CLASS: SENIOR FIVE

CONTENTS

UNIT 1: EUROPEAN LITERARY TRADITIONS 1

UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING PROSE
UNIT 3: THEMES IN AFRICAN NOVELS
UNIT 4: EPIC POETRY
UNIT 5: ODES
UNIT 6: RHYTHM IN AFRICAN POETRY
UNIT 7: DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN DRAMA
UNIT 8: LANGUAGE USE IN DRAMAS
…………………………………………………..

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UNIT I: EUROPEAN LITERARY TRADITIONS I

I.1. EUROPEAN LITERARY TRADITIONS

A literary tradition refers to some common features or characteristics that define literature of a group of
people at a certain period of time. These features relate to form and meaning of the literature of the given
place or time period.

Literary tradition can also be referred to the passing down of stories which give meaning to human
experience, according to literary articles. It may be also a sharing of stories between generations. Every
linguistic group has a literary tradition which is transmitted either orally or through writing.

European literary traditions are the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of
Europe, including the ones belonging to the family as well as several geographically or historically
related languages such as Basque and Hungarian. Western literature is considered one of the defining
elements of Western civilization.

A literary text from one literary tradition will differ in themes and features from a text of a different
literary tradition. Literary traditions differ from one place to another and they keep on changing across
time. For example: Rwandan literature is different in themes from Ugandan literature; African literature is
different from European literature, Asian literary traditions are different from American literary
traditions. African literature was primarily oral while European was mainly written.

Scholars of European literary traditions divided them in six different periods corresponding to specific
types of literature: Classical ancient Greek and Latin literature, Medieval literature, Renaissance
literature, Baroque literature, Classical literature, Enlightenment literature.

The European literary traditions have their origins in the East rather than in the West. They originated
from 4500 B.C to 2000 B.C in Sumeria, Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria as well as in China and India, all
of which have been considered by westerners as Eastern countries. The main stream of Western
civilization is not as old as of that Eastern civilization. European literary tradition is said to have their
sources in Palestine and in Greece.

1.1. Classical ancient Greek and Latin literature

Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in the Ancient Greek language from the earliest texts
until the time of the Byzantine Empire.

The earliest surviving works of ancient Greek literature are the two epic poems of Homer: The Iliad and
The Odyssey, set in the Mycenaean era along with the Homeric Hymns and the two poems of Hesiod,
Theogony and Works and Days, comprised the major foundations of the Greek literary tradition that
would continue into the Classical.

Sophocles is famous for his tragedies about Oedipus, particularly Oedipus the King and Antigone.
Euripides is known for his plays which often pushed the boundaries of the tragic genre. The comedic
playwright Aristophanes wrote in the genre of Old Comedy, while the later playwright Menander was an
early pioneer of New Comedy. The philosopher Plato wrote dialogues, usually centered around his
teacher Socrates, dealing with various philosophical subjects, whereas his student Aristotle wrote

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numerous treatises, which later became highly influential. Homer is regarded as the greatest of all the
Greek writers. This period is divided into the Pre-classical, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Ancient Latin literature began as translation from the Greek. Latin authors used earlier writers as sources
of stock themes and motifs, at their best using their relationship to tradition to produce a new species of
originality. They were more distinguished as verbal artists than as thinkers; the finest of them have
concrete detail and vivid illustration. Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and
other writings written in the Latin language. Beginning around the 3rd century BC, it took two centuries
to become a dominant literature of ancient Rome with many educated Romans still reading and writing in
Ancient Greek.

Generally, Latin literature refers to the body of writings in Latin, primarily produced during the Roman
Empire when Latin was a spoken language. Latin Literature includes not only Roman authors like Cicero,
Virgil, Ovid and Horace but also includes European writers after the fall of Empire, like Aquinas, Francis,
Baruch Spinoza…

Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose. Cicero’s many works can be divided
into four groups: letters, rhetorical treatises, philosophical works, and orations. His letters provide a vivid
picture of the public and private life among the Roman governing class. Cicero’s works on oratory are our
most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His philosophical works were
the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages. His speeches inspired many European political
leaders and the founders of the United States.

1.2. Medieval (Middle Ages) literature

The Medieval Period, or the Middle Ages, extends roughly from the 5th to the 15th Century. The early
part of this period is sometimes referred to as the Dark Ages because of the scarcity of achievements in
culture and learning. The Western countries produced a large quantity of verse and prose during this
period of time.

Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing all written works available in Europe and beyond
during the Middle ages. The literature of this time was composed of religious writings as well as well as
secular works and Latin language was a common language for medieval writings.

Many medieval works are anonymous. Medieval Europe became the cradle of new developing genres. It
brought ballads, allegorical poetry, Latin hymns, sacred songs, lullabies, fabliaux, debates, court epics,
popular epics, beast epics, tale cycles, chivalric romances, mystery plays, miracle plays, and morality
plays. As many of these literary types suggest, a great deal of medieval literature is folk literature. Such
literature is linkable to the oral tradition of bards, jongleurs and troubadours.

It is said that the court of Arthur maintained the highest ideals of chivalry and honourable behaviour.
Furthermore, Arthur wished for his chosen knights to sit round a round table, so that nobody would be
superior. He wished to be an equal to all. Knights of King Arthur included: Sir Kay, Sir Gawain, Sir
Lancelot, Sir Percival, Sir Geraint, Sir Galahad, Sir Tristan,Sir Bors, Sir Gareth, Sir Lamorak, Sir
Gaheris, Sir Bedivere, Sir Agravaine, SirSagramore.

