𝟎𝑳
➢𝑨 = 𝒇 𝒇 𝒇
; 𝟎 < 𝒇𝟏 < 𝒇𝟐 < 𝒇𝟑
𝟏+𝒋 𝟏+𝒋 𝟏+𝒋
𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑
𝑨𝟎𝑳 𝝎𝟏 𝝎𝟐 𝝎𝟑
➢𝑨 = ; 𝟎 < 𝝎𝟏 < 𝝎 𝟐 < 𝝎𝟑
𝒔+𝝎𝟏 𝒔+𝝎𝟐 𝒔+𝝎𝟑
➢ The open loop frequency response is fast (90 dB) from low frequencies to 200
kHz.
➢ The first break frequency from 200 kHz to 2 MHz the gain drops from 90 dB to 70
dB which is a -20dB decade/-6dB octave rate.
➢ At frequencies from 2 MHz to 20 MHz, the roll off rate is -40 dB/decade -
12dB/octave at each corner frequency.
➢ \Accordingly as frequency is increasing, cascading effect of RC Pairs(poles) comes
onto effect and roll-off rate increases successively by -20dB/decade at each
corner frequency.
➢ Each pole pair introduces a lagging phase of maximum up to -90 degree.
40
7.2.Circuit Stability:
➢stability deals with the effect of feedback closed loop gain or frequency.
➢Consider a non-inverting amplifier with resistive feedback in Fig 7.5.
Fig. 7.5 Feedback Circuit in OPAMP

➢The open loop gain of the op-amp is frequency dependant and denoted as AOL
➢A circuit or a group of circuit connected together as a system is said to be stable, if
its o/p reaches a fixed value in a finite time. (or) A system is said to be unstable, if
its o/p increases with time instead of achieving a fixed value. In fact the o/p of an
unstable sys keeps on increasing until the system break down.
➢ The unstable system are impractical and need be made stable. The criterion for
stability is used when the system is to be tested practically. In theoretically, always
used to test system for stability , ex: Bode plots. Bode plots are compared of
magnitude Vs Frequency and phase angle Vs frequency. Any system whose stability
is to be determined can represented by the block diagram in Fig 7.6.
Fig. 7.6 Feedback Circuit
41
➢The block between the output and input is referred to as forward block and the block
between the output signal and f/b signal is referred to as feedback block. The content of
each block is referred “Transfer frequency’ From fig we represented it by AOL (f) which is
given by
AOL (f) = V0 /Vin if Vf = 0. -----(1)
where AOL (f) = open loop volt gain. The closed loop gain Af is given by
AF = V0 /Vin
AF = AOL / (1+(AOL ) (β ) ----(2)
β = gain of feedback circuit.
➢β is a constant if the feedback circuit uses only resistive components. Once the magnitude
Vs frequency and phase angle Vs frequency plots are drawn, system stability may be
determined as follows
1. Method:1:
➢ Determine the phase angle when the magnitude of (AOL ) (B) is 0dB (or) 1. If
phase angle is > .-1800 , the system is stable. However, the some systems the magnitude
may never be 0, in that cases method 2, must be used.
2. Method 2:
➢ Determine the phase angle when the magnitude of (AOL ) (B) is 0dB (or) 1. If
phase angle is > .-1800 , If the magnitude is –ve decibels then the system is stable.
However, the some systems the phase angle of a system may reach -1800 , under such
conditions method 1 must be used to determine the system stability.
➢ At high frequencies the system has three corner frequency or 3 RC pairs , there
is a chance of open loop gain AOL to contribute a maximum of -270º phase shift for which
AOL β may become negative and instability occurs at high frequencies.
➢ let us say that a closed loop gain or 80 dB is derived the projection of 80 dB curve to
the open loop frequency response curve interacts it at a -20dB/decade rate of closure (point
A) in the below curve .Here a maximum of 90º phase shift will be added to open loop gain
AOL.. The amplifier will remain stable.
42
Fig. 7.7 Frequency response
➢Now if the feedback resistors are so chooses that the op-amp has a AOL of 60 dB
projection on the open loop curve interacts at -40dB/decade rate of closure(point
B).The maximum phase shift that may get added to is now -180º. This circuit is
likely to be unstable and should not be used without modification.
➢Similarly AOL of 20 dB causes a -60 dB/decade rate of closure(point c).A maximum

of -270º phase shift may get added to AOL to cause unstable operation.
➢Thus we may conclude that for stable operation the rate of closure between the
closed loop gain projection and the open loop curve should not exceed -
20dB/decade.
➢At high frequencies for lower closed loop gain , the feedback becomes significant
and regenerative and may result in sustained oscillation. Fig. 7.7 shows the
frequency response for closed and open loop.
43
7.3.Concept of Frequency Compensation
➢It can be noted that op-amp with single break / corner frequency is
inherently stable. Consider a system with 3 break frequencies. Due to this an
additional phase shift of -180º is present between the inverting input and
output terminals. Hence the op-amp may behave oscillatory and become
unstable. The phase margin becomes negative. The method of modifying
loop gain frequency response of the op-amp so that it behaves like single
break frequency response that provides sufficient positive phase margin is
called Frequency compensation Technique. For hig gain op- amps the phase
margin is more than +45º, though the op-amp is non- compensated. But for
lower gain op-amps, the phase margin is smaller than+45º and there is
chance of instability. Thus the op-amps with high closed loop gain are easy to
compensate while op-amp with low closed loop gain are difficult to
compensate to provide stability. Hence in practice compensation techniques
are introduced both internally and externally.
1) External compensation2) Internal compensation.
8.3.1External Compensation Techniques
➢The compensation network is connected externally to alter the response as

per requirements. The methods adopted are
1) Dominant Pole compensation 2) Pole-zero compensation.
8.3.1.1.Dominant Pole compensation:

➢ Consider an op-amp with 3 break frequencies. Its loop gain be A.
𝑨0𝑳
𝑨= ; 0 < 𝒇1 < 𝒇2 < 𝒇3
𝒇 𝒇 𝒇
1+𝒋 1+𝒋 1+𝒋
𝒇1 𝒇2 𝒇3
➢Here the dominant pole is introduced by adding a compensating network.
It is essentially an RC network as shown in fig. 7.8.
Fig. 7.8 Dominant Pole compensation
44
➢The dominant pole means the pole with magnitude much smaller than the
existing poles. Hence the break frequency of the compensating network is the
smallest compared to the existing break frequencies. The transfer function of the
compensating network is given as
➢Let A1 be the transfer function of the compensating network

𝑉0 −𝑗𝑋𝐶
𝐴1 = 𝑉0 = 𝑉0, × −
𝑉0, 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
By voltage divider rule, 𝑉0 1 1 1
𝐴1 = , = = =
On simplification we get 𝑉0 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 1 + 𝑅 1 + 𝐽2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶
−𝑗𝑋𝐶 −𝑗𝑋𝐶
𝐴𝑂𝐿
𝐴=
𝑓
d 1+𝑗
𝑓𝑑
➢Where fd is called the break frequ ency of the compensating
network. Hence the compensated transfer function is given by
𝑨0𝑳
𝑨= ; 0 < 𝒇1 < 𝒇2 < 𝒇3
𝒇 𝒇 𝒇
1+𝒋 1+𝒋 1+𝒋
𝒇1 𝒇2 𝒇3
➢The values of R and C are selected in such a way that the loop gain drops
to 0 dB with a slope of -20 dB / decade and at a frequency where the poles of
the uncompensated system contributes very small phase shift. This ensures
that at gain cross over frequency the phase shift is greater than -180º and
hence positive phase margin exist. Generally fd is selected so that magnitude
plot for A’ passes through 0 dB at the pole f1 of A. The compensated and
uncompensated plots are shown in fig. 7.9.
Fig 7.9 compensated and uncompensated plots
45
➢It can be seen that the 3 dB bandwidth for a non compensated system is BW1 and
that for compensated system is BW2. Here the bandwidth reduces w.r.t.
compensated system.
Merits:
➢1) Excellent noise immunity system as the bandwidth is small.
➢2) By adjusting fd, adequate phase margin and stability of the system is assured.
Demerits:
The Bandwidth is drastically reduced for a compensated system.

