TRAINING MANUAL

Fisheries post harvest technology

Government Of India
National Institute of Fisheries Post Harvest Technology and Training
[NIFPHATT]
Beach Road, Visakhapatnam
 A
TRAINING MANUAL

FISHERIES POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

National Institute of Fisheries Post Harvest Technology

and Training (NIFPHATT)
Govt. of India,
Beach Road, Visakhapatnam – 01.
 A PROJECT WORK REPORT
ON
FISHERIES POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY
IN
National Institute of Fisheries Post Harvest Technology and Training (NIFPHATT)

Submitted by

S. Sridevi, D. Yamini, V. Harini, S. Manaswani, M. Srinath

B. Sc (Food science and Nutrition)

Under the esteemed guidance of,

Sri B. Koteswar, M.F. Sc,
Processing and Quality Assurance Supervisor,
NIFPHATT, Govt. of India,
Beach Road, Visakhapatnam – 01.
Smt. P. Syndhya Mary, B.F. Sc.
Officer In Charge,
NIFPHATT, Govt. of India,
Beach Road, Visakhapatnam – 01.

Department Of Food Science and Nutrition

Sun International Institute of Tourism and Management
(Affiliated to Andhra university, Visakhapatnam)
Dwarakanagar, Visakhapatnam
2019 – 2022
CONTENTS PAGE NO
1. History- NIFPHATT 1
2. Indian Fisheries 2
3. Biochemical Composition of Fish 6
4. Postmortem Changes In Fish 9
5. Rigor Mortis And Spoilage In Fish 11
6. Personal Hygiene And Sanitation In Seafood Industry 18
7. Fish Preservation Technology 20
8. Seafood Processing Technology 44
9. Seafood Packaging Technology 49
10. Value Addition Of SeaFood Products 53
11. Seafood Microbiology 59
12. On – Board Handling And Sashimi Grade Tuna Preparation 75
13. Hazard Analysis And Critical Control Point (Haccp) 82
14.1 Good Manufacturing Practices (Gmp) 85
14.2 Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (Ssop) 88
15. Tradability 92
16. Standardisation In Seafood Products 93
17. Industrial Visits 98
 1. HISTORY- NIFPHATT

The history of National Institute of Fisheries Post Harvest Technology and Training
NIFPHATT, erstwhile Integrated Fisheries Project IFP goes back to October 17th 1952 when
a tripartite agreement was signed by the Government of Norway, India and United Nations
which resulted in the establishment of Indo Norwegian Project INP for fisheries and fishermen
community development at Neendakara in Quilon, Kerala. The headquarters was shifted to
Kochi in 1961. The Project established new centres at Kannur in Kerala, Karwar in Karnataka
and Mandapam in Tamil Nadu state during 1963-64, in addition to expanding the activities in
Kochi. On termination of the agreement with Govt. of Norway in 1972, the administration of
the Project was completely taken over by Govt. of India and the Indo Norwegian Project was
renamed as INTEGRATED FISHERIES PROJECT (IFP).
The establishments of the Project at Kannur, Karwar and Mandapam were handed over
to the respective State Fisheries Departments. Realizing the need for extending the activities of
developing postharvest technologies along the upper east coast, the Govt of India decided to
set up a unit of IFP in Visakhapatnam in 1989 in a rented premise. A permanent building was
set up at beach road adjacent to the fishing harbour in 1995. As a result of this, the processing
and marketing division, refrigeration, training and civil engineering section have been retained
in IFP and all other divisions were transferred to Fishery Survey of India and the Central
Institute of Fisheries Nautical Engineering and Training. During the year 2008, the Govt. of
India renamed IFP as National Institute of Fisheries Post Harvest Technology and Training
NIFPHATT.
The Institute is a subordinate office of the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry
and Dairying, Department of Fisheries, carrying out applied research and training in the field
of fisheries postharvest technology. This has its headquarters in Cochin and a unit at
Visakhapatnam. The main objective of the Institute is to develop the value-added fishery
products by way of process and product diversification from all varieties of fish including low
value, unconventional species and seasonally abundant fishes. Imparting training both regular
and need based in the field of postharvest technology, refrigeration technology, quality control
and development of value-added products. The training programmes include on the job training
to college and university students and VAP for fisher women self-help groups.

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 2. INDIAN FISHERIES
India is one of the largest fish producing countries in the world and shares 7.58% to the global
production. Contributing 1.24% to India’s Gross Value Added (GVA) and 7.28% (2018- 2019)
to the agricultural GVA, fisheries and aquaculture continue to be an important source of food,
nutrition, income and livelihood to millions of people. Fisheries sector in India has shown
impressive growth with an average annual growth rate of 10.88% during the year 2014-15 to
2018-19. The fish production in India has registered an average annual growth of 7.53% from
2014-15 to 2018-19 and stood at an all-time high of 137.58 lakh metric tons during 2018-19
(provisional). The export of marine products stood at 13.93 lakh metric tons and valued at Rs
46,589 crores (USD 6.73 billion) during 2018-19 with an impressive average annual growth
rate of about 10% in recent years.

The marine fisheries potential is estimated at 5.31 million tons as against present production of
4.17 million tons during 2018-19 (provisional) [harnessing nearly 78% of the estimated
potential] and its activities are spread along the country’s vast coastline with 2.02 million
square km Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and continental shelf area of 0.53 million sq.km.
Besides, India is also bestowed with varied inland fisheries potential resources in the form of
rivers and canals (1.95 lakh km), floodplain lakes (8.12 lakh hectares), ponds and tanks (24.1
lakh hectares), reservoirs (31.5 lakh hectares), brackish water (12.4 lakh hectares),
saline/alkaline affected areas (12 lakh hectares) etc., with current estimated fish production
potential 1 of about 17 million ton as against production of 9.58 million tons during 2018-19
(provisional) [harnessing only 56.3% of potential].

Fisheries and aquaculture are an important source of food production, nutritional security,
employment, and income in India. The fisheries sector is a direct source of livelihoods for more
than 20 million fishers and fish farmers; contributes INR 1.75 lakh crore annually to the gross
value added to India’s economy; and is a major export earner, with fish being one of the most
important agricultural commodities to be exported from India.

Indian Fisheries
3rd in Fisheries
Global position
2nd in Aquaculture
Contribution of Fisheries to GDP (%) 1.21
Contribution to Agril. GDP (%) 5.23
Per capita fish availability (Kg.) 9.0
Annual Export earnings (Rs. In Crore) 45,106.89
Employment in sector (million) 14.0

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 Resources
Coastline 8118 kms
Exclusive Economic Zone 2.02 million sq. km
Continental Shelf 0.530 million sq. km
Rivers and Canals 1,95,210 km
Reservoirs 3.150 million ha
Ponds and Tanks 2.414 million ha
Flood Plains lakes and derelict waters 0.798 million ha
Brackish waters 1.240 million ha
Estuaries 0.290 million ha

Some Facts
Present fish Production (Capture) 11 mmt
Inland 4.1 mmt
Marine 6 mmt
Potential fish production 8.4 mmt
Fish seed production 40,000 million
Hatcheries 1,604 units
FFDA 429
BFDA 39

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Commercially important Marine fishes and shell fishes:

Indian Mackerel Sea bass Tuna

Pomfrets Tiger prawn Mud Crab

Sardines Lobster Sword fish

Cuttle Fish Squid

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Commercially important fresh water fishes and shell fishes:

Catla Roop Chand

Rohu

Pangasius Tilapia
Litopenaeus Vannamei

(Brackish water)

Hilsa Silver Carp Grass Carp

Amur Common Carp Common Carp Mrigal Carp

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 3. BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FISH
3.1 MAJOR CONSTITUENTS
The four major constituents in the edible portion of fish are water, protein, lipids (fat or oil)
and ash (minerals).

1) Moisture

The proportion of water in the flesh accounts to about 70-80%. In Bombay duck (Harpodon
nehereus), a species found abundantly along the north-west coast of India, the muscle tissue
contains about 90% water. Water is present in two forms in the tissues, bound to the proteins
and in the free form.

2) Protein

Protein content in fish varies between 16-24%. Amino acids, which are linked by peptide
linkage, are the building blocks of protein. Proteins of fish muscle are classified into 3 groups
based on their solubility in salt solutions.

• Sarcoplasmic protein
The fractions soluble in salt solutions of low ionic strength (<0.15) are called
sarcoplasmic proteins. These include myogen, globulin etc. This fraction is constituted
mainly of enzymes and free amino acids of muscle metabolism and accounts for 25-
30% of the total proteins. Sarcoplasmic protein content is generally higher in pelagic
fish such sardines, mackerels and lower in demersal fishes.
• Myofibrillar protein
Protein fractions soluble in solutions of higher ionic strength (>0.5) are known as
myofibrillar proteins. Actin, myosin, actomyosin, tropomyosin, troponins etc. which
are the proteins which give muscle its power of contraction are included in this fraction
and they form about 65-70% of the muscle proteins. The myofibrillar proteins play
important part in determining the functional properties like gelling properties and water
holding capacity of fish meat and the rheological characteristics of the gel depend on
the properties of myofibrillar fraction in the muscle.
• Stroma protein
These are insoluble in neutral salt solutions or in dilute acids or alkalies. They account
for about 3% of total proteins in teleosts and 10% in elasmobranches. Connective
tissues of the muscle are made up of stroma proteins which contains mainly collagen
and elastin. The characteristic texture of fish muscle is due to the low content of stroma
proteins in it. Collagen, present in skin, bone and air bladder of fish is an e.g., for stroma
protein.

3) Lipid

Lipids are defined as the fraction of any biological material extractable by solvents of low
polarity. Lipid content in fishes vary from 0.5% - 20%. Lipids are of different types - fatty

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acids, glycerides, phosphoglycerides, sphingolipids, waxes and steroids. In the case of fish
tissues, the major components of lipids are triacylglycerides and phosphoglycerides, both
containing long chain fatty acids. Variations in the lipid content are much wider than that in
water or protein. The lipid content in fish show wide variations with species, season and sexual
maturity. In many species, lipids build up during the feeding season and decrease during
spawning.

There exists an inverse relationship between the water content and lipid content of fish. The
sum of the percentages of water and lipid approximates 80%. The summation, however, is not
necessarily constant and frequently spans a range of 78 to 85%.

Myristic, palmitic and stearic acids are the important saturated fatty acids (SAFA). palmitoleic
and oleic acids are the important mono unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) present in fish. Marine
fishes are good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) like arachidonic acid,
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) which has got very important
health beneficiary effects on humans.

4) Minerals

Fish and shellfish are rich in calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, iron, magnesium etc.
Micro nutrient minerals such as cobalt, copper, chromium, manganese, selenium, zinc, iodine
etc. are also present in fish. Marine fishes contain higher levels of iodine which is very
important in controlling goitre problems. Small fishes consumed along with bones form good
source of calcium and phosphorus.

3.2 MINOR CONSTITUENTS

Carbohydrates, vitamins, nucleotides, other non-protein nitrogenous compounds etc. are also
present in small quantities in fish muscle. They are the minor constituents in fish. Though
quantitatively minor components, these play vital roles in maintaining the system and thus are
essential for growth and development of the organisms.

1) Carbohydrates

The Carbohydrate content in fin fish is almost less than 1%. In some fatty fishes it accounts for
about 2%. In molluscs the carbohydrate content is high – 5%.

