Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

MODEL INVESTIGATION

Different kinds of hydraulic structures such as dams, spillways, canal head

works and diversion structures and hydraulic machines such as turbines and
pumps are designed and constructed to yield efficiently the desired output. We
have to ascertain that the designed structures after construction will definitely
yield the desired output. In case, if the structure is found not to perform as per
the design, then it is not possible to rectify the same as the structures are very
massive. Therefore, it becomes imperative to study, in advance, how the
structure or the machine would perform once it is constructed. For this purpose,
one has to resort to experimental investigation. As the real structures or
machines to be constructed in the field are very huge in size, it is not feasible to
conduct these experimental investigations on the full size of the structure.
Hence, a small scale replica of the actual structure is constructed and then tests
are conducted to obtain the desired information. The small scale replica
(imitation) of the actual structure or the machine is known as its model whiles
the actual structure or machine is known as the prototype.

The model tests are quite economical and convenient as the design, construction
and operation of the model may be altered several times if necessary, till all the
discrepancies found in the model are eliminated and the most suitable design is
obtained. On the basis of final results obtained from the model tests, the design
of the prototype may be modified and also it may be possible to predict the
behaviour of the prototype. However, the model test results can be used to
obtain the performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity between
the model and the prototype exists. This may be achieved as below.

TYPES OF SIMILARITIES

There are three types of similarities to be established for complete similarity to

exist between the model and the prototype. They are:

1. Geometric similarity
2. Kinematic similarity
3. Dynamic similarity

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 1 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

1. Geometric similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be geometrically

similar?

If the ratios of the corresponding length dimensions of the model and the
prototype are equal, the model and the prototype are said to be geometrically
similar. Such a ratio is called scale ratio.

For example, let the lengths, breadths and depths of a model and the
corresponding prototype be respectively, Lm, bm and dm and Lp, bp and dp.

Then the length scale ratios are: Lm / Lp, bm / bp and dm / dp. If these scale ratios
are equal, then the model and the prototype are said to be geometrically similar.

2. Kinematic similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be kinematically

similar?

If the paths of the homologous moving particles are geometrically similar and if
the ratios of the velocities as well as accelerations of the homologous particles
are equal, kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and the
prototype.

What is a homologous point?

Consider a model and the corresponding prototype which possess geometric

similarity. A point in the model and the corresponding point in the prototype are
said to be homologous points.

Since, both velocity and acceleration are vector quantities (i.e., both have
magnitude and direction), kinematic similarity implies that the directions of
velocities and accelerations at corresponding points (i.e., homologous points)
are parallel to each other and the ratios of magnitudes of both velocities and
accelerations at corresponding points in the model and the prototype have
constant values at all corresponding set of points. Some of the scale ratios which
are useful in describing kinematic similarity are:

Time scale ratio, Tr = Tm / Tp

Velocity scale ratio, Vr = Vm / Vp = (Lm / Tm) / (Lp / Tp)

= (Lm / Lp) (Tp / Tm)

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 2 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

= (Lm / Lp) {1 / (Tm / Tp)}

= Lr / Tr

3. Dynamic similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be dynamically

similar?

If the ratios of all the forces acting at homologous points in the model and the
prototype which possess both geometric and kinematic similarities are equal,
then it is said that the model and the prototype possess dynamic similarity.

In the problems concerning fluid flow, the forces acting may be any one, or a
combination of several of the following forces:

(i) Inertia forces, Fi

(ii) Friction or viscous forces, Fv
(iii) Gravity forces, Fg
(iv) Pressure forces, Fp
(v) Elastic forces, Fe
(vi) Surface tension forces, Fs

Inertia force, Fi, is the force of resistance offered by an inert mass to

acceleration. According to Newton’s law of motion, the magnitude of the
inertial force is equal to the product of the particle mass and acceleration of the
particle. The direction of the inertia force is opposite to the direction of the
acceleration of the particle.