8.3.1.2.Pole Zero compensation:
➢Uncompensated transfer function is modified by adding a pole and zero with the
help of compensating network

➢The zero is added at high frequency and pole is added at loe frequency.
➢Here the transfer function A is modified by adding a pole and zero with the
help of compensating network. The zero added is at HF while the pole is at
LF. Such a network is shown in fig. 7.10.
➢The transfer function of compensating network is A1

𝑽0
𝑨1 =
𝑽2
By voltage divider rule,
𝐼𝒁2
𝑽0 = 𝑽2
𝑰(𝒁1 + 𝒁2 )
𝒁2
𝑨1 = 1
𝒁1 + 𝒁2
1
Now,Z1 = R1
Z2 = R2-jXC2
Fig. 7.10 Pole Zero compensation
46
𝑗
𝑅2 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶2 𝑅2 −
2𝜋𝑓𝐶2
𝐴1 = =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶2 𝑗
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 −
2𝜋𝑓𝐶2
Both numerator and denominator divided by the term –j/2ΠfC2
𝑹2
𝒋 +1
−
2𝝅𝒇𝑪3
𝑨1 =
𝑹1 + 𝑹2
𝒋 +1
−
2𝝅𝒇𝑪3

𝟏+𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟏
Let 𝑨𝟏 = 𝟏+𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇(𝑹 𝒇𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅(𝑹
𝟏 +𝑹𝟐) 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 )𝑪𝟐
𝒇
1+𝒋
𝒇1 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹
𝟏
𝑨1 = 𝟐 𝑪𝟐
𝒇
1+𝒋
𝒇0
Here the compensated transfer function becomes
𝒇
𝑨0𝑳 1 + 𝒋
𝒇 1
𝑨′ = 𝑨𝑨1 = ; 0 < 𝒇0 < 𝒇1 < 𝒇2 < 𝒇3
𝒇 𝒇 𝒇 𝒇
1+𝒋 1+𝒋 1+𝒋 1+𝒋
𝒇0 𝒇1 𝒇2 𝒇3
Fig.7.11 Compensated frequency response

47
➢The values of R1,R2 and C2 are selected so that the zero of the compensating network is
equal to the pole at the frequency ie., the break frequency for the zero matches the first
corner frequency f1 of the uncompensated system while the pole of the compensating
network at f0 is selected in such a way that the compensated transfer function A’ passes
through 0 dB at the second corner frequency f2 of the uncompensated system.
➢The first corner frequency is now f0 and the gain starts rolling off at -20 dB/decade at f0.At
f=f1 there is pole zero cancellation and rolling rate continuous as -20 dB/decade.
➢The values of R1,R2 and C2 are selected such that plot passes through 0 dB at f2 .
7.3.2.Internal Compensation Techniques
➢In recently developed op-amps like IC741, the compensation is built internally. A capacitor

ranging from 10-30pF is fabricated between input and output stage to achieve the required
compensation. This type of compensation is called Miller effect compensation. The demerit
of dominant pole compensation techniques are overcome in this type. Here the capacitor is
connected in the feedback path of the Darlington pair used in the output stage of the op-
amp. These op-amps have single break frequency and are stable in nature. Some internally
compensated op-amps are µA741, LM 107, LM 741, LM 112 and MC 1858.
➢Sometimes the relatively broad bandwidth of the uncompensated op-amp is not needed.
➢For example, In the instrumentation circuit, the op-amp required is to amplify relatively
slow changing signals and therefore it does not require good high-frequency response. for
such applications internally compensated op-amps can be used.
➢Also called compensated op-amps.

1
➢They are stable regardless of the value of the closed loop gain and without any externally
1
connected compensating components.
➢IC 741 op-amp I an internally

1
compensated op-amp.
➢IC 741 contain a capacitance of 30PF that internally shunts off signal current and thus
reduces the available output signal at higher frequencies.
48
Fig. 7.12 Open loop voltage gain


➢This internal capacitance which is an internal compensating component
causes the open loop gain to roll off at -20dB/decade rate and assumes for
stable circuit.
➢The 741 op-amp has 1 MHz gain-bandwidth product. This means that the
product of the co-ordinates gain & frequency curve is about 1 MHz.
➢If op-amp is wired for closed loop gain of 80dB its bandwidth is 100Hz
➢For gain of 102,the bandwidth increases to 10 KHz
➢For gain 1,the bandwidth is 1 MHz
➢For 741 op-amp unity gain bandwidth product is specified as 1 MHz.
➢IC741 has single break

1 frequency f0 before the UGB.
➢Gain of the op-amp remains constant from 0Hz to the break frequency f0
1
and rolls off at rate of -20 dB/decade.
➢Thus open loop bandwidth

1
of 741 is the frequency extending from 0 Hz to
f0.Hence open loop bandwidth of 741 IC is approximately 5 Hz.
49
7.4.Slew Rate:
➢Another important frequency related parameter of an op-amp is the slew rate.
(Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage with respect to time.
Specified in V/μs).
➢Reason for Slew rate:
➢ There is usually a capacitor within 0, outside an op-amp oscillation. It is
this capacitor which prevents the o/p voltage from fast changing input. The rate at
which the volt across the capacitor increases is given by
dVc/dt = I/C --------(1)
➢I -> Maximum amount furnished by the op-amp to capacitor C. Op-amp should
have the either a higher current or small compensating capacitors.
➢For 741 IC, the maximum internal capacitor charging current is limited to about
15μA. So the slew rate of 741 IC is
➢ SR = dVc/dt |max = Imax/C .
➢For a sine wave input, the effect of slew rate can be calculated as consider volt
follower -> The input is large amp, high frequency sine wave . Fig 7.12 shows the
voltage follower circuit. Fig 7.13 shows the input and output of Voltage Follower
Circuit.
➢If Vs = Vm Sinwt then output V0 = Vm sinwt. The rate of change of output is
given by
dV0/dt = Vm w coswt.
➢Slew rate equation:
Fig 7.12 Voltage Follower Circuit
50
Fig 7.13 Input and output of Voltage Follower Circuit

➢The max rate of change of output across when cosωt =1
(i.e) SR = dV0/dt |max = wVm.
SR = 2∏fVm V/s = 2∏fVm v/ms.
➢Thus the maximum frequency fmax at which we can obtain an undistorted output
volt of peak value Vm is given by
fmax (Hz) = Slew rate/6.28 * Vm .
➢called the full power response. It is maximum frequency of a large amplitude sine
wave with which op-amp can have without distortion.
➢Effect of slew rate:
➢Consider a circuit using op-amp having unity gains. Thus output is same as the
input . If the input is square wave the output has to be square wave.
➢But this is observed that certain frequency of input due to slew rate , the output
gets distorted for a particular input frequency.
Fig. 7.14 Input and Output Waveforms
51
7.5.Problems:
1.The output voltage of a certain op-amp circuit changes by 20 V in 4 μs. What is its
slew rate.
Slew rate = 2π × (𝟏/𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎− )× 20 = 31.5 V/μs
2.A 100 pF capacitor has a maximum charging current of 150 microamps. What is
the slew rate?
Slew rate = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝐶 = 150×10−6/100×10−12 = 1.5 × 106 V/s = 1.5 MV/s [ 106 =
M = 1 Mega]
52
8.Frequency Response Of Op-Amp:
➢The variation in operating frequency will cause variations in gain magnitude

and its phase angle. The manner in which the gain of the op-amp responds to
different frequencies is called the frequency response. Op-amp should have an
infinite bandwidth BW =∞ (i.e.) if its open loop gain in 90dB with dc signal its
gain should remain the same 90 dB through audio and onto high radio
frequency. The op-amp gain decreases (roll-off) at higher frequency what
reasons to decrease gain after a certain frequency reached. There must be a
capacitive component in the equivalent circuit of the op-amp. For an op-amp
with only one break (corner) frequency all the capacitors effects can be
represented by a single capacitor C. Below fig is a modified variation of the low
frequency model with capacitor C at the output.
Fig 8.1 Equivalent circuit of practical circuit
➢There is one pole due to R0 C and one -20dB/decade. The open loop voltage
gain of an op-amp with only one corner frequency is obtained from above fig.
f1 is the corner frequency or the upper 3 dB frequency of the op-amp. The
magnitude and phase angle of the open loop volt gain are f1 of frequency can
be written as,
The magnitude and phase angle characteristics:
➢For frequency f<< f1 the magnitude of the gain is 20 log AOL in db.
➢At frequency f = f1 the gain in 3 dB down from the dc value of AOL in db.
This frequency f1 is called corner frequency.
➢For f>> f1 the fain roll-off at the rate off -20dB/decade or -6dB/decade.
53
Fig 8.2 Frequency response of op amp
➢From the phase characteristics that the phase angle is zero at frequency f= 0.
At the corner frequency f1 the phase angle is -45 (lagging and an infinite
frequency the phase angle is -90 .
➢It shows that a maximum of 90 phase change can occur in an op-amp with a
single capacitor C. Zero frequency is taken as the decade below the corner
frequency and infinite frequency is one decade above the corner frequency.
Fig: 8.3 Roll off rate of op amp gain
54
➢8.1 Basic op-amp Applications: The Inverting amplifier
Fig.8.4 Inverting amplifier