2) Vitamins

Fish is also a good source of vitamin D which is indispensable in calcium metabolism and most
useful for the effective utilization of calcium found in fish. Shark and cod livers are rich in
vitamin A and D. Vitamin E contain tocopherol which is having high bio-potency is also found
in fish and shellfish. Vitamin B12 and Niacin content are also available in required quantities
in fish.

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3) Nucleotides

Nucleotides in fish includes creatine, guanidine and imidazole derivatives, Adenosine

triphosphate and nucleotide degradation products like Adenosine diphosphate, Adenosine
monophosphate, Inosine monophosphate, Inosine and hypoxanthine.

4) Non-Protein Nitrogenous (NPN) compounds

The NPN compounds in common fishes comprise about 10% of the total nitrogen. In
crustaceans like prawns, lobsters and crabs, it is about 23%. In case of elasmobranchs like shark
urea percentage is more in the NPN fractions, amounting to about 39% of NPN.
Trimethylamine oxide is very much negligible in freshwater fishes when compared to that in
marine fishes.

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 4. POSTMORTEM CHANGES IN FISH
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Fish, as a food commodity, has been associated with man since time immemorial. It is
nutritionally rich, cheap source of animal protein. Moreover, the quality of processed fishery
products depends largely on the quality of the raw material which in turn depends on the post
mortem changes as no processing method can improve the quality of fish, it is imperative to
take utmost care to minimise the post mortem deteriorative process occurring in fish body.
4.2 POSTMORTEM CHANGES:
Fish has been a lucrative food item since ancient times. Beside its use as food, it has gained
additional importance in recent years because of its agricultural, industrial, medicinal and
ornamental uses. In most cases, its ultimate utilisation needs its “carcass” or the dead body. For
its utilisation, fish is harvested from its aquatic habitat, which leads to its death. After death
several changes takes place in its body. These changes are collectively called ‘post mortem
changes. They can be grouped into the following six steps mentioned in the order of the
occurrence after death.
1. HYPERAEMIA: In this step, the skin of fish releases large quantity of mucus to the
body surface.
2. RIGOR MORTIS: During rigor mortis the body of fish stiffens for a certain length of
time after death.
3. AUTOLYSIS: In autolysis the complex tissue components of fish body such as
protein, fats and nucleic acids are hydrolysed or broken down into their simple building
block, the enzymes present in the fish body. Proteins are hydrolysed to amino acid fats
to fatty acids and glycerol and nucleic acids to nucleotides as given below. Due to
hydrolysis of proteins, which are important structural component of fish tissue,
autolysis results in the softening of fish tissue. The end products of hydrolysis become
a nutrient rich medium for the growth of microbes.
Proteins Amino acids
Fats Fatty acids + glycerol
Nucleic acids Nucleotides
4. MICROBIAL PUTREFACTION: In this step, the tissue components of fish, intact
or hydrolysed through autolysis, are decomposed by microorganisms into off odour, off
flavour substances accumulation of which distracts the consumers and thereby results
in the spoilage of fish.
5. AUTO OXIDATION: In auto oxidation, the unsaturated lipids of fish tissue are
oxidised by the atmospheric oxygen at their points of unsaturation resulting in the
development of rancid flavour in the fish tissue.
6. DISCOLOURATION
7. BACTERIAL CHANGES: Bacterial flora on newly caught fish depends on the
environment in which it is caught rather than on the fish species.
Fish caught in very cold waters carry lower counts whereas
fish caught in warm waters have slightly higher counts.

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• Raw material: skin, gills, gut
• Contamination by environment, air, soil, water.

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 5. RIGOR MORTIS AND SPOILAGE IN FISH
5.1 RIGOR MORTIS IN FISH
5.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Rigor Mortis is a phenomenon where the fish, after death becomes stiff. The mechanism behind
this is muscle contraction due to storage of ATP. The rigor will get completed when almost all
muscle fibres are contracted which lasts a while before it is resolved. Rigor in fish usually starts
at the tail, and the muscles harden gradually along the body.
Rigor Mortis in fish
Pre- rigor mortis
In- rigor mortis
Post- rigor mortis
PRE- RIGOR MORTIS:
Live fish muscle is relaxed and elastic.
IN- RIGOR MORTIS:
Stiffening of fish muscle. Rigor in fish usually starts at the tail and the muscles harden gradually
along the body towards the head until the whole fish is quite stiff. It remains for an hour to 3
days, depending on number of factors.
POST- RIGOR MORTIS:
Relaxed and elastic but the freshness of fish starts deteriorating.
5.1.2 HOW LONG DOES A FISH STAY IN RIGOR MORTIS?
The time a fish takes to undergo, and pass-through rigor mortis depends on the following
factors:
➢ The Species
➢ Physical Condition
➢ The degree of exhaustion before death
➢ It’s Size
➢ Amount of handling during rigor mortis and the temperature at which it is kept
The fish that have struggled in the net for a long time before they are hauled aboard and gutted
will have much less reserve of energy than those that entered the net just before hauling, and
thus will go into rigor more quickly. Small fish usually go into rigor faster than large fish of
the same species. The temperature is the most important factor governing the time a fish takes
to go into and pass-through rigor because the temperature at which the fish is kept can be
controlled. The warmer the fish, the sooner it will go into rigor and pass-through rigor. For
example, gutted cod kept at 32 – 35°F may take about 60hrs to pass through rigor, whereas the
same fish kept at 87°F may take less than 2hrs.

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5.1.3 RIGOR AFFECTS HANDLING AND PROCESSING:
Rigor creates problems mainly for those sections of the industry concerned with freezing fish
at sea, either as whole fish or fillets and for those who handle very fresh shore fish at the port
for freezing very soon after landing.
These undesirable effects can be reduced or prevented by:
1. keeping the fish cool, particularly before it goes into rigor.
2. handling it carefully when in rigor; and
3. freezing fillets taken from pre-rigor fish as soon as they are cut.
Careful treatment of the fish before and during rigor will result in a higher quality frozen
product with a correspondingly better market value.

5.2 SPOILAGE OF FISH:

Spoilage of fish is a process is a process of deterioration in the quality of fish, which changes
its appearance, odour and taste. The breakdown of biomolecules like proteins, amino acids and
fats in the fish are the factors responsible for fish spoilage. Thus, a fish can be spoiled by either
chemical or biological degradation.
5.2.1 CHARACTERS OF SPOILING FISH
➢ Change in external characteristics as the fish spoilage progresses can be used to indicate
spoilage. The sequences of changes taking place as the spoilage proceeds are,
➢ Bright characteristic colour of fish fades, and fish becomes discoloured (appear dirty
yellow or brown).
➢ Increase in slime on skin especially on gills.
➢ Eyes gradually sink and shrink; pupil becomes cloudy and cornea turns opaque.
➢ Gills turn light pink and finally to pale yellow colour.
➢ Softening of the flesh and exude juice when squeezed and easily indented by pressing
with fingers.
➢ Flesh can be easily stripped from along the backbone / vertebral column.
➢ Release of odorous substances- the normal, fresh, sea weedy odour will change to sickly
sweet, stale fishy odour due to TMA and other malodorous substances. Fatty fishes also
show rancid odour.

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5.2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SPOILAGE
The kind and rate of spoilage of fish is affected by several factors.
1. Kind of fish
Fishes differ considerably in perishability. Some flat fishes spoil more
readily than round fish because they pass through rigor mortis more rapidly. Certain
fatty fishes (oil sardine) deteriorate rapidly because of oxidation of unsaturated fat/oil.
Fish’s high in trimethyl amine oxide (TMAO) spoil quickly and produce stale fishy
smell by producing TMA.
2. Conditions of the fish when caught
Fishes that are exhausted due to struggle while capture (Ex: gill netting,
long lining), lack of oxygen and excessive handling spoil rapidly. This is because of
exhaustion of glycogen during struggling and causing smaller drop in pH. Feed fish
(fishes with full of food in stomach) are more easily perishable than those with empty
intestine.
3. Kind and extent of contamination of fish
Contamination of fish with bacteria from various sources (mud, water,
handlers, contact surfaces, slime etc.) increase bacterial load. Bacterial from slime, gill
and intestine invade the flesh and cause spoilage. In general, greater the load of bacteria
of fish the more rapid the spoilage. In ungutted fish (whole fish) decay of food in the
gut may release odorous substances enabling diffusion of decomposition products into
the flesh. Gutting the fish on boat spreads intestinal and surface slime bacteria to flesh.
But thorough cleaning will remove most bacteria, and adequate chilling will inhibit
bacterial growth. Any damage to fish skin or mucous membrane will reduce the keeping
quality of the product.
4. Temperature
Warmer the temperature faster will be the bacterial growth and quicker will
be the spoilage. Reducing the temperature of fish by chilling will delay bacterial
growth, hence, spoilage slows. Cooling temperature around 0oC helps to delay spoilage.
5. Use of preservatives
Use of preservatives including antibiotics will prevent bacterial build up
thus extend shelf life of fish.

5.2.3 TYPES OF FISH SPOILAGE:

AUTOLYSIS:
It refers to enzymatic degradation that results in the cell damage of fish and release of an
autolytic enzyme, which degrades the cell components like proteins, fats etc. and thereby
change the flavour of fish. The changes in the flavour of fish can be due to the conversion of
ATP to hypoxanthine and the decomposition of fish.

• Conversion of ATP to hypoxanthine: This conversion adds a bitter taste, and we can
estimate the degree of freshness by knowing the hypoxanthine content.

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 • Decomposition of fish: It leads to belly bursting of the fish, and the action of digestive
enzymes in the fish gut is the cause of fish spoilage.

Autolysis can change the appearance and odour of the fish by two ways:

1. Cause black spot formation: Autolysis can cause black spot formation in some
shrimps by showing some enzymatic action on the amino acids. The black spot
occurs due to the formation of melanin pigment, which results in poor appearance.

2. Cause foul smell: Autolysis can produce a foul smell by the proteinase enzyme
degradation of muscle proteins into amino acids and other compounds like
ammonia, carbon dioxide, amines, fatty acids etc. Thus, the production of secondary
metabolites produces indole, skatole, etc., results in the release of a foul smell from
a fish.

BACTERIAL SPOILAGE:
A fish acquires a load of bacteria in the gills and on the surface. When a fish dies, the bacteria
already present in the fish attack the flesh and result in the formation of undesirable products.
The microbial growth in fish depends on the type of water from where it caught. The bacteria
cause fish spoilage by the following means:

1. Reducing TMAO to TMA: Reduction of trimethylamine oxide into trimethylamine

produces an offensive odour.
2. Degradation of amino acid to primary amines: It can cause food poisoning.
Example:
• Histidine – Histamine
• Glutamic-acid – Arginine
3. Degradation of urea to ammonia: It also produces an offensive odour.

CHEMICAL SPOILAGE

High temperature favours chemical spoilage. Oxidative rancidity is a common cause of

chemical degradation.

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Proteins split into amino acids, amines, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide by the action of
proteolytic microorganisms. Carbohydrates split into acids, alcohols and gases by the action of
fermentative microorganisms. Fats degrade split into fatty acids and glycerol by the action of
lipolytic microorganisms.

