CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA)

Key Concepts of SLA

● Second Language (L2): A language learned after the first language (L1).

● Types of Learning:

● L2: Second language, including any additional languages learned.

● Foreign Language: Not commonly used around the learner.

● Library Language: Used mainly for reading.

● Auxiliary Language: Used for specific functions/social contexts.

● Definition: SLA refers to both the process of learning a language beyond the
first language (L1) and the study of individuals and groups in this context.

● Scopes:

● Formal learning in structured environments (e.g., classrooms)

● Informal acquisition through natural exposure, and a

● mix of the previous two

● L1: First language acquired in early childhood.

● Simultaneous Multilingualism: Acquiring multiple languages simultaneously

during childhood.

● Sequential Multilingualism: Learning additional languages after L1

acquisition.

Diversity in Learners and Learning Contexts

● Influenced by social, cultural, and economic factors.

● Learning may be formal (instructional settings) or informal (daily interactions).

● Differences in success attributed to:

o Linguistic factors: L1-L2 relationships.

o Psychological factors: Motivation, personality, aptitude.

o Social factors: Interaction, group identity, socio-economic status.

Perspectives and Approaches

● SLA research adopts interdisciplinary perspectives:

o Linguistics: Examines language structures and grammar.

o Psychological: Studies brain function, learning processes, and individual

differences.

o Social: Focuses on interaction, identity, and cultural influences.

CHAPTER 2: FOUNDATIONS OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA)

The World of Second Languages

● Multilingualism is common worldwide, with over half the population using more
than one language.

● SLA phenomena are significant for social, practical, and academic reasons,
involving nearly all of the world’s 6,000 languages.

● Major languages like English and Hindi have millions of second-language

speakers.

The Nature of Language Learning

● Learning language involves

● natural ability (innate capacity for language)

● social experience (interactions and exposure).

Stages in SLA

1. Initial state: L1 acquisition begins with innate biological

mechanisms; L2 relies on prior L1 knowledge and external input.

2. Intermediate states: Progress involves new vocabulary,

structures, and adapting to language-specific differences.

3. Final state: L1 Native competence by age 5-6, refined into adulthood. L2

Variable outcomes, often less than native-like, with possibilities of
fossilization.

o Fossilization: L2 learners stop improving and their language errors

become permanent.
● Processes: L1 is acquired naturally; L2 often includes conscious effort and
explicit teaching.
● Facilitating conditions: Motivation, feedback, and social interaction enhance
L2 learning success.

The Logical Problem of Language Learning

● Learning Beyond Input: Learners can use language in ways they were never
directly taught.
● Common Rules: All learners follow similar steps, common rules when learning
any language.
● Brain's Help: Our brain has natural abilities to understand language, even with
limited examples.

Frameworks for SLA Analysis

● Linguistic Frameworks:

o Internal: Focuses on mental grammar (e.g., Universal Grammar).

o External: Examines language use in context.

● Psychological Frameworks:
 o Studies brain function, cognitive learning processes, and individual
differences.

● Social Frameworks:

o Microsocial: Focus on interaction and learner variation.

o Macrosocial: Examines cultural, political, and institutional influences.

CHAPTER 3: THE LINGUISTICS OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA)

Characteristics of Language

1. Systematic: Languages follow rules and patterns, allowing infinite

combinations of words and sentences.

2. Symbolic: Words are symbols whose meanings are agreed upon by speakers.

3. Social: Language is used to share meaning and build relationships.

Early Linguistic Approaches to SLA

● Contrastive Analysis: Robert Lado -Predicting learning difficulties by

comparing L1 and L2.

● Error Analysis: Stephen Pit Corder - Studying errors to understand learner

language.

● Interlanguage: Larry Selinker- Learners create a unique language system

between L1 and L2

● Morpheme Order Studies: Dulay and Burt- Learners acquire grammatical

morphemes in predictable orders.

Universal Grammar (UG) Noam Chomsky

Idea: Innate linguistic principles and parameters guide language learning.

● Initial State: L1 and L2 learning starts with a mental grammar framework.

● Final State: L2 learners rarely achieve full native-like competence.

Functional Linguistic Approaches Michael Halliday

Idea: The social functions of language.

1. Systemic Linguistics: Language is shaped by social functions.

Functional Typology: Joseph Greenberg- Cross-linguistic patterns and their role in

language learning.

Monitor Model -Stephen Krashen:

o Acquisition vs. Learning: Acquisition is subconscious; learning is

conscious.

o Natural Order: Rules are learned in a predictable sequence.

o Input Hypothesis: Comprehensible input is essential for acquisition.

 o Affective Filter: Anxiety and emotions influence input processing.

CHAPTER 4: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA)

Languages and the Brain

● Neurolinguistics studies how the brain organizes and processes multiple

languages.

● Broca's Area (Left Frontal Lobe): speech production and language

comprehension.

● Wernicke's Area (Left Temporal Lobe): understanding spoken and written

language

● Critical Period Hypothesis: Suggests there is a limited window during which

language learning is more efficient.