➢The outut Voltage Vo is fed back to the inverting input terminal through the Rf -R1
network where Rf is the feedack resistor.Input signal V [ac or dc] is applied to the
inverting input terminal through R1 and non- inverting terminal of op-amp is
grounded.
Analysis:
➢For Simplicity assume an ideal op-amp .As Vd=0,node ‘a’ is at the ground potential
and the current i through R1 is
i1=vi/R1 (1)
➢Also since op- amp draws no current ,all the current flowing through R1 must flow
through Rf .The outut voltage,
Vo=-i1Rf = -vi Rf/R1 (2)
➢Hence the gain of teh inverting amplifier is
AcL=Vo/Vi =- Rf/R1 (3)
➢Alternatively the nodal equation at the node ‘a’ in fig is
(Va-Vi)/R1 + (Va-Vo)/Rf =0
Where Va is the voltage at node ‘a’ .Since node ‘a’ is at virtual ground Va=0.therefore
we get
AcL=Vo/Vi =- Rf/R1
➢The negative sign indicates a phase shift of 180 deg between V i and Vo. Also since
inverting input terminal is at virtual ground,the effective input imedance R1 . should
be
55
kept fairly large to avoid loading effect .A load resistor RL is usually ut at teh output
in actual practice otherwise the input impedance of the measuring device such as
oscilloscope acts as load.
Application-integrator,differentiator
Problem
1.Design an amplifier with thre gain of -10 and input resistance equal to 10 kΩ.
Since the gain of the amplifier is negative ,an inverting amplifier has to be made.
Choose R1=10KΩ
then Rf=-ACL R1
=-(-10) X 10=100 kΩ
2.R1=10 kΩ,Rf=100 kΩ,Vi=1 V.A load of 25 kΩ is connected to the output terminal

of fig. 8.5. Calculate [i] i1 [ii] Vo [iii] iL and total current io into the output pin.
[a] i1=Vi/R1 =1/10 =0.1 mA
[b] Vo=-i1Rf = -vi Rf/R1 = -100(1)/10 =-10V
[c] iL=Vo/RL= 10/25 =0.4 mA
the direction nof the current is shown in the figure.
[d] io=i1+iL=0.1+0.4=0.5 mA.
Fig.8.5 Inverting amplifier
8.2.Practical Inverting Amplifier

➢For a practical op- amp the expresion for the closed loop voltage gain should be
calculated by using low frequency model.The equivalent circuit of the practical
inverting amplifier is shown in figure.This circuit can be simplified by replacing the
signal source Vi and the resistance R1 and Rf be thevin theorem as
56
shown in the figure which is analysed to calculate the exact expression for closed
loop gain and input impedance Rif .
Fig. 8.6 (a)Equivalent circuit of a practical op-amp inverting amplifier .(b) Simplified
circuit by thevinin theorem.(c) Equivalent circuit for computing Rof
57
➢The input impedance Ri of an op-amp is usually much greater than R1.so one
may assume
Veq=Vi and Req=R1 .
From the output loop in fig.[b]
Vo=iRo+AOLvd (4)
Also
vd +i Rf +Vo=0 (5)
Putting the value of Vd from (4) in (5)
Vo(1+AOL ) =i(Ro - AOL Rf ) (6)
Also KVL loop equation gives
Vi=i(R1 +Rf ) +Vo (7)
putting the value of i from (6) and substitute in (7)
AcL=Vo/Vi =[Ro - AOL Rf ]/[Ro+Rf +R1 (1+AOL )] (8)
It can be seen that
AoL >>1 ,AcL=Vo/Vi =-Rf /R1
Input Resistance Rif

From Fig .b Rif =Vd/i
Writing the loop equation and solving for Rif
vd +i(Rf+Ro )+AOLvd =0
We obtain
Rif=(Rf+Ro )/(1+AOL) (9)
Output Resistance Rof

From the fig.c under short circuit conditions
Let Voc-Open circuit output voltage.
ISc-Short circuit output current.
iA=vi-0/(R1 + Rf ) (10)
iB =AOL vd /Ro (11)
Since Vd=-iARf
58
iB=-AOL iARf/Ro
Solving isc =iA+iB,we obtain
isc =Vi(Ro -AoLRf)/Ro(R1+Rf) (12)
Rof= Voc/Isc and
AcL=Voc/Vi
Therefore Rof=[AcLVi ] / Vi[(Ro -AoLRf)/Ro(R1+Rf) ] (13)
Putting the value of ACL [8] in above
Rof=[Ro(R1+Rf) /(Ro+R1+Rf)]/[1+[R1 AoL/(Ro+R1+Rf)]]
➢It may be seen that the numerator consists of a term Ro is parallel with (R1+Rf) and
is therefore amaller than Ro.the output resistance Rof is therefore always less than Ro .
8.3.Non inverting amplifier
Fig. 8.7 Non inverting amplifier

➢If a signal is applied to the non inverting input terminal and the feedback is shown
in the figure.this circuit ampliifies the signal without inverting the input signal so it is
called as Non inverting amplifier .A negative feedback system is provided here.
From the fig.
Vi=Vo R1/[R1+Rf ] (14)
as no current flows into the op-amp
Vo/Vi=[R1+Rf ] /R1 =1+[Rf / R1 ] (15)
59
➢The gain can be adjusted to unity by proper selection of Resistors Rf and R1 .
8.5 .Practical Non-Inverting Amplifier
Fig. 8.8 Equivalent Circuit of Practical Non-Inverting Amplifier

using low frequency model
➢Writing KCL for the input node,
(Vi-Vd)Y1+VdYi+(Vi-Vd-Vo)Yf=0
-(Y1 -Yi+Yf)Vd +(Y1+Yf)Vi=VoYf (16)
Writing KCL for the output node,
(Vi-Vd-Vo)Yf+(AoL Vd -Vo)Yo=0
- (Yf-AoLYO)vd+Yf Vi=(Yf+Yo)Vo (17)
Solving Eqn (16) and (17)
AcL=[AoLYO(Yf+Y1)+Yf Yi ]/[(AoL+1)YOYf +(Y1-Yi)(Yf+Yo)]
If AoL tends to infinity
AcL=AoLYO(Yf+Y1)/AoL YO Yf
AcL =1+[Rf / R1 ] (18)
8.6 Voltage Follower
Fig.8.9 Voltage Follower

60
➢This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier with Rin → ∞ and Rf = 0. The
follower has a very high input impedance. Voltage follower has application when
the source voltage can not supply very much current, a pH meter for example.
problem
1.Design an op-amp with a gain of +5 using one op-amp
Since the gain is ositive we have to make a Non-Inverting Amplifier .
Select R1=10kΩ,then
AcL =1+[Rf / R1 ]
5=1+[Rf / 10 ]
Rf =40 kΩ
61
9. Scale changer/Inverter:
Fig. 9.1 Scale changer

➢ Closed loop voltage gain of an inverting amplifier which is
𝑉0 𝑅𝑓
=−
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1
𝑅𝑓
If =𝐾
𝑅1
Where k is a real constant then V0 = -K Vi
From this input voltage is scaled by a factor K.
Thus op-amp is used for scale changing.
𝑉0
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = −𝐾
𝑉𝑖
Inverter:
➢ If Rf=R1, V0=-Vi or ACL = -1. Then the circuits is called inverter.
The output is 180º out of phase with input through the magnitudes are same.
10. Summing Amplifier:
➢ This circuit produces an output which is the sum of all input signals.
(i)Inverting summing amplifier
(ii)Non inverting summing amplifier
10.1 Inverting Summing Amplifier
➢ A typical summing amplifier with three input voltages V1,V2 and V3,three input
resistors R1,R2,R3 and a feedback resistor Rf as shown in figure.
Assume op-amp is ideal ,AOL=∞;Ri=∞,input bias current is zero.
There is no voltage drop across the resistor Rcomp
62
➢ Assume op-amp is ideal ,AOL=∞;Ri=∞,input bias current is zero.