The conditions required for complete dynamic similarity are developed from the
Newton’s Second Law of Motion. In a flowing fluid, if a fluid particle of mass
M is subjected to acceleration a, then the inertial force Fi of the particle equals
‘Ma’. If all the above listed forces come into play in the fluid flow system under
consideration, then the resultant force, F, which is the vectorial sum of all the
listed forces acting on the fluid particle, will be equal to the inertial force of the
fluid particle, i.e.,

F = Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs = Ma

For complete dynamic similarity to exist between the model and its prototype,
the ratio of the inertia forces of the model and the prototype must be equal tot he
ratio of the resultant forces of the model and the prototype. i.e.,

(F)m / (F)p = (Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs)m / (Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs)p

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 3 of 19
Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

= (Ma)m / (Ma)p …… (1)

In addition to the above stated condition for complete dynamic similarity, the
ratio of the inertia forces of the model and the prototype must also be equal to
the ratios of the individual component forces of the model and the prototype.
i.e.,

(i) (Fv)m / (Fv)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fv)m = (Ma/Fv)p ...... (2)

(ii) (Fg)m / (Fg)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fg)m = (Ma/Fg)p …… (3)

(iii) (Fp)m / (Fp)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fp)m = (Ma/Fp)p …… (4)

(iv) (Fe)m / (Fe)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fv)m = (Ma/Fv)p …… (5)

(v) (Fs)m / (Fs)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fs)m = (Ma/Fs)p …… (6)

Thus, it may be mentioned that when both the model and the prototype are
geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar, then they are said to be
completely similar or complete similitude exists between the two systems.
However, the existence of dynamic similarity implies that both geometric and
kinematic similarities exist between the model and the prototype. Hence, if
dynamic similarity exists between the model and the prototype, they are said to
be completely similar. Further, for complete similarity to exist between the
model and the prototype, the dimensionless terms (or the  - terms) formed
from the complete set of variables involved must be the same for both the model
and the prototype.

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS (FORCE RATIOS)

When a mass is in motion, inertial force always exists. Hence, in order to

develop the conditions for dynamic similarity, the ratio of inertial force and any
one of the remaining forces listed previously is considered. Each of these ratios

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 4 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

will obviously be a non-dimensional factor. The various force ratios are

discussed herein:

(a) Inertia force – viscous force ratio (Reynolds number)

We know that, Inertia force = mass x acceleration

Since, mass density  = mass / volume, mass can be expressed as the product of
mass density  and volume. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Hence, we have,

Inertia force = (mass density x volume) (velocity / time)

= mass density x (volume / time) x velocity

By definition, (volume / time) represents the discharge. Discharge is the product

of cross-sectional area of flow, A and the velocity of flow, V, i.e., discharge, Q =
AV

So, Inertia force =  (AV) V = AV2

As cross sectional area of flow passage, A, has dimensions of L2, we have,

Inertia force, Fi = L2V2

By definition, as per Newton’s law of viscosity, we have, shear stress due to

viscous force, Fv, is given by

 =  (dV / dy)
where,  = coefficient of viscosity of fluid (or) simply, the dynamic viscosity of
the fluid
(dV / dy) = velocity gradient

Viscous force, Fv = shear stress x area = A =  (dV / dy) A

Assuming (dV / dy) to be linear, the above expression can be written as

Fv =  (V / y) A

As y represents the thickness of fluid film, it has dimensions of L. The

dimension of the area ‘A’ is ‘L2’. Replacing ‘y’ by ‘L’ and ‘A’ by ‘L2’ , the
above expression for Fv becomes

Fv =  (V / L) L2 = VL

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 5 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

Now, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the viscous force, Fv, is given
by
(Fi / Fv) = (L2V2) / (VL) = (LV /  ) = (VL / )

where  is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

The force ratio (or) non-dimensional ratio, (LV /  ) , is called the Reynolds
number, Re or NR.