5.2.4 ASSESSMENT OF FISH SPOILAGE

We can access the quality of fish by the three consecutive methods:

PHYSICAL METHOD

Torrymeter is a device placed vertically, and it provides a digital reading of the fish quality,
whether it is aged or fresh. From the digital readings or values of the torrymeter, we can
estimate the fish freshness. A low value indicates the presence of more bacterial mass. 10 is
the highest value for the freshly caught fish, and below 3 is the value of spoiled fish. The value
of 6 on the torrymeter is acceptable by the consumer.

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SUBJECTIVE METHOD

It is a sensory method assessed by the sensory organs, which represent the customer view.

ORGANOLEPTIC TEST

It includes the quality assessment of fish by the sense of sight, smell, touch etc. We can check
the quality of fish by using our sense of sight to examine the fish’s eyes, gills, and skin surface.

• The eyes should be clear and vibrant. Any discolouration around the eyes and
cloudiness in the eyes indicates that the fish is not fresh.
• The gills should be red pink in colour.
• The skin should be shiny, not slimy.
• The skin or the surface of fish should be clear, and there must not be any
discolouration.
We can also check the quality of the fish by using our sense of touch to examine the flesh and
scales of the fish:
• The flesh should be tight, elastic, but not slimy.
• The scales should be intact with the skin.
We can also check the quality of the fish by using our sense of smell:
• The smell of fish should be neutral and fresh.
• There should not be a fishy, sour or ammonia-like smell.

BIOCHEMICAL METHOD

It includes the following methods:

1. Proximate testing: It is a prevalent method in which the fish components like moisture,
protein, lipid etc., are regularly checked from the time of fish harvesting. This method
does not give a satisfactory assessment and thereby not accepted widely.
2. Hypoxanthine value: After the death of fish, ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) splits into
ADP, AMP, IMP and finally into hypoxanthine. The value of hypoxanthine increases
during the storage of fish. Hypoxanthine value gives an estimate for the freshness of
fish. A fish is spoiled if a hypoxanthine value reaches 7-8 micromoles/g.
3. Trimethylamine (TMA) value: Fish contains a considerable amount of
trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), but on fish spoilage, TMAO reduces into TMA. The
value of TMA with a level of 1.5 mg / 100 g indicates that the fish is moderately spoilt.
4. Ammonia production: The production of ammonia indicates the extent of spoilage.
5. Peroxidase value: It helps in the measurement of oxygen rancidity. Peroxidase value
less than 10 (indicates the good quality of fish) and a value more than 20 (indicates
rancidity).

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 6. Thiobarbituric acid value (TBA): It also helps us to determine the oxygen rancidity.
TBA value less than 2, is accepted by the consumer.

BIOLOGICAL METHOD

It includes the total plate count method (TPC). The biological method involves a quality
assessment of fish by the bacterial cell count. First, you need to grind the fish and then dilute
the sample by following serial dilution. Prepare media for the growth of microorganisms
present in the fish, where we can use both ordinary and selective media.

We can use agar media to enumerate the microbial mass in marine fish and tryptone glucose
beef extract agar media to calculate the cell count in processed fish. Other than this, selective
media like SS-agar can be used for the detection of coliform bacteria (E. coli, Shigella sp, etc.)
in the fish. After media preparation, perform the pouring method and incubate the plates for 24
hours at 35-37 degrees Celsius.

Count the number of bacteria per plate by multiplying with the dilution factor. Thus, the total
plate count method gives a count for the bacterial (pathogenic and non-pathogenic) population
present in the fish. Hence, the total plate count method does not determine the edibility of the
fish.

5.2.5 BACTERIA CAUSING SPOILAGE

At Chilling temperature – Pseudomonas, Achromobacter, Flavobacterium

At Ordinary atmospheric temperature – Escherichia, Proteus, Serratia, Sarcina & Clostridium

At Higher temperature – Micrococcus & Bacillus

5.2.6 PREVENTION/REDUCTION OF SPOILAGE.

The spoilage of fish is caused by enzymatic, bacterial and chemical action. The activity of
organism can be controlled, reduced or even retarded by proper handling and immediate
lowering of the temperature. The chilling of the fish immediately after catch and holding the
fish at 0oC by proper icing will reduce the spoilage. In case of shrimps, removing head
immediately after catch will reduce the rate of spoilage. In the case of big fishes, beheading
and eviscerating will reduce the enzymatic actions which cause spoilage.

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 6. PERSONAL HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN SEAFOOD
INDUSTRY

6.1 PERSONAL HYGIENE

Everyone's body can be a source of a lot of bacteria. People are very dirty in the bacterial sense,
even when they look clean and tidy. The best thing would be to get rid of all the bacteria. Since
we can't, we just have to do the next best thing.
➢ Reduce the numbers as much as possible.
➢ Avoid spreading them around.
➢ Thoroughly clean your knives, equipment and working surfaces, which can stand harsh
treatment:
➢ Avoid outside contamination from other sources.
➢ Proper hand washing at all times.

6.2 Hand Washing

• The answer to dirty hands is, of course to wash them well and often, as a routine. Extra
hand washings are also needed in the following cases:
• Before handling food.
• Between food handling operations (to prevent different foods from contaminating each
other through you).
• After using the lavatory and before leaving the washroom.
• After smoking, coughing, sneezing or using a handkerchief.
• Washing hands does not mean a quick rinse and a wipe on the overalls.
It means using:
o Soap
o Hot water
o Nail brush
o Drying in a hygienic manner, using disposable paper towels or hot air
▪ It is also important to avoid instant recontamination from doors, or clothes or other
surfaces such as fridge or chiller door handles.
▪ Bactericidal soaps/creams also can be used.
▪ Take a bath or shower each day.
▪ Hair should be shampooed every other day at least.

6.3 Good health and good practice

Cuts, grazes, sores and boils: All cuts, grazes, sores and boils to be completely
covered by clean brightly coloured waterproof dressings.
Smoking: Smoking involves frequent hand to mouth contact, so the hand is always
contaminated with mouth bacteria including Staphylococcus.

Page | 18
 Coughing, sneezing, nose blowing, spitting: These all need to be avoided where food
is being handled, because saliva and mucus can contain millions of poisoning bacteria
ready to contaminate your food. Use of handkerchief or clean paper tissue is essential
and hands must be immediately washed again.
Clothing: Hygienic dress for food handlers starts with clean underclothes every day.
Top. Clothing should be adequately covered by protective clothing. The reasons for this
are to protect your own clothing from splashes and to prevent contamination of food
from contact with your everyday clothing. It is very important that outdoor clothing,
especially shoes, are kept outside food rooms. It also important that food handling
clothes are not worn outside during tea and lunch breaks etc. unless you change into
clean clothes before starting work again. Protective overalls should be changed at least
every day and more often if they become obviously soiled. Plastic or rubber aprons and
wellingtons should be scrubbed at least daily with hot water and disinfectant.
Head covering: Hair should be enclosed in suitable headgear. This stops debris from
head getting on food and it also stops contaminating hands from hair.
General health: Sick people are likely to carry a lot more bacteria than usual. They
can often be the ones that cause food poisoning. So, those who have diarrhoea,
vomiting, septic cuts, boils, discharge from eye, ear or nose or have a bad cold should
not handle food.

6.4 Washing schedule for fish handling and processing equipment’s, processing halls
1. Rub the surface with brush so as to remove all solid organic matter,
2 Apply suitable detergent (like teepol-0.5% soln.) to remove slime followed by washing with
fresh water or clean sea water. A thorough washing is necessary. Apply suitable disinfectant
containing 200-1000 ppm of available chlorine for 15 to 20 min. contact time.
6.4.1 Preparation of Chlorinated water:
The chlorinated water for sanitization can be prepared by using the following formula:
C = A/(10)(p)
Were, C = gm or m! of chlorine compound required to be added to one litre of water (ignoring
chlorine)
A = required ppm of chlorinated water
P = percentage of available chlorine in the compound

Page | 19
 7. FISH PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY
7.1 SALTING:
Salting is a traditional method of fish processing in many countries of the world.
It can be used in combination with drying or smoking. In Salting Method, the fish removes
water and lowers the water activity (water available for the support of microbial growth which
causes the spoilage).
Concentration of (6-10 per cent) salt in the tissues will prevent the action of
most spoilage bacteria. Salting is performed either by dry, brine, or injection salting or a
combination of these methods.
There are two basic methods of preserving food with salt:
• Dry salting
• Wet salting (Brining).
Salt at appropriate concentrations inhibits the growth of bacteria and also aids the dehydration
process. Salting is often done before other preservation or preparation methods such as
smoking, although it can also be done simply to add flavour.

7.1.1 DRY SALTING:

Dry salting is used to draw the moisture out
of food, which helps to reduce the growth of
unwanted bacteria.

Equipment required:
Glass, enamel, glazed ceramic or stainless steel (never aluminium) container
DRY SALTING PROCESS:
1. Place prepared seafood in a single layer in a container. Sprinkle generously with salt.
Turnover and salt the other side. Another layer can be placed on top and the salting
process repeated. Use about a quarter of the seafood weight in salt.
2. Cover, and leave in a cool place (20°C or less) for the required time. In hot weather it
is preferable to store in the chiller.
3. Rinse under cold running water.
4. Dry with disposable paper towels.
5. After salting, finfish can be served "as is"—for example as in gravalax- or dried or
smoked to further preserve it.

Page | 20
7.1.2 WET SALTING:
Brining is a wet cure equivalent of dry salting.
The brine, a flavoured solution of salt or
sometimes sugar, both draws out moisture and
permeates the seafood. The salt and sugar also
inhibit bacterial growth.
WET SALTING PROCESS:
1. Mix brine. A strong brine is made by dissolving about 270 g of salt in a litre of water;
a weak brine requires about 120 g of salt.
2. Submerge the seafood in the brine for the required time (a strong brine will require a
shorter time than a weak brine), in a cool place (20°C or less). In hot weather it is
preferable to store in the chiller.
3. Wash well under cold water.
4. Dry with disposable paper towels.