➢ There is no voltage drop across the resistor Rcomp & non-inverting input terminal
is grounded.
Fig. 10.1 Inverting Summing Amplifier

➢ Voltage at node a is zero
➢ The nodal equation by KCL at node a
➢ If Va=0, We get
➢ Thus the output is an inverted weighted sum of inputs.

➢ In special case , When R1=R2=R3=Rf
V0=-(V1+V2+V3)
63
➢ Output is inverted sum of input signals

➢ When R1=R2=R3=3Rf
➢ Thus the output is average of the input signal(inverted).

10.2. Non-inverting Summing Amplifier:
➢ A summer that gives a non-inverted sum is the non-inverting summing amplifier.
Voltage at – input terminal be Va, Voltage at + input terminal will also be Vb
Apply KCL at node b
➢ Apply KCL at node a
Fig. 10.2 Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier
64
➢ We know that Va = Vb, Virtual Ground,
Let R1=R2=R3=R=Rf/2 then V0=V1+V2+V3

10.3.Subtractor:
➢ A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor.
➢ By Virtual ground,Va = Vb
➢ To find the output voltage V0 due to V1 alone , make V2 then the amplifier
becomes
non-inverting amplifier.
Fig. 10.3 Subtractor
Apply KCL at node a
65
KCL at node a,
By virtual ground, Va = Vb
V1=V01
➢ To find output voltage V02 due to V2 alone, make V1=0
Assume Va = 0 therefore Vb=0
KCL at node b
66
➢ KCL at node a,
V02 = -V2
➢ The output voltage V0 due to both inputs
V0=V01+V02=V1-V2
10.4.Adder- Subtractor :
➢ Addition and subtraction can be performed simultaneously using a single op-amp.
➢ The output voltage V0 can be obtained by using superposition theorem.
➢ To find the output voltage V01 due to V1 alone , make all the other input voltages
V2 ,V3,V4 equal to zero.
➢ KCL at node a
V01=-V1
Fig. 10.4 Adder- Subtractor
67
➢ To find output voltage V02 due to V2 alone, Make all the other input voltages
equal to
zero.
Vb=0 Therefore Va=0
KCL at node a
V02 = -V2
➢ V03 due to V3 alone remaining all the input voltage sources is zero
KCL at node a
Va = V0/3
➢ KCL at node b
➢ By virtual ground, Va = Vb
V03 = V3
➢ V04 due to V4 alone remaining input voltages is zero
➢ KCL at node a
68
➢ To find output voltage V02 due to V2 alone, Make all the other input voltages
equal
Va = V0/3
KCL at node b
Vb = V4/3
➢ By virtual ground , Va = Vb
V04=V4
➢ The output voltage V0 due to all four input voltage
V0=V01+V02+V03+V04= -V1 –V2 +V3+V4
V0=(V3+V4)-(V1+V2)
10.5.Problems:
1.Draw an adder circuit using an OP-AMP in fig. 10.5 to get the output expression
as V0 = - (0.1 V1 + V2 +10 V3) where V1 , V2 and V3 are inputs?
Solution:
The output expression for the circuit in fig. a is
VO = -[(𝑅𝐹 /𝑅1 ) V1 + 𝑅𝐹/ 𝑅2 ) V2 + 𝑅𝐹/ 𝑅3 ) V3 ] …..(1)

Assume RF = 10 kΩ , R1 = 100 kΩ , R2 = 10 kΩ , R3 = 1 kΩ
Substituting these values in eqn(1) we obtain
V0 = - (0.1 V1 + V2 + 10 V3)
69
Fig. 10.5 Adder circuit using an OP-AMP
2.For the circuit diagram shown below determine V0
Solution :
The given circuit is a OP-AMP based subtractor circuit , also called as difference
amplifier. The output voltage is VO = V1 – V2 = 4 – 2 = 2V .
3.Design an adder-subtractor circuit for V0 = 2V1 + 5V2 – 10V3
Solution:
In the first step , design an adder to get 2V1 + 5V2
Therefore VO1 = -[[𝑅𝐹1/ 𝑅1 ]V1 + [𝑅𝐹1/ 𝑅2] V2]
Therefore 𝑅𝐹1 /𝑅1 = 2 ; 𝑅𝐹1/ 𝑅2 = 5 ; Choose RF1 = 100 kΩ . Therefore R1= 50
kΩ , R2 = 20 kΩ
70
Now generate 10 V3 by using an inverting amplifier of gain 10.

VO2 = -[𝑅𝐹2/ 𝑅3] V3 ; 𝑅𝐹2/ 𝑅3 = 10 Choose RF2 = 10 kΩ. Therefore R3 = 1 kΩ
Now use subtractor for getting
VO = VO2 – VO1 = -10 V3 – (-2V1- 5V2) = 2V1 + 5V2 – 10 V3
4. Design an OP-AMP circuit to give an output voltage V0 = 4V1 –3V2 + 5V3 – V4 ,

where V1 , V2 , V3 and V4 are inputs.
Solution:
In the first step , design an adder to get 4V1 + 5V3
Therefore VO1 = -[𝑅𝐹1/𝑅1 V1 + 𝑅𝐹1/𝑅3 V3]
Therefore 𝑅𝐹1/𝑅1 = 4 ; 𝑅𝐹1/𝑅2 = 5 ; Choose RF1 = 100 kΩ .
Therefore R1= 25 kΩ , R3 = 20 kΩ
Now generate -3V2 by using an inverting amplifier of gain 3 and V4 with a gain of 1.
VO2 = -[𝑅𝐹2/𝑅2 V2 + 𝑅𝐹2/𝑅4 V4]
𝑅𝐹2/𝑅2 = 3 ; 𝑅𝐹2/𝑅4 = 1 Choose RF2 = 10 kΩ.
Therefore R2 = 3.33 kΩ ; R4 = 10 kΩ
Therefore VO = VO2 – VO1 = -3V2 – V4 – (-4V1 – 5V3) = 4V1-3V2+5V3-V4
71
5.Find VO for the given circuit
Soluiton:
The given circuit is a OP-AMP based subtractor
Assume V1 and V2 acting alone [V3 = V4 = 0 V]
The circuit works as a inverting summing amplifier
VO1 = - ( 𝑅𝐹/𝑅1 V1 + 𝑅𝐹/𝑅2 V2) = - (50 × 103 /40 × 103 × 2 + 50 × 103
/25 × 103 × 3)
VO1 = -(2.5 V + 6 V) = - 8.5 V
72
6.Find VO for the given circuit
Solution :
The given circuit is a Inverting Summing Amplifier
VO = - ( 𝑅𝐹/𝑅1 V1 + 𝑅𝐹/𝑅2 V2 + 𝑅𝐹/𝑅3 V3) = - (2 × 103 /1 × 103 × 2 + 2 × 103 /2
× 103 × 1 + 2 × 103 /2 × 103 × -2)
VO = -(4 + 1-2) = -3 V
73
11. Differentiator:
➢ Op-amp circuit that contains capacitor is the differentiating amplifier, or
differentiator.
➢ It performs the mathematical operation of differentiation.
➢ i.e., the output waveform is the derivative of input waveform.
➢ Passive differentiator – Circuit does not use any active devices.
➢ Active differentiator – Circuit uses an active device like op-amp.
11.1.Ideal Active op-amp differentiator:

➢ Apply KCL at node X,
ic+if = 0 (1)
➢ Current flows through Capacitor is,
➢ Vx = 0 Virtual ground
➢ Current flows through resistor is,
(2)
(3)
Fig. 11.1 Ideal Active op-amp differentiator
74
Substitute (2) and (3) in (1)
+ =0
=-
Vo = - Rf
➢ This equation shows that output is Rf C times the differentiation of the input and
the product Rf C is called time constant of the differentiator.
➢ Negative(-) sign indicates that there is a phase shift of 180o between input and
output.
Advantage:
➢ Only small time constant is required for differentiation. So that attains the
setting point Quickly.
Applications:
1. Used in wave shaping circuit.
2. Used to convert triangular wave to square wave.
3. Edge detectors in FM demodulators.
Disadvantages:
1. Capacitor being in the input side blocks DC and allows only AC type input range.
2. When frequency increases Xc decreases. So gain increases, differentiator become
unstable and break into oscillations.
75
➢ Input and Output waveform:
Fig. 11.2 Input and Output waveform:
➢ Frequency response of ideal differentiator:

➢ Consider the output equation of ideal differentiator
➢ Vo(t) = - RfC.dVi/dt
➢ Taking Laplace transform on both sides
➢ Vo(s) = - RfC.SVi(s)
➢ To get frequency response replace s by jɷ
➢ Vo(jɷ) = - RfC. jɷ Vi(jɷ)
➢ Hence gain of differentiator
➢ Vo(jɷ) / Vi(jɷ) = - jɷ.RfC
➢ Obtain Magnitude from the gain of differentiator
➢ A= Vo(jɷ)
Vi(jɷ)
= - jɷ.RfC
= =
A =
➢ The expression of gain can be written as,
A = f/fa ; where fa = 1 /
76
➢ At f = 0; =0
➢ At f = fa ; = 1 in dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
➢ At f > fa ; increases at a rate of 20 dB / decade.
Fig. 11.3. Frequency response of ideal differentiator
➢ For f<fa, the ratio f/fa is less than unity. Hence 20 log(f/fa) is negative.
➢ For f = fa, the gain becomes 0 dB and for f>fa, gain increase with a rate of
20 dB / decade.
➢ Since, we have disadvantages in ideal differentiator (i.e. gain increases as
frequency increase, differentiator become unstable at higher frequency) we move
to practical differentiator.
77
11.2.Practical differentiator:
Cf
Fig. 11.4 Practical differentiator:

➢ The noise and instability at high frequency can be corrected in the practical
differentiator circuit using the resistance R1 in series with C1 and the capacitor Cf
in parallel with resistance Rf.
➢ Rcomp is used for bias compensation.
Analysis of Practical differentiator:
Apply KCL at node A
I = I1+I2 (1)
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides
I(s) = I1(s) + I2(s) (2)
To find I,
[ Since VA = VB = 0]
Therefore
(3)
where
78
In Laplace domain, we can write
(4)
Sub (4) in (3)
Taking Laplace transform
(5)
To find I1
I1 = (VA – VO) / Rf
Since VA = 0;
I1 = (– VO) / Rf
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides,
I1(S) = – VO(s) / Rf (6)
To find I2
I2 = Cf d(VA – VO) /dt ; Since VA = 0
= -Cf .dVO /dt
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides,
I2 (S) = - SCf VO (S) (7)
Substitute eqn(5), (6), (7) in (2)
79
If CfRf = R1C1 then
Frequency response of Practical differentiator:

➢From the output equation of the practical differentiator we can write in steady
state domain as,
➢ Now let, and
➢ The fa and fb are the two break frequencies.

Hence the gain can be written as
Now as R1C1< R1Cf we write fa < fb

➢As the frequency increases, the gain increases till f = fb, at a rate of +20 dB /
decade. After that the gain decreases at a rate of 20 dB / decade. This change
occurs due to the combination of R1C1 and RfCf.
80
The response is shown in fig. 11.5

Applications
➢Differentiators are used in wave shaping circuits to detect the HF components in
the input.
➢They are also used as a rate of change detector in FM detectors.
Steps to design practical differentiator:
Output of differentiator Vo = - RfC1dvi/dt
1. Choose fa as the highest frequency of the input signal.
2. Choose C1 to be less than 1µF and calculate the value of Rf.
3. Choose fb as 10 times fa which ensures that fa<fb.
4. Finally calculate the values of R1 and Cf from the expression R1C1 = RfCf.
5. The Rcomp can be selected as R1||Rf but practically it is almost equal to R1.
81
12.INTEGRATOR
➢ An integrator is a circuit in which the output voltage is the integration of input
voltage. Integrators can be built using both active and passive elements. Op-amps
are being used to build such integrators and hence they are classified as Active
Integrators.
12.1.Ideal Active Op-amp Integrator :
➢ Consider an op-amp integrator as shown in the figure . The node B is at ground
potential. Hence by virtual ground concept, node A is also at same potential.
Hence we can write,
VA = VB = 0
➢ As the input current to the op-amp is zero, the entire current I flowing through R1
also flows through Cf as shown in figure.
Fig. 12.1 Ideal Active Op-amp Integrator

From the input side,
From the output side,
82
Integrating on both sides of equation we get,
➢ Where VO(0) is the constant of integration, indicating output voltage.

➢ The above equation shows that the output is times the integral of input and
R1Cf is called the time constant of the integrator. The negative sign shows that there
is a phase shift between input and output. In cases, a compensating resistor equal
to R1 is connected to non-inverting terminal to provide bias compensation. As the
input current is zero, the node B is still be treated at ground potential. The output is
the perfect integration of the input.
12.2 Input and output waveforms
Assume that the time constant R1Cf is unity and the initial voltage to be zero. Let us
apply the input signal and derive the corresponding output waveforms.
1) Step input: Let the input supplied be step input with a magnitude of A. The input
and output waveforms are shown in figure
Fig. 12.2 Input and output waveforms

83
Mathematically input can be written as,

Vin = A; t 0
Vin = 0; t < 0
With the assumed conditions we can write,
➢ Thus the output is a straight line with a slope of –A.

2) For sine wave input the integrator yields cosine output and for a square input it
yields a triangular output.
12.3 Frequency response of Ideal Integrator
Consider the output of the integrator,
with zero initial conditions.
Taking Laplace transform of the above equation,
To get the frequency response, replace s by jω,
Which represents the gain of the integrator.

Magnitude of the gain of the integrator is
84
➢ At low frequencies, the gain becomes infinite. This is due to that the capacitive
reactance becomes very high for LF. Hence it acts as open circuit and works in
open loop at LF. As the frequency increases, the gain drops. The response is like
those of a low pass filter (LPF). Let fb be the frequency at which the gain
becomes one i.e. 0 dB.
➢ At f = fb , = 0dB = 1
➢ The gain drops to 0 dB at a frequency f = fb from its high value at LF. The
response is shown in the figure. The gain rolls off at a rate of -20 dB / decade. It
can be seen that 3 dB bandwidth of an ideal integrator is small.
85
12.4 Errors in Ideal integrator

➢ The input offset voltage and the input bias current present in op-amps gets
amplified at LF causing an error voltage. The high dc gain of the op-amp along
with these components also causes output to ramp up or down, depending on the
polarities of the offset voltage or bias current. Then the output attains saturation
level. Hence true integration of the input is not possible. The ideal integrator faces
the problem of small bandwidth. That is why ideal integrators are used for very
small frequency range of the input only.
➢ Some additional components are added to it to reduce the effects of error voltage
in practice. Such an integrator is called Practical Integrator
12.5.Practical Integrator
➢The practical integrator overcomes the limitations of an ideal integrator that uses a
resistor Rf , in parallel with Cf . The basic circuit is shown in figure. A compensating
resistor is added to compensate for bias current effects. The resistance Rf reduces
the low frequency gain of the op-amp.
Fig. 12.4 Practical Integrator
Deriving on similar grounds as that of ideal integrator we get,
86
When Rf is very large, then R1 / Rf can be ignored and hence the circuit behaves like
an ideal integrator whose output is given by
12.6 Frequency Response of Practical Integrator

➢Gain of the practical integrator can be expressed in terms of frequency as,
(From the output equation)
Replace s by jω and let the gain be A, in the steady state, we can write,
Where called as the break frequency of the practical integrator.
Thus in the frequency response, dc gain remains constant for all

frequencies less than fa and from fa onwards, as frequency increases, gain reduces
at a rate of 20 dB / decade.
87
Magnitude of the gain is given by
➢ At dc condition, (f = 0) we get
➢ Thus an infinite dc gain of op-amp in case of an integrator gets limited to Rf/R1 in

the practical integrator.
➢ At f = fa ,
➢ When we write the gain in terms of dB, we get 20 log |A| = -3dB + dc gain
➢ Thus the gain drops by 3 dB at f = fa which is the break frequency.
The frequency response is shown in the figure
88
➢ It is seen that the bandwidth of the practical integrator is fa which is greater than
that of ideal integrator. For proper integration, the time period T of the input
signal has to be larger than or equal to Rf Cf, so
where
➢The practical integrator is also called as Lossy Integrator as it behaves as

integrator only over higher frequency range. Both the responses are alike only in the
HF range.
Applications
Integrators are used in applications like
1. Signal Shaping circuits.
2. Ramp generators.
3. In solving differential equations
4. In analog computers.
5. In analog to digital converters.
89
13.Voltage to Current Converter (Transconductance Amplifier) :