The Reynolds number indicates the relative predominance of the inertia force to
the viscous force occurring in the flow system. If the Reynolds number is larger,
greater will be the relative magnitude of inertia force. If the Reynolds number is
smaller, the greater will be the relative magnitude of viscous force.

(b) Inertia force – Gravity force ratio (Froude number)

From the previous discussion, we have, Fi = L2V2

As per Newton’s second law of motion, force due to gravity can be expressed as

Fg = mass x acceleration due to gravity

Mass can be expressed as the product of mass density,  and the volume; hence,

Fg = (mass density x volume) (acceleration due to gravity)

= ( x volume) x g

Volume has dimensions of L3. Replacing ‘volume’ by ‘L3’, the above expression
becomes

Fg = L3g

Now, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the gravity force, Fg, is given
by

(Fi / Fg) = (L2V2) / (L3g) = V2 / Lg

The square root of this ratio, i.e., (V2 / Lg)1/2 = V / (Lg)1/2 is called the Froude
number.

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 6 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

(c ) Inertia Force – Pressure Force ratio (Euler number)

Pressure force, Fp can be expressed as the product of the pressure intensity, p

and the area, A, over which it acts. i.e.,

Fp = p x A

Area A has dimensions of L2; Replacing ‘A’ by ‘L2’, the above expression
becomes

Fp = p x L2

Hence, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the pressure force, Fp, is given
by

Fi / Fp = (L2V2) / (pL2) = V2 / p = V2 / (p / )

The square root of this ratio, i.e., [V2 / (p / )]1/2 = [V / (p/)1/2] is called the
Euler number, Eu or NE. The reciprocal of Euler number, i.e., [(p / )1/2 / V] is
sometimes known as ‘Newton number’.

(d) Inertia force – Elasticity force ratio (Mach number)

Force due to elasticity, Fe, is expressed as the product of the bulk modulus of
elasticity, K, of the flowing fluid and the area, A, over which the force acts, i.e.,

Fe = K x A

As the dimensions of area, A, are L2, the above expression becomes

Fe = K x L2

The ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the force due to elasticity, Fe, is
given by

Fi / Fe = (L2V2) / (KL2) = V2 / K = V2 / (K / ) = V2 / C2

where, C = (K / )1/2 = velocity of sound in that fluid medium whose bulk

modulus of elasticity, K, and mass density, , are being considered.

The ratio (V2 / C2) is known as the ’Cauchy number’. The square root of this
ratio, i.e., (V / C) or {V / (K / )1/2} is known as the ‘Mach number’, Ma or NM.

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 7 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

When Ma > 1, i.e., V > C, or in other words, the characteristic velocity of flow
of the fluid is more than velocity of sound in that flow medium, the flow is said
to be supersonic. When Ma < 1, i.e., V < C, or in other words, the characteristic
velocity of flow of the fluid is less than velocity of sound in that flow medium,
the flow is said to be subsonic. When Ma = 1, or V = C, the flow is considered
to be sonic. When Ma >>1, i.e., V >> C, then the flow is sometimes termed as
hypersonic. A higher Mach number indicates the predominance of the effect of
compressibility of the fluid. However, when the Mach number is relatively
small, say, less than 0.4, the effect of compressibility of the fluid can be
neglected.

(e) Inertia force – Surface tension force ratio (Weber number)

Force due to surface tension, Fs = L

where  = surface tension of fluid in contact with, say, air (in N/m)
L = length of the fluid film over which the force due to surface tension
acts
Hence, the ratio of the inertia force, Fi, and the surface tension force, Fs, is
given by

Fi / Fs = (L2V2) / (L) = (LV2) /  = [V2 / { / (L)}]

The square root of this ratio, i.e., [V / { / (L)}1/2] is called the Weber number.