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Main writers of this period are Christina de Pizan, Geoffrey Chauser, John Anthony Burrow, Margery
Kempe, Julian of Norwich, Chretien de Troyes, Marie de France, Jacobus de Voragine, William
Langland, Thomas Aquinas, Francis of Assisi, …

1.3. Renaissance literature

Renaissance basically means rebirth or revival. Renaissance literature is the revival of European art and
literature under the influence of classical models in the 14th–16th centuries. Renaissance literature refers
to European literature which was influenced by intellectual and cultural tendencies associated with
Renaissance. It was written during the general movement of the Renaissance which arose in 14th century
in the Italy and continued until the 16th century.

The characteristics of Renaissance were humanism, nationalism, a new approach to life, and a new spirit
in art, architecture, literature and learning, the growth of the vernaculars, and scientific investigation.
Renaissance was a time of rediscovery. More Europeans had access to ancient Greek and Roman
learning. Another thing that accelerated this learning was the fall of Constantinople in 1453. As more
Greek and Roman scholars moved to West, more people were curious to learn about ancient’s times.

The influential writer of Renaissance was Willian Shakespeare. Other main writers include Geoffrey
Chaucer, Nicholas Machiavelli, Miguel de Cervantes, Edmund Spenser, Giovanni Boccaccio, Francesco
Petrarch, John Milton, Sir Thomas More, Sir Francis Bacon…

1.4. Baroque literature

The era of literature known as the Baroque period in Spain occurred during a particularly difficult time in
the country’s history. Most works during this period, the 17th Century, dealt with human struggle and the
reality of the miserable conditions many were enduring. At the time, Spain was dealing with many issues
surrounding their economy and political system, such as their loss of control over owned land and
territories and poor leadership from the country’s rulers.

Spanish baroque coincides with the Golden Age of Spanish literature, called that way because of the great
number of excellent literary productions that appeared in the period. Miguel de Cervantes is without
doubt, the ultimate Baroque author.

His masterpiece, the adventures of the mad knight Don Quixote, is considered the most important book of
the Spanish literature.

Baroque literature is the 17th Century prose that is known for its dramatic elements and use of Allegory
(a story in which people, things or happenings have the symbolic meaning. Aesop’s fables are an example
of Allegory).

Literature in Baroque period was full of metaphor, emblem, symbols and hyperbole. Some baroque
writers include Lope de Vega, Luis de Gongora, Andreas Gryphius and Paul Fleming.

1.5. Classical literature

Classicism is a specific genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music,
which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources and an emphasis on society. It was particularly expressed in

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the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment with the classicism. Literary critics of this period
influenced in upholding classical standards both in French and English literature. A book on classical
principles, Longinus constitutes the key source of aesthetic of romanticism.

The Age of Enlightenment identified itself with a vision of antiquity which, while continuous of the
previous century, was shaken by the Physics of Sir Isaac Newton, the improvements in machinery and
measurement, and a sense of liberation which they saw as being present in the Greek civilization.

Some of the writers of classicism include Nicolas Boileau-Despéaux, Molière, Nicolas Poussin…

1.6. Enlightenment literature

Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in
Europe during 18th century. It was characterized by reason, nature, happiness, progress and liberty.

Enlightenment is referred to as the Age of Reason. It was a confluence of ideas and activities that took
place throughout the 18th Century. Scientific rationalism and use of scientific method were the hallmark
of everything related to the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers believed in advances of science,
egalitarianism and the progress of humankind.

Middle class had more money and free time to spend on reading.

Shift towards prose and realistic experiences – Rise of Journalism

Neoclassic literature aimed at elite; often used sarcasm and satire. Example: Franklin in Loseleon by
David Martin.

The main writers of Enlightenment include Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, John Locke, Denis Diderot,
Montesquieu (1689-1755), Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, Francis Bacon, Descartes, Baruch Spinoza,
Isaac Newton (1642-1727), Alexander Hamilton, Antoine Lavoisier, Voltaire…

I.2. CONTEXT

Context refers to the whole situation, background or environment relevant to a particular event. It also
refers to the social, cultural, and historical circumstances and setting at which the author is writing.
Therefore, context refers to the background information surrounding a subject.

Context can also be referred to the circumstances forming the background of an event, idea or statement,
in a such a way as to enable the audience (readers, listeners, spectators) understand the narrative or a
literary piece. Generally, context refers to the whole situation, background or environment relevant to a
literary work.

The types of context include:

Social context

It refers to the immediate physical and social setting in which people live or in which something happens
or develops. It is also the reflection of how the characters’ actions and attitudes are affected by events

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occurring around the time and place where they live. It involves the characters’ interactions in all levels
of life.

Historical context

It refers to the moods, attitudes and conditions that existed in a certain time. Historical context is also the
time period in which a story occurs. Both historical events (like wars) can influence the story.
It is an aspect of setting that pertains to when events and when characters live and interact.

Cultural context

It can be described as the sustained conditions, collective expectations and prevailing norms among a
group of people or a social network. It includes the values of a society, their beliefs social and moral
norms as well as the meanings people give to the human actions and behaviours. It looks at the society in
which characters live in and how their culture can affect their behaviours and their opportunities.

Political context

This deals with the leadership characteristics and dynamics of a society. It includes the types of leadership
(like democracy, monarchy, kingdom, chiefdom), the role of people in determining their leadership,
freedoms and rights. It is also referred to the disposition of decision makers surrounding an event or idea.