➢In many applications, one may have to convert a voltage signal to a proportional
output current. For this, there are two types of circuits possible.
❑V-I Converter with floating load
❑V-I Converter with grounded load
➢The below Figure shows a voltage to current converter in which load ZL is floating.
Since voltage at node 'a' is vi therefore,
Fig. 13.1 Floating load Fig 13.2 Grounded load

From figure 13.1 (a)
Vi = iLR1 as IB- =0
➢That is the input Vi is converted into an output current of Vi/R1. It may seen that
the same current flows through the input resistance and load resistance. Therefore
the signal source should be capable of providing this load current.
From figure (b)
i1+i2 = iL
Or
(Vi –V1)/R +(Vo – V1)/ R = iL
90
(Vi –V1)/R +(Vo – V1)/ R = iL

Vi /R +Vo/R-2V1/R = iL
Vi+Vo – 2V1 = iLR
V1 =( Vi+Vo –iLR)/2
Since the op-amp is used in non-inverting mode. So the gain is 1+R/R = 2
Vo/ V1 = 2
Vo = 2V1 = ( Vi+Vo –iLR)
Vo = Vi+Vo –iLR
Vi = iLR
iL = Vi/R
➢As the input impedance of the non-inverting amplifier is high, this circuit has the
advantages of little current drawing from the source.
Application:
➢It is used for low voltage DC and AC voltmeters, LED and Zener diode tester.
14.Current to Voltage Converter: (Transresistance amplifier)

➢ Photocell, photodiode and photovoltaic cell give an output current that is
proportional to an incident radiant energy or light. The current through these
devices can be converted to voltage by using a current-to-voltage converter and
thereby the amount of light or radiant energy incident on the photo-device can be
measured.
Fig. 14.1 Current to Voltage Converter
91
➢ Figure shows an op-amp used as I to V converter. Since the (-) input terminal is at
virtual ground, current ii flows through the feedback resistor Rf. Thus the output
voltage v0 = - iiRf. It may be pointed out that the lowest current that this circuit
can measure will depend upon the bias current of the op-amp. This means that
for 741 (bias current is 3 nA) can be used to detect lower currents. The resistor
Rf is sometimes shunted with a capacitor Cf to reduce high frequency noise and
the possibility of oscillations.
92
10. Assignments
K level CO
Q.No Questions
K3 CO3
1 Explain the operation of FET differential amplifier
K3 CO3
2 Write the concept of virtual ground
K3 CO3
Explain the various types of frequency
3
compensation
K3 CO3
State the causes for slew rate in an OP-AMP ? How
4.
it is indicated
Consider the lossy integrator as shown in Figure 2. K3 CO3

For the component values R1 = 10 kΩ , RF = 100
kΩ and CF = 1nF , Determine the lower frequency
limit of integration and study the response for
5
inputs.
(i) step input
(ii) square input
(iii) sine input
K3 CO3
For a maximum frequency of 100 Hz , design a
6 differentiator circuit and draw the frequency
response for the same.
93
11.PART A Q&A(with K level and CO)
S. Question K CO
No level
1 What is an opamp? List its functions. K2 CO3
The op-amp is a multi terminal device, which internally is quite
complex. It is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting of
one or more differential amplifiers, followed by a level translator
and an output stage.
Function: Op-amp amplifies the difference between two input
signals and can perform
2 List the ideal characteristics of an op-amp. K2 CO3
The ideal characteristics of an op-amp are as follows:
Open loop voltage gain, AOL = ;
Input impedance, Ri =
Output impedance, RO = 0 ;
Bandwidth, BW = 
Zero offset voltage, i.e. VO = 0 when V1 = V2 = 0;
3. List the essential terminals of an op-amp. K2 CO3
Op-amp has five basic terminals, that is, two input terminals,
one output terminal and two power supply terminals.
Inverting input terminal : Pin 2;;Non- inverting input terminal :
Pin 3
Output terminal : Pin 6; Power supply terminals : Pin 4& 7
4. Explain the virtual ground concept with a suitable K2 CO3
example.
Since the difference between the two input terminals of opamp
is zero, as per the ideal characteristics of opamp, the two input
terminals must be maintained at the same potential. Thus, if
one of the input terminals is at ground potential, then obviously
the other terminal is also considered to be at ground potential.
This terminal is now said to be at virtual ground.
We know that Vd = Va-Vb = 0;

Node B is grounded
Therefore Vb = 0;But Vd = 0; Va = Vb ; Node A is at virtual
ground. ie since node B is at ground node A is also at virtual
ground.
94
S.N Question K CO
o level
5 What are the factors that affect the stability of an op- K2 CO3
amp?
The factors that affect the stability of an op-amp are closed loop
gain and phase shift
6. What are the various methods available for frequency K2 CO3

compensation?
There are two types of compensating techniques used for
frequency compensation.
External compensation, internal compensation
External frequency has two methods for compensation namely
Dominant pole compensation, Pole-zero compensation
7. Explain the roll off gain in op-amp. K2 CO3
Ideally, an op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth. This means
that, if its open loop gain is 90dB with dc signal its gain should
remain the same 90dB through audio and on to high radio
frequencies. The practical op-amp gain however, decreases (rolls-
off) at higher frequencies. This decrease in gain is due to the
capacitive component in the equivalent circuit of the op-amp.
This capacitance is due to the physical characteristics of the
device (BJT or FET) and the internal construction of op-amp.
8. Explain the significance of frequency compensation K2 CO3
related to op-amp.
In applications where one desires large bandwidth and lower
closed loop gain, suitable compensating techniques are used. The
compensating network alters the open-loop gain so that the roll-
off rate is –20dB/decade over a wide range of frequency.
9. Mention some applications of op-amp. K2 CO3

Some of the applications of op-amp in open loop mode are as
follows: Comparator, Zero crossing detectors, Window detector,
Time marker generator
Some of the applications of op-amp in closed loop mode are as
follows: Amplifiers, Basic arithmetic operations – summer,
subtractor, multiplier, integrator, differentiator, Rectifiers,
Waveform generators, Filters
10. What is negative feedback in Op-amp K2 CO3
The feedback circuit connected between the inverting input & the
output terminal is called negative feedback
95
S.No Question K CO
level
11 Mention the significance of Rcomp in an op-amp. K2 CO3

For 741 op-amp, with a 1M feedback resistor, Vo = 500nA x
1M = 500Mv. The output is driven to 500mV with zero input
because of bias currents. This effect can be compensated by
adding a compensating resistor between the non-inverting input
terminal and ground.
12 Define input bias current. K2 CO3

INPUT BIAS CURRENT: The average of currents entering into
the (-) input terminal & (+) input terminal of an op-amp is
called input bias current. Its value is 500nA for 741C.
13 Define slew rate. Mention its ideal value expected in an K2 CO3

op-amp.
SLEW RATE: Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of
change of output voltage caused by a step input voltage and is
usually specified is V/s. An ideal slew rate is infinity which
means that op-amp’s output voltage should change
instantaneously in response to input voltage.
14 Define CMRR AND PSRR. Mention their ideal values. K2 CO3

(Nov 2012) (Nov 2013)
CMRR: The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a difference
signal as compared to a common mode signal is called common
mode rejection ratio and gives the figure of merit  for the
differential amplifier.
CMRR is typically infinite.