SIMILARITY LAWS OR MODEL LAWS

The results obtained from the model tests can be transferred to the prototype by
the use of model laws. The model laws can be developed from the principles of
dynamic similarity. The conditions for the existence of dynamic similarity
between the model and the prototype are depicted by equations (1) to (6). In
almost all hydraulic problems encountered in practice, for which model studies
are required to be carried out, it is quite rare that all the forces, namely, Fi, Fg,
Fv, Fp, Fe and Fs are simultaneously predominant in the flow phenomenon.
Moreover, in most of the fluid flow problems, only one force in addition to the
inertia force, Fi, is relatively more significant than the rest of the forces. The
rest of the forces may either do not exist or may be of negligible magnitude.
Under these circumstances, the various model laws have been developed
depending upon the significant influence of each of the forces on the different
fluid flow phenomena. In the derivation of these model laws, it has been
assumed that for equal values of the dimensionless parameters the
corresponding flow pattern in model and its prototype are similar.

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 8 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

(a) Reynolds Model Law

In case of flows where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other force of
significance is the viscous force, the similarity in flow in the model and the
prototype can be obtained if the Reynolds number of flow is the same in both
the model and the prototype. This is known as Reynolds Model Law.

According to the law, we have,

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

where (NR)model = Reynolds number of flow in model

(NR)prototype = Reynolds number of flow in prototype
m = mass density of fluid in model
Vm = characteristic velocity of flow in model
Lm = characteristic length in model
m = dynamic viscosity of fluid in model
p = mass density of fluid in prototype
Vp = characteristic velocity of flow in prototype
Lp = characteristic length in prototype
p = dynamic viscosity of fluid in prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[(m Vm Lm) / m] / [(p Vp Lp) / p] = (m / p)(Vm / Vp)(Lm / Lp)(p / m)

= {(m / p)(Vm / Vp)(Lm / Lp)} / {(m / p)}

= r Vr Lr / r = 1 …… (7)

where r = Mass density scale ratio

Vr = characteristic velocity scale ratio
Lr = Length scale ratio
r = dynamic viscosity scale ratio

Equation (7) may be used to obtain the scale ratios for various other physical
quantities on the basis of Reynolds model law.

Some of the phenomena for which Reynolds model law can be a sufficient
criterion for similarity of flow in the model and the prototype are:

(i) flow of incompressible fluid in closed pipes

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 9 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

(ii) motion of submarines completely under water

(iii) motion of air planes
(iv) flow around structures and other bodies immersed completely under
moving fluids

(b) Froude Model Law

In case of flows where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other force of
significance is the force of gravity, the similarity in flow in the model and the
prototype can be obtained if the Froude number of flow is the same in both the
model and the prototype. This is known as Froude Model Law.

According to the law, we have,

(Fr)model = (Fr)prototype

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 = Vp / (Lp gp)1/2 ...... (13)

where (Fr)model = Froude number of flow in model

(Fr)prototype = Froude number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in model
Lm = characteristic dimension (length) in model
gm = acceleration due gravity at the site of model testing
Vp = velocity of flow in prototype
Lp = characteristic dimension (length) in prototype
gp = acceleration due gravity at the site of prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 / Vp / (Lp gp)1/2 = 1

 Vr / (grLr)1/2 = 1
 Vr = (grLr)1/2 ...... (14)

Since in most cases, as the value of g at the site of model testing will practically
be the same as the value of g at the site of the proposed prototype, we have the
scale ratio of g, i.e., gr = gm / gp = 1

Hence, equation (14) becomes

Vr = Lr1/2
Vr / Lr1/2 = 1 …… (15)

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 10 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

Equation (14) or (15) may be used to obtain the scale ratios for various other
physical quantities.

Some of the phenomena for which Reynolds model law can be a sufficient
criterion for dynamic similarity of flow in the model and the prototype are:

(i) Free-surface flows such as flow over spillways, sluices, etc.,

(ii) Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle
(iii) Problems in which waves are likely to be formed on the surface
(iv) Problems in which fluids of different densities flow over one another

(c) Euler Model Law

In case of fluid systems where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other
force of significance is the force due to supplied pressures, the dynamic
similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the Euler
number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is known
as Euler Model Law.