Page | 21
FLOWCHART:
Fish (Croaker,
Fish (Croaker, Shark,
Shark, Ray,
Ray, Lizardfish
Lizardfish Etc.,)
Etc.,)

Washing
Washing

Weighing
Weighing

Dressing
Dressing(removal
(removalofofgills,
gills,gut
gutbybysplitting
splittingdorsally
dorsallyfrom
fromhead
headtototail-
tail-butterfly
butterflysplitting)
splitting)

WashinginInChilled
Washing ChilledWater
Water(+5 ℃)
(+5℃)

Draining
Draining

Salting (salt (salt

Salting to fish ratio-
to fish 1:4)1:4)
ratio- AndAnd
Arranging Layer
Arranging Wise-
Layer ForFor
Wise- Minimum 2 Days
Minimum (for
2 Days small
(for
fish only dipping for 10smallmins fish
is required)
only dipping for 10 mins is required)

Removal
RemovalofofExcess
ExcessSalt
Saltby
byWashing
WashingininRunning
RunningWater
Water

Soaking In 10%
Soaking Brine
In 10% Containing
Brine 0.2%
Containing Calcium
0.2% Propionate
Calcium & 0.2%
Propionate Citric
& 0.2% Acid
Citric (if (if
Acid fatty fish)
fatty
For 10 Min fish) For 10 Min

Draining

Drying in the Sunlight- The Split Side of the Fish to Downwards and then Reverse

Weighing

Packing in Polythene Bags Showing Weight, Lot N0., Date, Rate Etc.,

Sealing

Storing

Page | 22
7.2 DRYING
Drying is the process of removal of water from fish. Normally the term drying implies the
removal of water by evaporation, but water can also be removed by other methods like the
action of salt. Since water is essential for the activity of all living organisms its removal will
slow down or stop the microbiological or autolytic activity and can thus be used as a method
of preservation. Where drying has evolved as a traditional method of preserving fish, the action
of the sun and wind is used to effect evaporative drying. In recent times, the controlled artificial
dehydration of fish has been developed so that fish drying can be carried out regardless of
weather conditions
There are basically three methods of drying fish.
• Sun Drying
• Solar Tent Drying
• Mechanical Drying

7.2.1 SUN DRYING

This is the simplest method of drying fish. The fishes dried in this way are small, lean ones,
which are available in plenty during the gut season. They are usually spread out on the seashore
as whole with little pre-processing. Sometimes they are given a washing in the seawater.
Drying takes place usually by the removal of moisture from the surface and later from the
interior of the fish. Depending on the relative humidity, temperature, air velocity, the removal
moisture takes place continuously.
Factors affecting the rate of drying are:
1. Size of the material- larger fish takes a longer time to dry whereas smaller ones lesser
2. Surface area- large surface area will increase the rate of drying.
3. Temperature- the higher the temperature the faster will be the rate of drying
4. Relative humidity- the lower the RH the faster will be the drying
5. Air velocity- the greater the speed of the air, the faster the drying
6. Fat Content- fatty fishes will take a longer time to dry than lean fishes
7. Water content- the higher the water content the faster is the drying
The advisable method for drying fish is drying them on rack. Here the fish is dried on a raised
platform above the ground. This can be made by tying old webbing to poles made of locally
available materials like casuarinas, bamboo etc. which are fixed at regular intervals. Here the
main advantages are that there is a circulation of air from both top and bottom. There is no
contamination of the product, hence a quality product is assured.

Page | 23
7.2.2 SOLAR TENT DRYING
This is a method by which the sun’s heat is converged and utilized for drying. Converging of
solar heat can be affected by using a black surface which absorbs heat far more effectively than
a light coloured one. Solar tent driers and cabinet driers work on this principle.

7.2.3 MECHANICAL DRIERS

In mechanical driers the removal of water from fish requires an external input of thermal
energy. This is brought about by burning fuel. This is an expensive method since there is need
for fuel for heating and maintenance of the temperature. The drying chamber consists of a long
tunnel in which the product is placed on trays or racks. A blast of hot air is passed over the
material to be dried. After the required degree of drying the product is removed from drier and
packed.

Page | 24
7.3 SMOKING
Smoking is one of the oldest methods of fish preservation developed in prehistoric period. In
recent times smoking is used as a method of preservation with the incorporation of smoke
flavour and development of colour. Smoking is a method of preservation effected by the
combination of drying, deposition of naturally produced chemicals resulting from thermal
breakdown of wood and salting. All these three factors help in preservation of fish. Smoked
fish is ready to eat and has great demand in
western sophisticated markets. Smoking is also
used as an intermediately step in the
preservation of canned smoked fish. Here
before canning, fish is smoked to impart
smoky flavour. Smoke is a good preservative
since it contains bactericidal and antioxidant
properties. Around 2% of the total world catch
is used for preparing smoked fish all over the
world. In India, "masmin" is prepared in
Lakshadweep group of islands.
7.3.1 Different types of smoking
1. HOT SMOKING:
In this type, the temperature should be maintained above 30°C and the normal
range is 70-80°C. In hot smoking fish is completely cooked and consumer can take it without
further cooking.

Page | 25
2. COLD SMOKING:
In cold smoking temperature should be maintained below 30°C. Here meat will
not be cooked, and it is used to impart flavour in the meat. So, it has to be cooked before
consumption. This method is followed in temperate countries as temperature in these countries
is very low.

• Antioxidant properties of smoke: Smoke also has antioxidant properties and it is

mainly due to the presence of three important chemicals namely 2,6-dimethoxyphenol,
2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylphenol and 2,6-dimethoxy-4-ethylphenol.
• Carcinogenic compound: Smoke has carcinogenic property due to the presence of 3,4-
benzopyrene. It is a polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon and its formula is C 2OH10.
Depending on the method of smoking the amount of carcinogenic compound in smoke
varies. To prevent the carcinogenic compound, electrostatic precipitation is used
through which smoke can pass. The electrostatic precipitation can absorb the
carcinogenic compound and we can get pure smoke.
• Importance of relative humidity in smoking: Smoked vapours are usually absorbed
quickly by moist surface than dry surface. Moist surface can absorb 20 times more than
the dry surface. So before smoking we should see that there is a relative humidity of
60% and it is optimum for absorption of smoke.
• Colour formation in smoked fish: The colour of the smoked fish is due to the
deposition and subsequent oxidation of phenol. In recent times fish curers use dyers for
colouring of smoked fish in a uniform way. Colours are not permitted in some countries
like UK, whereas in countries like USA it is permitted. From vegetable source colours
may also be used in smoked fish to enhance the appearance of the product.

Page | 26
SMOKING PROCESS
WASHING

DRESSING

WASHING

SALTING (Brine Solution)

RINSING (Draining)

BINDING

DRYING
\

COOKING

SMOKING

QUICK COOLING

GRADING

PACKING

7.4 CHILLING
It is the most common practices in keeping the freshness of fish. Chilling means the reduction
of temperature to some point below (-2 to- 4℃ for super chilling) or above (between 0 to 5°C)
the freezing point of water in the fish muscles. Chilling does not stop spoilage but slows it
down considerably.
7.4.1 METHODS OF CHILLING
WET ICE (ICING)
Icing is by far the most common and useful way of chilling the fish catch. Cooling is affected
by the direct contact between the melted ice and the fish. When ice is placed in close contact
with the fish, heat transferred from the warm fish to the ice resulting to the melting of ice; in
turn the fish is cooled down by the melted ice.

Page | 27
The following considerations must be taken when icing the fish:
1. Sufficient ice must be used to maintain fish temperature at 0℃. For longer trips more ice
than fish is needed, more than the usual 1:1 (ice: fish) ratio.
2. The arrangement of ice and fish must be in such a way that accumulated water, blood and
slimes can be drained easily.
3. Ice and fish should be placed alternately to avoid localized heating. Fish must be sufficiently
surrounded with ice on sides, top and bottom.
4. When packing mixed fish, big fish must be placed at the bottom and small fish on top. Fish
with delicate skin should be packed on top of fish with scales.
5. Gutted fish must be filled up with ice in the belly cavity and must be arranged with belly
down in a slanting position inside the container.

CHILLED SEAWATER (CSW) OR ICE SLURRY

This is also termed as "slush ice" which is a mixture of seawater and crushed ice used for the
chilling of fish catch.

2. GEL ICE MAT

Gel ice made by freezing a water-based gel. The advantage of gel ice is that all water is bound
with no chance of water leakage during thawing. Gel mat chilling is suitable for air transport
of fish.

Page | 28
7.4.3 OTHER TYPES OF ICE
Following types of ice are generally used in icing of fish:
BLOCK ICE:
Block ice is the most common type of ice used to ice fish
outside the processing plant in Bangladesh. Traditional
ice plant makes the ice in cans which are submersed in
tanks containing circulating sodium or calcium chloride
brine. The dimension of the can and the temperature of
the brine are usually selected to give a freezing period of
between 8 and 24 hours. The block weight can vary from
12 to 150kg depending on the requirement. A common
size produced in Bangladesh is 2.5 x 1.5 x 1 feet
weighing 70-80 kg. Due to inadequate freezing, the ice
blocks often remain hollow inside.
FLAKE ICE:
This type of ice plant makes a very thin ice, 2 to 3mm thick on the surface of a cylinder or
drum and the ice is harvested as dry sub-cooled flakes usually 100 to 1000mm in area. Normal
freezing temperature in a flake ice machine is –20 to –25℃. Low temperature is necessary to
produce a sub-cooled ice quickly This type of flake ice is mainly produced and utilized in the
fish/shrimp processing plants.

TUBE ICE:
Tube ice is formed on the inner surface of vertical
tubes and is produced in the form of small hollow
cylinders of about 50 x 50mm with a wall
thickness of 10 to 12 mm. As ice drops from the
tube a cutter chops the ice into suitable lengths,
normally 50 mm. The usual operating temperature
of this type of plant is –8 to –10℃.
PLATE ICE:
Plate ice is formed on one face of a vertical plate and released by running water on the other
face to defrost it. Optimum ice thickness is 10 to 15mm and particle size is variable. Besides,
there are many other types of ice used in fish preservation, like shell-ice, chip-ice, soft-ice.

Page | 29
7.5 FREEZING:
Freezing preserves the storage life of foods by making them more inert and slowing down the
detrimental reactions that promote food spoilage and limit quality shelf life. Freezing is one of
the most important processing and preservation methods for fish. The main freezing methods
used are blast freezing, plate freezing, immersion or spray freezing.
Advantages of freezing include:
1. Flesh is changed very little and there is minimal loss of quality
2. Fish can be stored for many months - for times when catches are scarce
3. Large quantities of fish can be stored (assuming the cold storage capacity is available)
4. Good quality fish can be transported under refrigerated conditions over long distances (e.g.,
export to areas where fresh fish are unavailable; fish caught in remote waters can be consumed
at home)
Disadvantages of freezing include:
1. Quality changes can occur if fish is not stored properly
2. Can be expensive due to the power or fuel needed to operate the freezer
3. Customers often have less regard for frozen fish
4. Until it has thawed, it may be difficult to identify whether the fish has been abused
7.5.1 FREEZING RATE:
There are three stages in freezing fish. During stage I - the temperature of fish falls fairly rapidly
to just below 0°C. During stage II - the temperature remains fairly constant at about -1°C to -
5°C and the bulk of the water in the fish freezes. This stage is known as the thermal arrest
period. During the stage III- the temperature again drops very fast. To produce a good frozen
product, fish should pass through the thermal arrest period as quickly as possible.
Freezing rate is determined in terms of the thickness of fish frozen in a unit time.

TYPES OF FREEZING FREEZING RATE

Slow freezing 2 mm / hour

Quick freezing 5-30 mm / hour

Rapid freezing 50-100 mm/hour

Page | 30
7.5.2 AIR BLAST FREEZING
Circulating cold air at high speed enables freezing to proceed at a moderately rapid rate and
this method is referred to as air-blast freezing. Air-blast freezing is usually accomplished by
placing the products on a mesh belt and passing it slowly through an insulated tunnel containing
air at-18 to -34°C or lower, moving counter current to the product at a speed of 1 to 20
meter/sec. Air at -29°C and at a speed of 10-12 meter/sec, is often satisfactory, although lower
temperatures are preferred. Air blast freezing is economical and is capable of accommodating
products of different sizes and shapes. It can result in
(1) excessive dehydration of unpackaged products if conditions are not carefully controlled,
and this in turn necessitates frequent defrosting of equipment and
(2) undesirable bulging of packaged products which are not confined between flat rigid plates
during freezing

7.5.3 CONTACT PLATE FREEZING

Fish products can be frozen by placing them in contact with a metal surface cooled by
expanding refrigerants. Double contact plate freezers are commonly used for freezing
fish/prawn blocks. This equipment consists of a stack of horizontal cold plates with intervening
spaces to accommodate single layers of packaged product. The filled unit appears like a multi
layered sandwich containing cold plates and products in alternating layers. When closed, the
plates make firm contact with the two major surfaces of the packages, thereby facilitating heat
transfer and assuring that the major surfaces of the packages do not bulge during freezing.
Vertical plate freezers are also in use especially onboard fishing vessels. Contact plate freezing
is an economical method that minimizes problems of product dehydration, defrosting of
equipment and package bulging.