PSRR: The change in an op-amp’s input offset voltage due to
variations in supply voltage is called supply voltage rejection
ratio. It is also termed as power supply rejection ratio or power
supply sensitivity. For 741C, SVRR=150V/V. Ideally, it should be
zero
96
S.No Question K CO
level
15 Explain thermal drift related to an op-amp. K2 CO3
THERMAL DRIFT: Bias current, offset current and offset voltage
change with temperature. A circuit carefully nulled at 250C may
not remain so when the temperature rises to 350C.This is called
thermal drift. Often current drift is expressed in nA/0C and
offset voltage drift in mV/0C.
16 What are the limitations of basic differentiator? K2 CO3

At high frequencies, a differentiator may become unstable and
break into oscillation as its gain increases with increasing
frequency. The input impedance (ie., 1/C1) decreases with
increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to
high frequency noise.
17 What is the limitation of basic integrator? K2 CO3
At low frequencies, the feedback capacitor behaves as an open
circuit and there is no negative feedback. The op-amp thus
operates in open loop, resulting in an infinite gain. In practice,
of course, output never becomes infinite, rather the output of
the amplifier saturates at a voltage close to the op-amp positive
or negative power supply depending on the polarity of the input
dc signal
18 What is summing amplifier? K2 CO3
A summing amplifier is a circuit whose output is the sum of
several input signals. It may be inverting summing amplifier and
non-inverting summing amplifier.
19 What is a practical op-amp? Draw its equivalent circuit. CO3
K2
A physical amplifier is not an ideal one. So, the equivalent circuit

of an op-amp may be shown below. It can be seen that op-amp
is a voltage controlled voltage source and AOL Vd is an
equivalent Thevenin voltage source and Ro is the Thevenin
equivalent resistance looking back into the output terminal of an
op-amp.
97
S.No Question K CO
level
20 What is the input impedance of a voltage series K2 CO3
feedback amplifier?
Rif=Ri(1+Aβ) where Rif is the input resistance with feedback
and Ri is the input resistance without feedback of a voltage
series feedback amplifier. The input impedance of a voltage
series feedback amplifier is extremely large ( = infinity ) as the
op-amp draws negligible current from the signal source.
21 How do you construct a voltage follower circuit and list K2 CO3

out the applications?
If the feedback resistance of a non inverting amplifier is made
equal to zero and the input resistance is made equal to infinity,
then it becomes a voltage follower. The output voltage is equal
to input voltage, both in magnitude and phase. In other words,
we can also say that the output voltage follows the input
voltage exactly. Hence , the circuit is called a voltage follower. It
can be used as a buffer for impedance matching as it has high
input impedance and low output impedance.
22 Design a circuit using opamp whose gain is -3. K2 CO3

An inverting amplifier can be used with a gain of -3. Let
feedback resistance be chosen as10KΩ. Then A = -Rf/R1 = -3.
Therefore, R1 is 3.33KΩ.
23 Why are FET opamps better than BJT opamps? K2 CO3

Op-amps using FETs in the input stage offer some very
significant advantages over bipolar op-amps, especially in
areas as input impedance, input bias and offset currents and
slewing rate as shown in table 1
Parameter BJT JFET MOSFET

Input resistance 103Ω 109 Ω 1012 Ω
Input gate current μA 1 nA 1 pA
Input offset current 20 nA 2 pA 0.5 pA
Slewing rate 1 V/μs 3 V/μs 10 V/μs
98
S.No Question K CO
level
24 Draw the block schematic of an op-amp. K2 CO3
25 Define input offset current and input offset voltage. K2 CO3

(Nov 2013)
INPUT OFFSET CURRENT: The algebraic difference between the
currents into the (-) input and (+) input is referred to as input
offset current .It is 200nA maximum for 741C.
INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE: It is the voltage that must be applied
between the input terminals of an op-amp to nullify the output.
Since this voltage could be positive or negative its absolute
value is listed on the data sheet. For 741C, maximum value is
6mV
26 What is the input impedance of a non-inverting K2 CO3
amplifier? (May 2013)
Rif=Ri(1+Aβ) where Rif is the input resistance with feedback
and Ri is the input resistance without feedback of a non
inverting amplifier.The input impedance of a non-inverting
amplifier is extremely large ( = infinity ) as the op-amp draws
negligible current from the signal source.
27 What is the value of open loop gain and output K2 CO3

impedance of an ideal op-amp? (Nov 2013)
Open loop voltage gain, AOL = ;
Output impedance, RO = 0 ;
28 How op-amp can be used as a differentiator? K2 CO3

The differentiator op-amp configuration produces an output
voltage that is proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage by measuring the current through a capacitor: The
right-hand side of the capacitor is held at 0 volts due to the
virtual ground effect.
29 What is the use of op-amp integrator? K2 CO3
The integrator circuit is mostly used in analog computers,
analog-to-digital converters and wave-shaping circuits. A
common wave-shaping use is as a charge amplifier and they are
usually constructed using an operational amplifier though they
can use high gain discrete transistor configurations
30 What are limitations of op-amp integrator? K2 CO3
The error voltage may put op-amp in saturation. Very small
bandwidth of ideal integrator limits the frequency range. Hence
an ideal integrator is unstable at low frequency because of large
gain, which may drive op-amp into saturation. The drawbacks of 99
ideal integrator can be corrected using a practical integrator.
12. PART B Q (with K level and CO)
S.N Question K CO
o lev
el
1 Explain the various techniques of frequency compensation in K2 CO3
Op-Amp IC’s.
2 Derive the expressions of output of Adder- subtractor circuits. K3 CO3
3 Explain differential amplifier used in Op-amp with neat K2 CO3

diagram and explain CMRR, ADM and ACM.
4 Explain the frequency response of op-amp with neat diagrams. K3 CO3
5 Draw the circuits for inverting, non inverting summing K2 CO3

amplifier using opamp .Draw an adder circuit for the given
expression
6 Explain the DC characteristics of an op-amp. K3 CO3
7 List the six characteristics of an ideal op-amp and explain in K2 CO3

detail. Give the practical op-amp equivalent circuit
8 Explain briefly about how an operational amplifier is used as K3 CO3

Differentiator and Integrator.
9 Explain the A.C characteristics of an OPAMP. K2 CO3
10 i) An inverting amplifier has R1=20KΩ, Rf=100KΩ, RL=10kΩ. RL K3 CO3

is connected to the output with the input voltage of 0.7V.
Calculate I1,V0,ILand I0
ii) A Non- inverting amplifier has R1=10KΩ, Rf =20KΩ, RL
=2kΩ. RL is connected to the output with the input voltage of
0.8V. Calculate I1,V0,ILand I0
11 Design an op-amp circuit to give an output voltage Vo=4V1- K3 CO3
3V2+5V3-V4 where V1,V2,V3 and V4 are inputs.
100
12. PART B Q (with K level and CO)
S.N Question K CO
o lev
el
11 Design an Op-Amp Differentiator for an input signal with fmax = 100 K2 CO3
Hz. Draw the output waveforms of the differentiator for a square
wave of 2 volts peak to peak to 100 Hz.
12 Design an OP-AMP circuit to give an output voltage V0 = 4V1 – 3V2 + K3 CO3
5V3 – V4 , where V1 , V2 , V3 and V4 are inputs.
13 Explain the voltage to current converter using operational amplifier. K2 CO3

Also explain the application of OP-AMP as integrator.
14 What is slew rate and how it can be improved K3 CO3
15 Draw an adder circuit using an OP-AMP to get the output expression K2 CO3
as V0 = - (2 V1+ V2 + 15 V3) where V1 , V2 and V3 are inputs?
16 Draw an adder circuit using an OP-AMP to get the output expression K3 CO3
as V0 = - (0.1 V1+ V2 + 10 V3) where V1 , V2 and V3 are inputs?
17 What are the limitations of an ordinary op-amp differentiator ? Draw K2 CO3
the circuit of a practical differentiator that will eliminate these
limitations
18 Draw the circuit of a symmetrical emitter coupled differential K3 CO3
amplifier and derive for CMRR
19 Explain the working principle of a emitter coupled differential K2 CO3

amplifier
20 Explain the application of OP-AMP as differentiator K2 CO3
21 Explain the application of OP-AMP as Integrator K2 CO3
101
13. Supportive online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)
ONLINE COURSE NPTEL:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/108/108108111/
ONLINE COURSE COURSERA
https://www.coursera.org/learn/linear-circuits-dcanalysis
Linear Circuits 1: DC Analysis
ONLINE COURSE UDEMY
https://www.udemy.com/course/linear-integrated-circuits-
and-applications-for-all-levels/
Linear Integrated Circuits and Applications : For all Levels
102
14.Real Time Applications In Day To Day Life And To Industry
The real-life applications are on our mobile phones for AD conversion, In

Audio amplifiers, Video signal conditioning units, Sensor Data Accusation,
weighing scale (electronic), digital to analog converters in Phone,
Temperature control in a various device, error amplifiers, communication
circuits, receivers, Modulators, Synthesizers, etc
Op amps are used in a wide variety of applications in electronics. Some
of the more common applications are: as a voltage follower, selective
inversion circuit, a current-to-voltage converter, active rectifier, integrator, a
whole wide variety of filters, and a voltage comparator.
Automatic Street Light Controller
The circuit employed here is an uncomplicated light/dark activated switch
and contains a relay at its output, which simply turns ON/OFF a street light
and further can be extended to control any electrical appliance in a
household.
https://www.electronicshub.org/automatic-street-light-controller-circuit-
using-relays-and-ldr/
103
15.Content Beyond The Syllabus
1.Volatge Regulator selection ICs for modern day circuit designs.