(Eu)model = (Eu)prototype

[Vm / (pm/m)1/2] = [Vp / (pp/p)1/2] ...... (20)

where (Eu)model = Euler number of flow in model
(Eu)prototype = Euler number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in the model
pm = intensity of fluid pressure in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
pp = intensity of fluid pressure in the prototype
p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / (pm/m)1/2] / [Vp / (pp/p)1/2] = 1

 [Vr / (pr/r)1/2] = 1 ...... (21)

Equation (21) represents the Euler Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

Euler model law may be considered as an essential requirement for establishing

dynamic similarity in an enclosed fluid system where the turbulence is fully

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 11 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

developed and the viscous forces are insignificant, and also the forces of gravity
and surface tension are completely absent.

(d) Mach Model Law

In case of fluid flow phenomena where, in addition to the inertia force, the only
other force of significance is the force resulting from elastic compression, the
dynamic similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the
Mach number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is
known as Mach Model Law.

(Ma)model = (Ma)prototype

[Vm / (Km / m)1/2] = [Vp / (Kp / p)1/2] ...... (22)

where (Ma)model = Mach number of flow in model

(Ma)prototype = Mach number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in the model
Km = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
Kp = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid in the prototype
p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / (Km / m)1/2] / [Vp / (Kp / p)1/2] = 1

 [Vr / (Kr / r)1/2] = 1 ...... (23)

Equation (23) represents the Mach Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

The Mach model law finds extensive application in aerodynamic testing and in
phenomena involving velocities exceeding the speed of sound. It is also
applicable in hydraulic model testing for cases of unsteady flow, especially
water hammer problems.

(e) Weber Model Law

In case of fluid flow phenomena where, in addition to the inertia force, the only
other force of significance is the force resulting from surface tension, the
dynamic similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the
Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 12 of 19
Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

Weber number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is
known as Weber Model Law.

(We)model = (We)prototype

[Vm / {m / (m Lm)}1/2] = [Vp / {p / (p Lp)}1/2] …… (24)

where (We)model = Weber number of flow in model

(We)prototype = Weber number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in the model
m = surface tension of fluid in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Lm = characteristic length in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
p = surface tension of fluid in the prototype
p = mass density of fluid in the prototype
Lp = characteristic length in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / {m / (m Lm)}1/2] / [Vp / {p / (p Lp)}1/2] = 1

 [Vr / {r / (r Lr)}1/2] = 1 …… (25)

Equation (25) represents the Weber Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

Weber model law can be applied in the following cases:

(i) flow over weirs involving very low heads

(ii) very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface
(iii) capillary waves in channels

TYPES OF MODELS

Hydraulic models can be broadly classified into two categories namely,

(i) Undistorted Models

(ii) Distorted Models

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 13 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

(i) Undistorted Models

An undistorted model is the one which is geometrically similar to its prototype,

that is, the scale ratios for corresponding linear dimensions of the model and its
prototype are same. As the basic condition of perfect similitude, i.e., geometric
similarity, is satisfied, prediction in case of such models is relatively easy and
many of the results obtained from the model tests can be transferred directly to
the prototype.

(ii) Distorted Models

Distorted models are those in which one or more terms of the model are not
identical with their counterparts in the prototype. As the basic condition of
perfect similitude, i.e., geometric similarity, is not satisfied, the results obtained
with the help of such models are liable to distortion and have more qualitative
value only.

A distorted model may have either geometrical distortion, or distortion of

hydraulic quantities or a combination of these.

What is geometric distortion?

The geometric distortion can either be dimensional distortion or

configurationally distortional. For example, when the scale ratio adopted for the
longitudinal dimension of the model and the prototype is different from the
scale ratio adopted for the vertical dimension of the model and the prototype,
the model is said to be dimensionally distortional. In general, when different
scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse and vertical dimensions,
then it is said to be a distortion of dimensions.