Page | 31
7.5.4 INDIVIDUALLY QUICK-FROZEN PRODUCTS (IQF)
Lobster, squid, cuttlefish, different varieties of finfish etc. are processed in the individually
quick-frozen style. IQF products fetch better price than conventional block frozen products.
However, for the production of IQF products raw materials of very high quality need to be
used, as also the processing has to be carried out under strict hygienic conditions. The products
have to be packed in attractive moisture-proof containers and stored at –30°C or below without
fluctuation in storage temperature. Thermoform moulded trays have become accepted
containers for IQF products in western countries. Utmost care is needed during the
transportation of IQF products, as rise in temperature may cause surface melting of the
individual pieces causing them to stick together forming lumps. Desiccation leading to weight
loss and surface dehydration is other serious problem met with during storage of IQF products.
Some of the IQF products in demand are prawn in different forms such as whole, peeled and
de-veined, cooked, headless shell-on, butterfly fan tail and round tail-on, whole cooked lobster,
lobster tails, lobster meat, cuttlefish fillets, squid tubes, squid rings, boiled clam meat and
skinless and boneless fillets of white lean fish. IQF products can be easily marketed as
consumer packs, which is not possible with block frozen products. This is a distinct advantage
in marketing.

7.5.5 SPRAY OR IMMERSION FREEZERS

In these freezers, the product comes in direct contact with the refrigerant. These are liquid
nitrogen freezer, carbon dioxide freezer and immersion freezer where 85% saturated NaCl
solution is used. They are generally more expensive to operate than plate and air blast freezers

Page | 32
7.5.6 GLAZING
This is the process by which frozen fish are coated with a film of ice by spraying with water or
by brushing or dipping in water. Glazing prevents both freezer burn and oxidation. As long as
the water glaze is maintained, loss of water from flesh will not occur during storage.

7.5.7 Changes in fish during freezing

The physical changes which occur during freezing & storage of frozen products comprise
crystallization of ice with expansion of the volume, and desiccation starting from the surface
of the frozen fish.
7.5.8 FROZEN STORAGE
Immediately after freezing and glazing the product is wrapped. The frozen product should be
immediately transferred to cold store
Changes in fish during frozen storage:
If fish are properly frozen within a few hours of catching, glazed and subsequently stored
properly at 30 degrees * C bacteria will remain dormant but slow autolytic changes and
oxidation still take place Proteins are denatured very slowly even at low storage temperature
Water drip occurs after thawing and the flesh becomes spongy.

7.6 PICKLING:
Preserving Seafood with acid, usually vinegar (acetic acid) or citrus juices (citric acid) is one
of the earliest food preservation techniques known. Pickling is an easy method of preserving
fish. Pickled fish must be stored in the refrigerator at no higher than 400F (refrigerator
temperature), and for best flavour must be used within four to six weeks. Few species of fish
are preserved commercially by pickling, but almost any type of fish may be pickled at home.
Refrigerate the fish during all stages of the pickling process
Pickling is the preservation or flavouring of food (cooked or
raw) by immersing it into an acidic solution, which may also
be salted or flavoured. The essential ingredient of a pickling
liquid is vinegar, often accompanied by salt. The pickling
liquid can also be flavoured with sugar, spices or citrus juices,
or even have a tomato or curry base.

Page | 33
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Sterile glass jars or other containers (never aluminium, iron or copper), preferably with non-
rusting, airtight lids
PROCESS:

Prepare the pickling liquid. A large variety of pickling liquids can be used for both cooked and
raw seafood. A base pickling liquid might include:

• ½ cup of vinegar;

• ¼ cup of white wine;

• juice of one lemon;

• one tablespoon of sugar;

• herbs and spices for added flavour.

Place cooked or raw seafood in the jar or container and cover with the pickling liquid. The
liquid can be hot or cold, depending on the recipe. Cover and store in the chiller for the required
time.

PICKLING TIME: The time required will depend on the quantity of seafood, and the intensity
of the desired flavour.

PICKLING TIP: Mussels should be steamed and opened before pickling, and abalone,
cuttlefish, squid and octopus should be tenderised and par-boiled before pickling.

7.7 CANNING:

Canning is relatively modern process, which enable food to be preserved in an edible condition
under a wide range of storage condition for long period (from a few months to several years).
There are three different stages to the process:
• Hermetically sealing the food in a container
• Heat 'sterilizing' the sealed unit and
• Cooling it to ambient temperature for subsequent storage.

Page | 34
 ❖ Although the fish canning industry is more developed in the industrialized countries of
the northern hemisphere, a number of tropical countries produce a variety of canned
fish product.
❖ Mexico and Brazil, for example, produce large
quantities of canned fish, a large proportion of which
is sold on the local market.
❖ Morocco is reported as the largest producer of canned
sardines in the world and Thailand is now a producer
of large quantities of canned tuna.
❖ Tuna is also canned in countries such as the Solomon
Island and Fiji
Canning industry should be considered only if the following are available -
▪ A regular supply of large quantities of suitable fish (and other materials e.g., salt, oil,
etc.) at a reasonable price.
▪ An adequate supply of cans at an economic price.
▪ Adequate manpower.
▪ Suitable infrastructure (energy, water, transport etc.)
▪ A market for the finished product.
7.7.1 DEFINITION OF CANNING
▪ Canning may be defined as packaging of food in a hermetically sealed container and
obtaining commercial sterility through the use of heat processing.
▪ Commercial sterility may be defined as the degree of sterility necessary to destroy all
harmful bacteria without changes in food quality.
▪ Canning is long-term preservation method storage range from 2-10 years with
maintaining more or less same quality.

7.7.2 PRINCIPLES OF CANNING:

▪ To obtain commercial sterility
▪ To preserve the fish in a hermetically sealed container by subjecting to require heat
processing.
▪ Maintenance of bacteriological principles.
▪ Maintenance of anaerobic condition within the can

7.7.3 CAN/CONTAINER
Container used for canning is one of the most important components in the
canning process. It should provide barrier to air gases, moisture etc., and also prevent the entry
of microorganisms, insects. So, it should be made of sufficiently sturdy and rigid material and
be able to close airtight should withstand high pressure and temperature variations.
Several materials are used for car manufacture
1) TINPLATE
A coating of tin is given over the iron/steel base plate Lacquer layers are coated to
prevent the main material from corrosion. Based on function 2 types of lacquer are given Acid

Page | 35
Resistant (AR) and Sulphur Resistant (SR) lacquers. SR lacquers are used when sea foods are
processed.
2) ALUMINIUM
Widely used can building material owing to its light weight and corrosion
resistance. Used in manufacture of convenience cans. They have impact resistance and cannot
be soldered. it can be drawn and redrawn easily.
3) GLASS
They are very inert and transparent material, but very brittle and cannot tolerate
much temperature and pressure shocks and hence very less used in fish processing.
7.7.4 STEPS OF FISH CANNING:
1. Selection of raw materials
2. Treatment before canning
• Nobbing
• Washing and de-scaling
• Brining
3. Packing/ filling the can
4. Exhausting
5. Closing the can
6. Washing
7. Heat processing/ retorting
8. Cooling.
9. Labeling and boxing

1. SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS:

Mature, pre-spawning fish and medium fatty fish are better for canning. Eventually fish with
the following characteristics are used for canning-
- Excess bone
- Taste less
- High fishy odour
- Fish with hard and farm muscle
- Available E.g., Sardine, Hilsa, Salmon,
Herring etc.,
2. TREATMENT BEFORE CANNING:
• Nobbing: In the case of larger fish, such as
herring and pilchard, the head and gut are
removed, but not the roe or milt. This process
of removing head and gut in one operation is
called nobbing.
• Washing and de-scaling: The next operation
is de scaling; remove fins, viscera from the raw
materials and washing. Nobbing releases blood

Page | 36
 that must be removed because it causes brown staining in the processed fish. Washing
also removes surface slime and dirty materials from fish.
• Brining: The fish are immersed in a concentrated solution of common salt for a
predetermined length of time. Salt is absorbed by the flesh and imparts a desired flavour
to the finished products in which a salt content of about 2 % is acceptable.

3. PACKING/ FILLING THE CAN

• The above treated fishes are filled in the can
either by manually or mechanically usually a
small top space is left which is also called head
space and generally filled with inert gas.
• The fishes are arranged inside the can as compact
as possible. Necessary additives (Salt, Tomato
sauce, Starch, Sugar etc.,) may be used to
develop characteristics flavour and improve
keeping quality.

4. EXHAUSTING
Exhausting is done by the application of
heat. By this the gas inside the headspace
and between two fish pieces will be
removed and a partial vacuum will be
formed.
Exhausting is done to prevent-
• Bulging of can
• Oxidation of the food
• Inside erosion of the tin plate.
•
5. CLOSING THE CAN
• All fish cans prepared in this country are closed by the double-seaming method and the
operation is usually called seaming.
• A seal must be achieved that will prevent passage of contaminating material, carried
either in air or water, into the can after it has been sterilized.
• Proper care and maintenance of seaming is vital and its performance should be checked
at frequent intervals throughout the working day.

Page | 37
6. WASHING
Washing of can is done by the hot water spray to remove adhering materials.
7. HEAT PROCESSING
• It is the most important step during the whole canning procedure.
• It is done for predetermined time at the respective temperature.
• To fulfill the canning objectives 32 minutes are required at 110° C or 2.5 min is required
at 121⁰ C.
• The temperature of the can is determined a recorder which is called thermo couple.
• Heat processing is done in a special instrument called retort and so the process is called
retorting.

8. COOLING
Cooling is done as quickly as possible after retorting. Otherwise, off flavour may produce
because considerable changes may take place during heat processing
9. LABELING AND BOXING
• After cooling, cans of large fish such as herring and pilchards are stored for a period of
weeks before labeling.
• Cans of small fish are usually labeled directly, since thest are not so susceptible to
damage.
• Ingenious machines are available for labeling Dingley cans, and are capable of fixing
the lid label, placing a key on this, and wrapping the whole in a greaseproof wrapper.
• Larger cans may have the top label pasted on by hand, the side label by machine
• Many canners label by hand, making use of female labour during off-season period.
• In recent years, the introduction of decorated lids has cut down the use of paper labels.