Learning Processes (REVISAR RESUMEN DEL VIDEO)

● Information Processing (IP): Learning involves practice and automation of

complex language skills.

● Connectionism: Language learning strengthens associations between stimuli

and responses based on input frequency.

● Complexity Theory: Views language learning as a dynamic system influenced

by linguistic, psychological, and social factors.

Differences Among Learners

● Age: Younger learners achieve better pronunciation; older learners benefit in

structured learning contexts.

● Aptitude: Cognitive ability impacts speed and success.

● Motivation: Includes emotional (integrative) or practical (instrumental) reasons

for learning.

● Personality: Traits like tolerance for ambiguity and creativity may enhance
learning.

● Learning Strategies: Effective learners use metacognitive and cognitive

strategies like planning or guessing meanings.

Effects of Multilingualism

● Bilingualism often enhances cognitive flexibility and memory.

● Multilinguals may experience unique patterns of thinking compared to

monolinguals.

CHAPTER 5: SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF SLA - COMPREHENSIVE SUMMARY WITH

KEY TERMS

1. Communicative Competence
 ● Definition: Introduced by Dell Hymes (1972), communicative competence
expands on Chomsky’s concept of linguistic competence. It emphasizes the
ability to use language appropriately in different social and cultural contexts.

● In SLA, learners must acquire these abilities to communicate effectively, not just
grammatically.

2. Microsocial Factors

Microsocial factors focus on interactions within immediate contexts, emphasizing how

relationships and specific environments influence SLA.

a. Social Interaction

● Based on Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory, interpersonal interaction is

central to language learning.

● Symbolic Mediation: Language serves as a tool for thinking and learning.

Teachers and peers mediate learning by providing structured support.

● Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1983): Learners improve through interaction,

particularly when meaning is negotiated (e.g., asking for clarification or
simplifying speech).

b. Scaffolding and ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)

● ZPD: Defined by Vygotsky, this is the range between what a learner can do
independently and what they can achieve with assistance.

● Scaffolding: Temporary support (e.g., hints or prompts) provided by teachers

or peers within the ZPD to help learners progress. As learners become
proficient, this support is gradually removed.

c. Foreigner Talk

● Native speakers often use simplified speech (e.g., slower pace, simpler words)
when communicating with non-native speakers.

● This "foreigner talk" provides comprehensible input, aiding SLA.

d. Correction in Interaction

● Direct Correction: Explicitly pointing out errors (e.g., "Say went instead of
goed").

● Indirect Correction: Reformulating the learner's error in a natural way (e.g.,

"Oh, he went home?").

● Both methods encourage learning, though overuse of direct correction can

discourage learners.

e. Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Interaction

● Interpersonal Interaction: Conversations with others, crucial for learning

vocabulary, grammar, and social norms.

● Intrapersonal Interaction: Internal dialogue (e.g., mentally rehearsing

phrases), which helps learners process and consolidate language knowledge.
3. Macrosocial Factors

Macrosocial factors encompass broader sociocultural and institutional influences on

SLA.

a. Language Community

● Refers to groups that share and use a specific language.

● Joining a language community helps learners practice the target language and
understand its cultural nuances.

b. Acculturation

● Defined as adapting to the culture of the target language community.

● Learners who acculturate more effectively tend to acquire the language faster.

● Additive Bilingualism: Learning a new language while retaining proficiency in

the first language, enriching cognitive and cultural skills.

● Subtractive Bilingualism: Acquiring a second language at the expense of the

first, often leading to cultural and linguistic loss.

c. Language and Identity

● SLA is influenced by how learners see themselves in relation to the target

language community.

● Norton’s Theory of Investment (1995): Learners invest in language learning

when they see social or cultural rewards, but power dynamics can impact their
success.

d. Language Status and Policies

● Global English: As English dominates globally, it shapes language policies and

access to SLA resources.

● Government policies, like bilingual education, influence opportunities for SLA,

especially for minority and immigrant populations.

4. Formal vs. Informal Learning Contexts

a. Formal Learning

● Occurs in structured environments like classrooms.

● Teachers can use feedback and correction to guide learners.

● Supported by Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis (1990): Learners must

consciously notice linguistic forms to acquire them.

b. Informal Learning

● Happens in natural settings through immersion and daily interactions.

● Focuses on functional communication rather than grammar.

c. Cultural Learning Styles

 ● Cultural norms influence how learners approach SLA:

o Individualistic Cultures: Encourage self-directed, critical learning.

o Collectivist Cultures: Emphasize group harmony and repetition.

5. Impacts on SLA Success

a. L1 Influence

● Transfer: Learners apply rules from their first language (L1) to the second
language (L2).

o Positive Transfer: When the L1 rule is similar to the L2, aiding learning.

o Negative Transfer: When L1 rules conflict with L2, causing errors (e.g.,
grammar or pronunciation mistakes).

b. Motivation and Attitudes

● Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model (1985): Motivation depends on:

o Integrative Motivation: Desire to integrate into the L2 culture.

o Instrumental Motivation: Practical reasons like job opportunities.

● Positive attitudes toward the L2 and acceptance by native speakers significantly

boost SLA.