Where dimensionally distorted models are frequently employed?

Distortion of dimensions is frequently adopted in river models where a different

scale ratio is adopted for depth. In river models, the scales for vertical
dimensions are larger than scales for horizontal dimensions. Such models are
called ‘vertically exaggerated models’.

When the general configuration of the model does not bear a resemblance with
its prototype, it results in a configurationally distortional model. For example, a
river model will have a distortion of configuration if it is constructed with a
bed-slope different from the one given by vertical exaggeration.

What is material distortion?

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 14 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

When the physical properties of the corresponding materials in the model and
the prototype do not satisfy the similitude conditions, the material distortion
arises.

Material distortion may have to be adopted in river models constructed for the
studies of sediment transport.

Further, it may not be possible to obtain similitude in respect of certain

uncontrollable hydraulic quantities such as time, discharge, etc., which may lead
to distortion of hydraulic quantities.

Typical examples where distorted models are required:

(i) Rivers
(ii) Dams across very wide rivers
(iii) Harbours
(iv) Estuaries, etc.,

In all the above cases, the horizontal dimensions are large in proportion to the
vertical ones.

What are the reasons for adopting distorted models?

(i) to maintain accuracy in vertical measurements

(ii) to maintain turbulent flow
(iii) to obtain suitable bed material and its adequate movement
(iv) to obtain suitable roughness condition
(v) to accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water
supply and time.

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 15 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

Example 1: A spillway 7.2 m high and 150 m long discharges 2150 m3/s under
a head of 4 m. If a 1:16 model of the spillway is to be constructed, find the
model dimensions, head over the model and the model discharge.

Solution.

Prototype spillway:
Height of prototype spillway, (Height)p = 7.2 m
Length of prototype spillway, Lp = 150 m
Discharge of prototype spillway, Qp = 2150 m3/s
Head in prototype spillway, (Head)p = 4 m

Model spillway:
Length scale ratio, Lr = Lm / Lp = 1 / 16
Hence, length of model spillway, Lm = (1 / 16) Lp = (1 / 16) (150) = 9.375 m
For geometric similarity of model and prototype,
( Height ) m Lm

( Height ) p Lp
Lm  1 
 (Height)m = (Height)p = 7.2   = 0.45 m
Lp  16 
( Head ) m Lm

( Head ) p Lp
Lm  1 
(Head)m = (Head)p = 4   = 0.25 m
Lp  16 
The discharge equation for spillway is given by
Q = CdLH3/2
where Cd = coefficient of discharge of spillway
L = Length of spillway
H = Head of water in spillway

For kinematic similarity to exist between the model and the prototype, we have,

Qm Lm H m 3 / 2 (9.375)( 0.25) 3 / 2
  = 9.765625 x 10-4
Qp 3 / 2 3 / 2
Lp H p (150)( 4)
Qm = (9.765625 x 10-4)Qp = (9.765625 x 10-4)(2150) = 2.1 m3/s

Example 2: In order to estimate the frictional head loss in a pipe 1 m in

diameter, through which castor oil of specific gravity 0.96 and dynamic
viscosity 9.9 poise, is to be transported at the rate of 5000 litres per second, a
test was conducted on a pipe of diameter 50 mm using water at 15C as the
model fluid. Calculate the discharge required for the model pipe. If the head loss

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 16 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

in 40 m length of the model pipe is measured as 13.6 mm of water, determine

the corresponding head loss in the prototype. Also obtain the value of Darcy’s
friction factor for the prototype. Given absolute viscosity of water at 15C =
0.0131 poise.

Solution.