7.7.5 Classification of the food based on pH:

The microbial spoilage of food depends upon the pH of food therefore based on pH canned
food can be divided as
1. Low-acid canned food (pH > 5.2) includes meat products, milk, dairy products, and
seafood.
2. Acid canned food (pH 4.5-3.7) includes tomatoes, pears, figs, oranges, apricots,
pineapples, etc.,
3. High acid canned food (pH < 3.7) includes pickled products, fermented products,
ketchup, jams, jellies, etc.,

Page | 38
 FLOW CHART OF CANNING:
Small fish

Washing with chilled water (+2⁰ C)

Dressing

Gutting and Gilling Quick freezing at -40⁰ C Glazing

Bleeding Thawing Store at 40⁰ C

Brining

Packing

Pre – Cooking

Draining

Filling the liquid media

Filling the Liquid

Exhausting
Media(at 100⁰ C for 15- 20 min)

Seaming
Filling the Liquid
Media
Can Washing

Sterilization

Cooling (to room temperature)

Wiping & Labelling

Storage
Wiping & Labelling
Page | 39
 FLOW CHART OF CANNING:
Large fish

Washing with chilled water (+2⁰ C)

Dressing

Gutting and Gilling Quick freezing at -40⁰ C Glazing

Bleeding Thawing Store at 40⁰ C

Pre - Cooking

Cleaning

Filling the
Packing
Liquid Media

Salting and Filling the Liquid media

Exhausting (At 100⁰ C for 15-20 min)

Seaming

Can Washing

Sterilization

Cooling (To room temperature)

Wiping & Labeling

Storage

Wiping
& Page | 40
Labellin
g
7.7.6 SPOILAGE IN CANNED FOODS
For any reason, if the food packed inside the can is not acceptable for human consumption such
a can is considered as a spoiled can. When the food inside is spoiled, gases are generated which
exert pressure on the can ends and the can bulge. If the can ends are convex or bulged, it can
be generally assumed that the cans are spoiled.
SPOILED CANS
These are classified into 3 categories:
1: flipper
2: springer
3: swell
1: Flipper: A can which may be normal in appearance, but if one end is struck on a box or
table, the other end becomes convex, though the convexity may be pressed down again. A
flipper is the initial stage of a swell but may also be caused by overfilling or lack of vacuum.
2: Springer: A can having convex or bulging ends, which may be pressed flat again with the
fingers, but will spring out again after pressure is released.
3: Swell: A can with badly bulged ends resisting pressure with the fingers or if the ends are
pressed down, they spring back immediately on the release of pressure.
7.7.7 PROBLEMS (SPOILAGES) IN CANNED FISH PRODUCTS
1. Sulphide blackening
2. Curd or adhesion
3. Blue discolouration
4. Honey combing
5. Struvite formation
6. Retort burn
1. Sulphide blackening or iron sulphide blackening
It is most commonly observed in canned
shrimp, lobster, crab etc. Though the cans are coated with sulphur
resistant lacquer, any imperfection in the lacquer coating during
its manufacture or subsequent reforming or any scratches during
handling expose the tin layer and trimethyl amine (TMA) present
in marine products dissolve tin layer exposing iron. Sulphur
containing components of marine products chemically react with
iron to form black iron-sulphide causing black discolouration on
the inner can surface. This reaction is more under alkaline
condition and when less fresh or spoilt materials are used.
Uniform lacquering of can, its careful handling and use of parchment paper
while packing can minimise this problem.

Page | 41
2. Curd or adhesion
Curd is nothing but salt soluble coagulated or precipitated protein and often
found at the top of canned Salmon or Mackerel. This problem is more in fish canned in natural
style or without precooking. The curd may adhere to can surface and the lacquer may get peeled
off when the curd is removed. The reasons for curd formation are use of less fresh fish,
inadequate brining and precooking. This can be prevented by cold blanching of fish (brining)
in 10- 15% brine for 20-30 minutes and subsequent washing.
3. Blue discolouration
This is associated with canned crab meat. Meat from parts of the body
having poor blood circulation than the legs/claw shows high degree of blueing. The
haemocyanin in the crab haemolymphs react with Sulphur compounds especially during heal
processing to produce blue Copper Sulphide. This in evident when copper in meat is more than
2mg/100g. The problem can be minimised by thorough bleeding of crab while dressing so that
the “Cu” level is reduced to less than 2mg%. Other methods of minimising this problem are
use of chelating agent in brine, maintenance of proper acidity in the can.
4. Honey combing
It occurs is canned tuna processed from stale raw material. Meat in the can
resembles a honeycomb. Use fresh raw material and slow thawing of frozen tuna without rough
handling can minimise this problem.
5. Struvite formation
Some canned marine products such as brine packed shrimp, crab or tuna shows
the presence of some glass like crystals. These crystals at made up of Magnesium ammonium
phosphate hexahydrate (Mg NH4 PO4.6H20). These crystals form when the pH of meat is
more than 6.8.
Struvite is a harmless, colourless, odourless transparent chemical. However,
large crystals appear as if they are broken glass pieces which are disliked by consumers.
However, it the product is cooled rapidly, small crystals are formed, and they go un-noticed.
The formation of these crystals may be prevented by the addition of chelating agent such as
sodium hexametaphosphate or EDTA.
Use of hard water, stale raw material and presence of magnesium in salt used in
canning are responsible for the formation of these crystals.
6. Retort burn
It is usually associated with canned shell tin like clam mussels or oysters. This
is due to insufficient filling medium to cover the meat completely.

Page | 42
 8. SEA FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
8.3.1 WHAT IS FISH PROCESSING:
Fish processing involves preparing fish and sea food for delivery to consumers. Once fish is
harvested, it must undergo several setups before it is ready to be sold in the market. The process
includes gutting, filleting and packaging of the product. As we known that fish is highly
perishable food, so it must be carefully handled from the moment it caught until it’s packed.
Proper, careful, efficient processing and packaging prevents deterioration and unsure a quality
product.
HOW ARE FISH PROCESSED?
Processing of fish is done according to the consumer’s needs. But generally, we follow the
following steps during processing
1. Sorting fish by size and species
2. Removing heads [may remove or sometimes we may not remove]
3. Removing tails, scales and entrails
4. Removing fins
5. Washing thoroughly

SORTING AND GRADING:

Sorting fresh fish to classify species and check for
damage and freshness. Grading is done on the size
wise.

SCALING:
This step may be done manually to remove scales of
fishes. This step is the most essential because scales
are highly contaminated with microorganisms.

DEHEADING:
Head of the fish is removed either manually or by
using machines. Deheading in large fishes are
done by using slicing machines, which have
blades.
GUTTING:
The gut is removed completely to reduce the inner
microorganisms. It is done by cutting down the belly of the
fish and removing the organs. A vacuum section tool maybe
used to remove the entrails.

Page | 43
 FIN REMOVAL:
Fins are removed manually by using knives.

SLICING:
Slicing the fish into steaks using slicing machines

FILLETING AND SKINNING:

Whole fish is taken, and meat is separated from bone,
gut and then skin is removed from the red meat.

8.3.4 PROCESSING OF FISH:

WHOLE FISH PROCESSING:
This process is generally done for small fishes

Receiving Washing Weighing Freezing

Storage Labelling Cartoning Packing Weighing

❖ Air blast freezer is used, for big fish – 8 hours holding time
for small fish – 6 hours holding time at - 40 °C
❖ Storage at - 20 °C
DRESSED FISH:
This process is done for big fishes

Receiving Washing Weighing Deheading

Trimming Gutting Gilling Scaling

Washing Freezing Packing Cartoning

Storage Labelling

Page | 44
 ➢ This process is done same as semi – dressed fish but in semi – dressed fish we don’t
remove head and in dressed fish we remove head.

SEMI – DRESSED FISH:

This process is generally done medium and large sized fish

Receiving

Washing

Weighing

Scaling
[Removing scales]

Gilling

Gutting

Trimming
[Removing fin and tail]

Washing
[Wash with chill water]

Freezing

Packing

Cartoning

Labelling

Storage

Page | 45
8.3.5 QUALITY AND SAFETY FOR FISH PROCESSING:
Spoilage is the main term which comes during the processing and storage. So, we need to take
a good and effective care.
1. Temperature control:
Reducing temperature to 32°F slows down decomposition. Raw
fish must be chilled in ice immediately after harvesting and be kept cool during the trip
to the processing plant as well as throughout processing and distribution. Freezing is
required to extend shelf life for a long time.

2. Moisture control:
Reducing the water activity should be less than 0.946(aw) by either
drying, salting and smoking.

3. Oxygen control:
Fish may be vacuum sealed by using Modified Atmospheric Packaging
(MAP) where we use nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide gas and oxygen gas in different
ratios.
• For fatty fishes and smoked fishes – only nitrogen gas (40%) and carbon dioxide
gas (60%) are used.
• For white fishes and shell fishes – nitrogen gas (30%), carbon dioxide (40%)
and oxygen gas (30%) are used

4. Microbial growth control:

During processing itself we need to control maximum
microbial load and proper packaging technique will reduce microorganisms.

8.4 PROCESSING OF SHRIMP:

Receiving raw material Washing Weighing Grading Deheading

Freezing Soaking Washing Deveining Peeling

Glazing Glaze hardening Weighing Packaging Cartoning

• Grading – separation size wise Storage Labeling

• Deheading – removing head
• Peeling – removing shells
• Deveining – removing gut
• Washing – wash with chill water
• Soaking – raw material will be soaked in water, sodium phosphate, salt, ice for
30 - 45mins
• Freezing – Individual quick freezing (IQF), plate freezing
• Glazing – sprinkling chill water (2 °C) to avoid dehydration
• Storage – store at -20 °C in cold storage

Page | 46
PROCESSING OF TUNA FISH

SHRIMP PEELING

Page | 47
 9. SEAFOOD PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY
9.1 Modified atmosphere packaging:
Modified atmosphere packing, MAP, means replacing the air in a pack of fish with a different
mixture of gases, typically some combination of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen.
Modified atmosphere packing is often incorrectly called controlled atmosphere packing, CAP.
Controlled atmosphere packing means packing in an atmosphere whose composition is
continuously controlled throughout storage; such control is possible in large storage units, but
not in small packs.
• good visual display, low water vapour transmission, high gas barrier.
• Mechanical strength to with stand machine handling and subsequent storage.
• PVC (poly vinyl chloride)
• PET (polyethylene terephthalate)
• PP (polypropylene)
• PE (polyethylene)
• Tray with and impermeable film.

9.2 Vacuum packaging:

Vacuum packaging involves the removal of air from the package, followed by the application
of hermetic seal. Vacuum packaging can supplement to ice storage or refrigeration to delay
spoilage, extend the shelf life, a high quality, assure the safety and reduce the economic loss of
fish and fishery products. It offers an excellent protection against rancidity and also decreases
the growth of aerobic spoilage
microorganisms. Vacuum packaging has lot
of characteristics such as it provides enough
strength to prevent the damage while package
handling, it also acts as oxygen and water
vapor barrier, oil and chemical resistant.
Application of vacuum in packaging helps to
reduce the total psychrophilic microflora.
Vacuum packaging of wholesale fresh fish
meat is increasingly being practiced, it
reduces shrink loss, protect meat color and
delays microbial spoilage.
As far as the fish-processing industry is concerned vacuum packaging is one of the possible
approaches to raise profitability.
9.3 Controlled Atmosphere packaging:
Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) is a system whose objective is to extend the shelf life
by altering the gaseous environment in and around the food product. It is specifically used for
perishable foods like fish.
CAP can also be termed as 'Gas Flushing'. This is because a mixture of different gases is flushed
or inserted in the package while replacing the air which extends the shelf life.

Page | 48
CAP requires the use of strict control of quality and storage temperatures in order to ensure the
safety and quality of food products. Lack in proper control can lead to detrimental effects on
the quality of food. These changes are influences by a number of factors like growing
conditions, conditions of harvest or slaughter, sanitation and damage to tissues, temperature of
cool storage, conditions while packaging the commodity, and other variables.