Voltage regulators are an essential part of any electronic design, you may not notice but
more than 90% of the electronics projects/products require some kind of a voltage
regulator to operate functionally. Making them one of the most commonly used and
readily available electronic parts for a variety of applications.
But often there is a situation where your best in class voltage regulator does not meet
the specific requirement for a specific application, and after searching a bit for a voltage
regulator in mouser, element14 or Digikey you arrived in a situation where you cannot
decide how to choose a voltage regulator IC for your electronic design.
So, in this article, we will learn about some of the cheapest and commonly used voltage
regulators available in the market. Also, I will be showing you what parameters you need
to consider before choosing a voltage-regulator for a specific application in great detail.
Finally, I will handpick some cool Top 10 Modern Linear Regulator IC which can be used
as a modern day replacement for age the age old LM7805, LM317, AMS1117 etc and
also there will be a short description for every one of them.
Selecting the Right Type of Regulator for your Circuit Design
Before picking up a voltage-regulator chip you need to set off your most basic
parameters first, though other critical parameters exist, for now, we are going to focus
on the main three which are input voltage, output voltage, and load current.
With known input voltage and output voltage you can determine the input current and
output current by knowing all these parameters you can easily calculate the input and
output dissipated power and determine what type of voltage regulator you need for your
specific application.
Speaking of types of voltage regulators, as you all know there exist only two major
types of voltage regulators: they are switching regulators and linear regulators, and they
are also sub-divided into step-up and step-down Regulators.
If you are looking for an output voltage lower than the input voltage just go for a linear
voltage regulator because linear voltage regulator is cheap and easy to find in the
market as their often used in many application
If you are looking at an output voltage greater than the input voltage then just go for a
switching regulator instead, seemingly if your power dissipation is very high meaning
your output current is in a couple of items in that situation you can elect a switching
regulator instead. Switching voltage regulators are more efficient than linear regulators.
104
15.Content Beyond The Syllabus
Calculating Power and Heat Dissipation for Higher Efficiency

Linear voltage is cheap, easy to use, and readily available, but the major
disadvantage of a linear regulator is the dissipated power, if not considered carefully
it can lead to fast battery consumption (For Battery Powered applications), or it can
overheat, which can damage the device permanently. To understand this concept
better let's clarify things with some examples,
Let's assume we have an input voltage of 12V and an output voltage of 3.3V, the
voltage difference becomes 12V - 3.3V = 8.7V. Now, assume your load current is
500mA and in another scenario your load current is 100mA.
In the first scenario, the regulator has to dissipate 8.7V * .5A = 4.35W of power as
heat, and that is very huge for any 3.3V regulator.
In the second scenario, the regulator must dissipate 8.7V * .05A = 0.43W, which can
be easily handled by any good 3.3V regulator.
Another key aspect you need to look out for is known as thermal resistance and it is
defined by “Θ-JA” and its unit is written as °C/W. And now you are asking what is
this “Θ-JA” parameter anyway?
It defines how much the IC will heat up (above ambient temperature) to dissipate
one watt of power. Multiplying power with “Θ-JA” will give you the temperature rise
above ambient.
105
16.Assessment Schedule
ASSESSMENT Date
FIRST INTERNAL ASSESSMENT 16.09.2022 - 22.09.2022
SECOND INTERNAL ASSESSMENT 02.11.2022 - 08.11.2022

MODEL EXAMINATION 01.12.2022 - 10.12.2022
106
YOUTUBE VIDEO LINKS
1.Adder Subtractor : https://youtu.be/2P1nYGvOnM0
Online Courses :
https://swayam.gov.in/nd1_noc20_ee85/preview - Microelectronics : Devices

to Circuits
https://swayam.gov.in/nd1_noc20_ee77/preview – Semiconductor Devices

and Circuits
Useful Links on OPAMP:
https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/operational-amplifiers-
OPAMPReference
107
Assessment Schedule
Unit test 1 : 07.08.2024
First Internal assessment : 23.08.2024
Unit test II : 17.09.2024
Second Internal assessment : 01.10.2024
Model Exam : 04.11.2024
17. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
TEXTBOOKS:
1. David A bell, " Electronic circuits", Oxford University Press, 2011
2. Ramakant A Gayakwad , " Opamps and Linear Integrated Circuits" , IV Edition,
Pearson Education/ PHI, 2015
3. D. Roy Choudary, S.B. Jain, " Linear Integrated Circuits", Sixth edition, New Age
Publishers, 2018.
REFERENCES:
1. Millman and Halkias, " Integrated Electronics", McGraw Hill Publications,
2. Muhammad H. Rashid, " Linear Integrated Circuits", Cengage Learning, 2014.

18. Mini Project suggestions
Miniproject for Term 1

Choose any one topic based on opamp
Complete the project simulation in Tinkercad- online
simulator before going for hardware part. Tinkercad is
a free-of-charge, online 3D modeling program that
runs in a web browser.
Link: https://www.tinkercad.com/dashboard
Example: Inverting amplifier in Tinkercad
Youtube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QR-
InQGvNyw
110
Mini Project suggestions
LIST OF MINIPROJECTS.
1. Active Tone Control
2. Stabilized Power Supply Circuit Using opamp IC 741.
3. Power Amplifier Circuit using IC 741.
4. IC 741 Darkness Controller Relay.

Thank you
Disclaimer:
This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of RMK Group of
Educational Institutions. If you have received this document through email in error, please notify the
system manager. This document contains proprietary information and is intended only to the
respective group / learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the sender immediately by e-mail if you
have received this document by mistake and delete this document from your system. If you are not
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Department: Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Created by: Dr. Y. Sukhi / Dr. P. Kavitha

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

7 Activity based learning 13

12 Supportive online Certification courses 102

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 103

14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 104

15 Assessment Schedule 106

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 109

17 Mini Project suggestions 110

Ability to understand the structure and underlying semiconductor

Ability to design circuits employing electronic devices

Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic circuits

Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic circuits

Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic circuits

PN junction diodes – structure, operation and VI characteristics, drift and diffusion

UNIT II AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS 15

UNIT III OPAMP AND CHARACTERISTICS 15

Ideal OPAMP characteristics, DC characteristics, AC characteristics, Voltage -series

UNIT IV APPLICATION OF OPAMPS 15

Instrumentation amplifiers, First-order and Second order active filters, V to I and I

Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to

CO1 Understand the structure and underlying semiconductor physics concepts.

CO2 Design circuits employing electronic devices.

1. David A bell, " Electronic circuits", Oxford University Press, 2011

2. Ramakant A Gayakwad , " Opamps and Linear Integrated Circuits" , IV Edition,

1. Millman and Halkias, " Integrated Electronics", McGraw Hill Publications,

2. Muhammad H. Rashid, " Linear Integrated Circuits", Cengage Learning, 2014

After successful completion of the course, the students should

Understand the structure and underlying semiconductor

C304.2 Design circuits employing electronic devices. . K2

Analyze, comprehend and design of Analog electronic

2 DC characteristics 1 30.08.2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

3 AC characteristics 1 31.08.2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

4 Voltage -series 1 02-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

6 Basic applications: 1 12-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

8 Differentiation 1 13-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

9 integrator circuits. 1 14-09-2024 CO3 K3 Chalk

To analyze the applications of OPAMP by constructing simulation circuits.

To download software: https://www.scilab.org/

S.no Circuit Name of the

Analogies and Metaphors in OPAMP characteristics

Simple projects using OPAMP

Over Heat Detector with Auto Cut-Off System using Op-Amp.

Triangular Wave Generator Circuit with Op Amp

Square Wave Generator Circuit with Op-Amp

Sound pressure meter

Sound Operated Flip Flop

The term operational amplifier denotes a special type of amplifier by proper

1.1.Basic Information of Op-Amp

Fig.1.1 Symbol of Op-Amp

Fig1.2 OPAMP Packages

Fig1.3 OPAMP Packages

1.3.Power Supply Connections Op-amp (Two Sources):

Fig. 1.4 Power Supply Connections for Op-amp (Two Sources)

➢ V+ or V- power supply terminals are connected to two dc voltage sources.

Fig. 1.5 Power Supply Connections for Op-amp (Single Source)