Prototype pipe:
Diameter of pipe, Dp = 1 m
 
Cross-sectional area of pipe, Ap = D p2 = 12 = 0.7854 m2
4 4
Specific gravity of castor oil transported through pipe = 0.96
Mass density of castor oil, p = (specific gravity of castor oil) x
(mass density of water)
= 0.96 x 1000 = 960 kg (mass) / m3
Dynamic viscosity of castor oil, p = 9.9 poise = 9.9 x 0.1 N.s/m2 = 0.99 N.s/m2
Discharge rate of castor oil through the pipe, Qp = 5000 litres per second
= 5000 x 10-3 m3 / s
= 5 m3 / s
Average velocity of flow through pipe, Vp = Qp / Ap = 5 / 0.7854 = 6.3662 m/s
Head loss due to friction in prototype pipe, (Hf)p = ?
Darcy’s friction factor for the prototype pipe, fp = ?

Model pipe:
Diameter of pipe, Dm = 50 mm = 50 x 10-3 m = 0.05 m
 
Cross-sectional area of model pipe, Am = Dm 2 = 0.052 = 1.963 x 10-3 m2
4 4
Mass density of water, m = 1000 kg (mass) / m3
Discharge of water required for the model pipe, Qm = ?
Length of model pipe, Lm = 40 m
Head loss due to friction in 40 m length of model pipe, (Hf)m = 13.6 mm
= 0.0136 m
Dynamic viscosity of water, m = 0.0131 poise = 0.0131 x 0.1 N.s/m2
= 0.00131 N.s/m2

For dynamic similarity of model and prototype, Reynolds model law must be
applicable.

Reynolds model law:

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 17 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

Here, the characteristic dimension of pipe is its diameter; hence, Lm = Dm and Lp

= Dp in the above expression
960Vm 0.05 10006.36621
 
0.00131 0.99
 Vm  0.1755 m/s

Hence, discharge required for the model pipe, Qm = Am x Vm

= (1.963 x 10-3) x (0.1755)
= 3.446 x 10-4 m3/s
= 0.345 x 10-3 m3/s
= 0.345 litres per second
By dimensional analysis, the Resistance to flow is given by

 VD 
R = L2V 2  
  
As the Reynolds number for both the model and the prototype are the same, the
value of the function  in the above expression will be the same for both the
model and the prototype. Hence, we can write,
 R   
   R 
 L2V 2   2 2
  m  L V  p
Resistance to flow, R = (drop in pressure intensity due to head loss) x
(cross-sectional area of pipe)
 
= (gHf)  D 2 
4 
Hence, we have,

 
  2 
 gH f  4 D  


  2 
 gH f  4 D   
      
 L V
2 2   L V
2 2 
   
 m  p
( H f ) m  D p 2  Lm 2  Vm 2 
 
( H f ) p  Dm 2  L p 2  V p 2 
   
 L   D   0.05 
As  m    m    
 Lp   Dp   1 
( H f ) m  1  2  0.05  2  0.1755  2
       7.5997 x 10-4
( H f ) p  0.05   1   6.3662 
It is given that (Hf)m = 0.0136 m of water in a length of 40 m
Hence, (Hf)p = (Hf)m / (7.5997 x 10-4) = 0.0136 / (7.5997 x 10-4)
= 17.896 m of castor oil

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 18 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis (Part II: Model Investigation)

The corresponding length of prototype pipe in which this loss of 17.896 m

occurs can be determined using the length scale ratio.

Lm Dm 0.05
   0.05
Lp Dp 1
 Lp = Lm / 0.05 = 40 / 0.05 = 800 m
Hence, loss of head per metre length of prototype pipe = (Hf)p / Lp
= 17.896 / 800
= 0.02237 m of castor oil
= 22.37 mm of oil per m length of pipe

Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss due to friction in pipe is given by

fL V 2
Hf 
D 2g
Applying the above equation for the model pipe, we have,
f p Lp V p2
H f  p  D p 2g p
f p (800) (6.3662) 2
17.896 =
1 ( 2)( 9.81)
 fp = friction factor for the prototype pipe = 0.01083

Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.: 19 of 19

Prof. of Civil Eng., Annamalai University, Annamalainagar