9.4 Retorted pouches:

Retorting is a method of preserving food by heating it in hermetically sealed containers like
cans, glass jars, semi-rigid thermoformed containers and retortable pouches. These products
have a shelf life of more than a year when held at ambient temperatures during storage.
The retort pouch generally consists of an outer layer of polyester or nylon for printability and
toughness/protection, a middle aluminum-foil layer that functions as the principal oxygen and
water vapor barrier, and an inner or food-contact layer of a heat-sealant material such as
polypropylene.

9.5 Canning:
Canning is a long-trusted practice and tradition within the seafood industry. Crab, salmon, tuna,
clams, herring, sardines, and many other types of seafood are canned after being processed
with canning, a metal can (most often made of tin) is sealed with a metal top and then heated
to prevent air inside of the can. This process results in the preservation of the food inside the
can.

Page | 49
You can store commercially canned seafood, such as tuna fish, for up to five years after the
product has been canned and shipped.

9.6 Flexible Pouches:

Flexible pouches (also known as stand-up pouches) are single use or resealable bags. flexible
pouches are most commonly made out of foils, various plastic formulations, and sometimes
paper.
Flexible pouches are often used in the packaging of frozen sea foods such as shrimp, lobster,
mussels, scallops etc....
Flexible pouches are trendy today. This is mainly because many of them are resealable,
environmentally friendly, and less expensive than many of the other most popular packaging
materials.

Page | 50
PACKAGING OF FISH CUTLETS AND PRAWN PICKLE

PACKAGING
OF TUNA
STEAKS

Page | 51
 10. VALUE ADDITION OF SEAFOOD PRODUCTS
Value addition is defined as “any additional activity that in one way or the other change the
nature of a product thus adding to its value at the time of sale”. Value addition is gaining more
importance in our present days of changed lifestyles and eating habits. In a developing nation
like India a sound part of our population depend on the fish for their existence.

A brief description of some of the Value-added products (VAPs) are:

Dressed fish: Whole fish is cleaned, beheaded and gutted. It is dressed, frozen and packed in
polythene bags. This is a ready-to-cook product. Salt, chilli powder, and turmeric powder can
also be added, and this dressed fish with spices yield more economic value to the product.

Fish fillets: Fish fillets can be prepared with skins and without skin. Fish fillets have great
demand both in domestic and foreign market. Fillet can be used for preparing coated products.
They are usually chilled or frozen stored.

Stretched shrimp: The length of peeled and deveined shrimp is increased by the use of simple
mechanical devices and it reduces its curling nature. It enhances the appearance and increases
the surface area of the product. This can be utilized for making coated products.

Barbecue: It is a shrimp product. Pierce a bamboo stick from the head portion to the tail of the
peeled and deveined shrimp. It is then packed in thermoformed trays under vacuum and frozen
at -40°C.

Sushi (cooked butterfly shrimp): Shrimp is peeled and deveined. Bamboo stick is then
pierced between the shell and the meat from head portion to tail and then cooked in 1% brine
for 2 minutes at 100 °C. The cooked shrimp is then cooled in chilled water, bamboo stick is
removed and then peeled completely, including the tail fans. The ventral side is then gently cut
down length wise completely. The cut surface is then gently opened to form the butterfly shape.
It is then packed in thermoformed trays under vacuum and frozen at -40°C.

Skewers: Skewers are prepared from a single type of raw material or mixing of two or three
types of raw materials. Shrimp skewers can be prepared from peeled and deveined (PD) shrimp.
PD shrimp is washed in chlorinated chilled water and pierce a bamboo stick from the head
portion of shrimp to the tail. Four or five prawns are arranged serially like this in a stick for
shrimp skewer. Baby cuttle fish whole cleaned, and squid tentacle can be arranged between the
shrimp and a new product can be formed.

Fish mince and surimi-based products: Fish mince can be prepared by the separation of the
meat by removing the skin, bones, scales etc. It is the base material for preparation of several
products like surimi, fish cutlet etc. Surimi is a Japanese term for mechanically deboned fish
flesh that has been washed with water and mixed with cryoprotectants for imparting good
frozen shelf life. Washing not only removes fat and undesirable matters such as blood,

Page | 52
pigments and odoriferous substances but also increases the concentration of myofibrillar
protein, the content of which improves the gel strength and elasticity of the product. This
property can be made use in developing a variety of fabricated products like shellfish
analogues.

Fiberized products: This is a product made of surimi. it is gaining demand in export market.
The ingredients are surimi, salt, starch, egg white, shellfish flavour, flavour enhancers and
water. All the ingredients are thoroughly mixed and are ground to a paste. The paste is extruded
in sheet form on the conveyor belt and it is heat treated. By using a strip cutter, the cooked
sheet is cut into strings and is passed through a rope corner. The final product is formed by
steam cooking of the coloured and shaped material.

Fish/Prawn pickle: Low value fishes like mackerel, perches, sciaenids etc. are ideal raw
material for the preparation of fish pickles.

Ingredients (for 1 kg Fish meat/prawn meat)

Salt - 40g

Vegetable oil - 200g

Garlic - 100g

Green chilli - 100g

Ginger - 100g

Curry leaves - 10g

Broken mustard - 20g

Chilli powder - 50g

Turmeric powder - 20g

Pepper powder - 5g

Fenugreek - 10g

Vinegar - 20 ml

Procedure

Separate the fish meat of size 1-2 cm3 and mix with turmeric powder and salt and keep for 1-2
hours. It is then fried in vegetable oil. In the remaining oil the ground spices (by grinding of
green chilli, ginger, curry leaves and garlic) are fried. When it is in semi fried condition add
the chilli powder and broken mustard. Once it is fried it is mixed with vinegar and heated.

Page | 53
When it boils add the fried fish and boil for 10 minutes. Cool to room temperature or allow to
cure for 1-2 days and pack in pouches or glass bottles and store at room temperature.

Product – 1.8-2.0 kg fish/prawn pickle

Fish/Prawn cutlet:

Ingredients (for 1 kg cooked & mashed fish meat/prawn meat)

Salt - 30g

Potato - 1-1.5kg

Onion - 500g

Green chilli - 50g

Ginger - 50g

Curry leaves - 20g

Coriander leaves - 20g

Chilli powder - 20g

Turmeric powder - 20g

Pepper powder - 5g

Masala - 10g

Vegetable oil - 150g

Egg - 2 no’s

Wheat flour - 100g

Bread powder - 200g

Procedure

Dress the fish and cook in water for 5-10 minutes. Cool to room temperature and separate the
meat manually. In the case of prawn peel and cook the meat and mash it. Potato is cooked,
peeled and mashed. Green chilli, ginger, onion, curry leaves etc. are chopped and fried in oil.
When this frying is almost over, add chilli powder, turmeric, masala and chopped coriander
leaves. Blend cooked meat with mashed potato, fried spice and mould this blended mixture in
the wooden/metallic mould of required size.

Page | 54
Egg is mixed with water and Maida to form batter in which the moulded cutlet is dipped, and
bread powder is sprinkled. This battered and breaded cutlet are quick frozen, packed in
polythene bags and stored at -20oC.

Product – 40g Fish cutlet – 50 to 60 nos’

Fish finger/coated prawn:

Ingredients (for 1 kg fish/prawn)

Egg - 6 no’s

Salt - 10g

Garlic - 10g

Ginger - 20g

Small onion - 25g

Chilli powder - 25g

Pepper powder - 10g

Lemon - 3 no’s

Wheat flour - 50-75g

Bread powder - 200g

Procedure

Fish cutting:

Dress the fish and remove the skin, separated meat cut of a size of 5*1*1 cm.

Marination:

Marinate the fish pieces with salt and lime juice and keep for 1 hour.

Batter preparation:

Cleaned garlic, ginger and small onion are grind first to get a paste and to this paste add chilli
powder, pepper powder, wheat flour and salt and mix well to get a batter. After 1 hour, dip the
fish pieces in this batter and bread powder is sprinkled. The battered and breaded fish finger is
quick frozen at -40 oC and packs in polythene bags and store at -18 oC.

Page | 55
Fish wafer

Ingredients

White pepper powder- 25gm

Boiled Fish minced meat- 1 kg

Salt- 25gms

Corn flour Atta- 500gm

Procedure:

Take 1 kg of picked fish meat or minced meat and go for boiling or flash for minced
meat for few minutes. Take 2gm of salt, 2gm of white powder, 20gm of boiled / fried minced
meat, and 50gm of corn flour Atta and add 500ml of water in mix jar and mix it properly. We
should do for many times. This entire mixture was cook to get light gel in condition. Finally
spread boiled mixture on polythene sheet and dry it for 2 days at room temperature in good
hygienic condition.

VALUE ADDED SEA FOOD ITEMS

FISH CUTLETS

PRAWN PICKLE

Page | 56
 LIST OF VALUE-ADDED SEAFOOD ITEMS

A. Shrimp Products B. Cephalopods Products

1. Breaded and Battered Shrimp 1. Double Skinned Cuttlefish IQF Sashimi

2. IQF Marinated Shrimp Grade
3. Skewered Shrimp 2. IQF Cooked/ Blanched squid Cuttlefish
4. Stretched Shrimp (Nobashi) fillets Sashimi grade
5. AFD Shrimp, AFD Powder 3. Cuttlefish strips blanched
6. Blanched/ Cooked Shrimp 4. Squid strips blanched
7. IQF Head-On/ Headless 5. Cuttlefish Pine Cut/ Diamond Cut
/Butterfly cooked/ blanched 6. Stuffed Squid IQF Tray Pack
shrimp 7. Squid Tube Tray Pack
8. IQF Peeled Tail-on cooked 8. Squid Ring Blanched IQF
shrimp 9. IQF Tray Pack Squid
9. Cooked salad shrimp 10. Cuttlefish Skewers
10. Cooked and peeled shrimp 11. Vacuum Skin Packed Squid & Cuttle Fish
11. Sushi Products in trays
12. Shrimp Pickle 12. Marinated Squid
13. IQF Tray pack shrimp 13. Battered and breaded Cephalopod products
14. Shrimp Curry. 14. AFD Cuttlefish/Squid.

C. Finfish products D. Other items

1. Fish pickles 1. Pasteurized crab meat

2. Fish curry Frozen Fish Fillets 2. Stuffed crab (crab balls/ saicie)
3. Fish Loins/ Fish Steaks 3. Seafood and vegetable mix
4. Breaded fish fingers 4. Mixed seafood skewers
5. Breaded fish fillets 5. Seafood mix in tray pack
6. Tray pack fish 6. Surimi Analogue products
7. Pre-cooked Loins 7. Patties/nuggets
8. Fish powder 8. Mussels/Clam meat pickle
9. Fish soup 9. Crab cakes
10. Breaded crab cakes
11. Raw crab meat
12. Paddle crab in trays
13. Half cut cooked lobster
14. IQF/Tray packed peeled lobster meat
15. Seafood sausage
16. Frozen seafood curry and rice
17. Frozen seafood curry with parotta
18. Blanched/cooked lobster tail
19. Seafood in brine/ oil/ sauce
20. Fried bivalves/ fish/ shrimp

Page | 57
 11. SEAFOOD MICROBIOLOGY
Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, either unicellular, multicellular, or
acellular. Microbiology includes the disciplines virology, mycology, parasitology,
bacteriology, and so on. Bacteriology is a subdivision of microbiology and it is the study of
bacteria. Bacteriology involves the identification, classification and characterization of
bacterial species.

Bacteria are single-celled organisms, and clearing agents of the nature and found in almost
each and every type of environment like in soil, in dust, in natural waters like ponds, rivers,
lakes and in oceans. Even in the deserts and hot springs and in the cold mountains also bacteria
are existing. They are the oldest living organisms on earth. They are so small that they cannot
be seen with the naked eye and have to be seen through a microscope. There are thousands of
species of bacteria found in the world. We can classify these species into groups, depending
upon a number of factors, like their shape, mode of nutrition uptake, oxygen consumption and
Gram staining, etc.

It is interesting to note that while some kind of bacteria generally we call these are pathogens
like Salmonella can be the cause of diseases and can harm humans and animals, there are some
known for their benefits, often described as ‘friendly bacteria’ like Lactobacillus. There are
some types of bacteria, which can attack the plants and lead to diseases like leaf spot and fire
blight. On the opposite side, some bacteria help in the production of the food that we eat and
also aid the digestion of food. Some friendly bacteria also keep the soils fertile like Nitrobacter.
In the following lines, we have provided a list of the different types of bacteria (microbes)
found in the world.

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek is considered to be the ‘father of microbiology’ he found out small
animalcules. After him Louis Pasteur played a significant role in the development of
microbiology with his experiments. Next was the golden age of microbiology through the
formulation of Koch’s postulates by Robert Koch. Microbiology is dealing with bacteria, fungi,
algae, protozoa and viruses. Among these five agents’ bacteria are considered prokaryotes.
Fungi, algae and protozoa are coming under the group of eukaryotes. Virus are Acellular and
not considered as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Next, we can see what are the difference
between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell.

Page | 58
 Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

No nuclear membrane or nucleoli is True nucleus is consisting of

present nuclear membrane & nucleoli
Membrane-enclosed organelles are absent Membrane-enclosed
organelles are present;
examples include lysosomes,
Golgi complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria &
chloroplasts
Flagella Consist of two protein building Flagella is Complex; consist
blocks of multiple microtubules
Glycocalyx is Present as a capsule or slime Glycocalyx is Present in some
layer cells that lack a cell wall
Cell wall is Usually present; chemically Cell wall is chemically simple
complex (typical bacterial cell wall includes
peptidoglycan)
Plasma membrane generally lacks sterols Plasma membrane contains
and carbohydrates Sterols and carbohydrates

Cytoplasm lacks cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton is present

Ribosomes are Small in size Ribosomes are larger size

smaller size in organelles.
Single circular chromosome that lacks Multiple linear chromosomes
histones with histones
Binary fission is present Mitosis is present

sexual reproduction is by conjugation Sexual reproduction Involves

meiosis

11.1.1 Different Types of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified into different group through the arrangement of organism into related
groups.

1.Classification on the Basis of Shapes

Bacteria are usually classified on the basis of their shapes. Broadly, they can be divided into:

Page | 59
a. Rod-shaped bacteria (Bacilli) E.g., Bacillus tuberculae, E. coli and Salmonella

rods

single pairs chain

b. Sphere-shaped bacteria (Cocci): They are again subdivided into

a) Monococcus bacteria which are seen scattered

b) Diplococcus bacteria which are seen in double E.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae.
c) Streptococcus which are seen in chains E.g., Streptococcus pyogenes.
d) Tetracoccus which are seen in cluster E.g., Sarcina
e) Staphylococcus when numerous organisms form a cluster E.g., Staphylococcus aureus.
c. Spiral-shaped bacteria (Spirilla) E.g., Treponema and Borellia

d. Comma shaped bacteria E.g., Vibrio

They are curved rods.

e. Irregular shaped / pleiomorphic bacteria E.g., Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

These bacteria are having no specific shapes.

11.1.2 Based on Presence of Flagellae

Based on the presence or absence of flagella which are used for motility of bacteria they can be
divided into different group. They are

1. Bacteria having no flagella - which are called Atrichous bacteria. E.g., Shigella
2. Bacteria having flagella. They are again subdivided into the following groups.
• Monotrichous Bacteria – These bacteria are with only one flagellum in the body.
E.g., V cholerae.
• Amphitrichous Bacteria - These bacteria are with one flagellum on either side of the
body
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 • Polytrichous Bacteria - These bacteria are with multiple flagellae at different
locations E.g., Thermocrinis rubber
• Lopotrichous Bacteria - These bacteria are with flagellae only at one location on the
body
• Peritrichous Bacteria - These bacteria are with flagellae all over the body E.g., E
coli.
11.1.3 Classification on the Basis of Gram Strain
Bacteria are classified into 'Gram positive' and 'Gram negative' bacteria, based on the results
of Gram staining method. Gram-positive bacteria having a thick layer of peptidoglycans and
this layer is stained purple by the action of crystal violet during gram staining. Gram-negative
bacteria having a thin layer of peptidoglycan and cannot retain the crystal violet dye and thus
appeared to be red or pink due to the retention of counter stain during the staining. There are
a few bacteria which do not respond to it. Hence forms two other groups of bacteria which are
Gram-variable type of bacteria which shows irregular staining for ex: Propionibacterium acnes.
Difference between Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria

Gram-positive Gram-negative
Retain crystal violet dye and stain dark stain red during the staining by
violet or purple during gram staining decolourization through accepting the
counterstain
Thick multilayered peptidoglycan layer is Thin single – layered peptidoglycan layer
present. is present.
Teichoic acids are Present Teichoic acids are Absent

Periplasmic space is Absent Periplasmic space is Present

Outer membrane is Absent Pre-Outer membrane is present
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) content is absent High Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) content is
present
Lipid and lipoprotein content are low Lipid and lipoprotein content is high
2 rings in basal body of flagella 4 rings in basal body of flagella
Producing exotoxins Producing endotoxins

Highly resistant to drying and anionic Low resistant to drying and anionic
detergents. detergents.

Ex: Bacillus thuringensis, Clostridium V cholerae, Shigella, E coli

botulinum.

11.1.5 Classification on the Basis of Oxygen Requirement

This classification is based on the requirement of oxygen for the survival of the bacterium.

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1. Aerobic bacteria
These group of bacteria need Oxygen for the growth and reproduction. some
bacteria are obligate aerobic bacteria. They can survive only in the presence of oxygen
E.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa

2. Anaerobic bacteria

These group of bacteria do not need Oxygen for the growth and survival. They are of two
types

a. Facultative anaerobic bacteria

They are surviving both in presence and absence of oxygen E.g., Staphylococcus aureus

b. Obligative anaerobic bacteria

They are dying in presence of oxygen. E.g., Clostridium, Fusiform but

Spores of C tetani can survive in presence of oxygen but the cell growth occurs only in absence
of oxygen.

11.1.6 Classification on the Basis of temperature requirement

Temperature is one of the main factors which affect the growth and reproduction of bacteria.
Each bacterium has its own optimum temperature at which the growth and reproduction is
maximum. Majority of the bacteria are growing at an optimum temperature of 37oC. Based on
the temperature requirement bacteria can be classified into the following types.

1. Psychrophilic bacteria: These organisms (psychrophiles) prefer cold temperatures of

about 0°C to 20°C; optimum temperature between 0 to 10oC. This group of bacteria are not
a significance as far as we are concerned since most of them are of marine origin and cannot
survive at ordinary climatic conditions. e.g., Flavobacterium psychrophilum.

2. Mesophilic bacteria: These organisms (mesophiles) prefer temperatures at 20°C to

40°C, optimum temperature is 37°C, most of the microorganisms which interfere in our
day-to-day life. E coli, Salmonella.

3. Thermophilic bacteria: These organisms (thermophiles) prefer temperatures higher

than 40°C is of this group. Optimum temperature is 55 °C. Most of the organisms coming
under this group are spore formers, and the spores are highly heat resistant.
E.g., Desulfotomaculum geothermicum, Thermocrinis rubber.

11.1.7 Factors Affecting Microbial Growth

There are many factors which are essential for the bacterial growth they are

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 1. Water – it is the most important factor for bacterial growth. Bacteria need water to
dissolve the food they use for energy and growth. Water allows the food to get into
the cells, is used for the many chemical reactions necessary for life and growth, and
allows waste products to escape. Water loses its availability by the addition of
solutes like salt, sugar etc. in the medium.
2. Nutrients -- All bacteria require energy to live and grow. Energy sources such as sugars,
starch, protein, fats and other compounds provide the nutrients. Bacteria receive its
nutrients from the medium.
3. Oxygen -- Some bacteria require oxygen to grow (aerobes) while others can grow only
in the absence of oxygen (anaerobes). However, many bacteria grow under either
condition and they are facultative anaerobes.
4. Temperature – Each group of bacteria has got its own optimum temperature for the
normal activities like growth, reproduction etc to the maximum extend. Bacteria cannot
withstand a very high temperature. But they show somewhat strong resistant to lower
temperature.
5. pH -- pH is a measure of acid or alkali in a product. It is indicated on a scale from 0 to
14, with seven being neutral. If the pH value is below 7, the food is classified as acid;
if it is above 7, the food is classified as alkaline. Most bacteria grow well at neutral pH,
but many can reproduce in a pH range from 4.5 - 10.0. Bacteria prefer a medium with
neutral slightly alkaline pH 7.0 -7.2

11.1.8 Bacterial growth curve

11.1.9 Bacterial spore

Bacterial spores are defined as bacteria that have the ability to survive in hostile or harsh
environments because of the thick outer wall. However, they are not conducive to bacterial
reproduction, development and growth.
E.g., Clostridium botulinum.

11.1.10 TOXINS

Pathogenic bacteria are characterized by the production of substance causing disease or illness
as a result of their presence inside the body tissues, these poisonous substances are called
toxins. Toxins are generally classified into two types.

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Exotoxins

Toxins of this class are extracellular i.e., they diffuse freely into the medium in which bacteria
are growing, exotoxins are active in small amounts stimulate the formation of antitoxin type of
antibodies which neutralizes exotoxin and makes its harmless, toxins of this class are less heat
stable and usually inactivated at 60°C, typical exotoxins are those produced by the botulism,
tetanus and diphtheria organisms.

Endotoxins

Endotoxins are part of the outer membrane of the cell wall of a Gram-negative bacteria. The
toxin is kept within the bacterial cell and to be released only after destruction of the bacterial
cell wall. It is more resistant to heating and low specificity.

E.g., Vibrio cholerae, Shigella and E coli.

11.1.11 MPN Estimation for coliforms in water and food

Total coliform is a group of bacteria which are aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram-
negative, non-spore-foaming, rod shaped bacteria which ferment lactose with gas formation
within 48 hours at 35°C. They include Escherichia coli, E. aurescens, E. freundii, E. intermedia;
Aerobacter, Aerogenes. This can be used as an indicator organism. Its presence in the food
indicates the presence of disease-causing organisms. Faecal coliforms are a part of total
coliform group which are of faecal origin. Presence of this organisms in the food indicate the
poor hygienic handling of the product.

In practice, to differentiate between the faecal coliform and the rest of the total coliform group,
temperature higher than 35°C are used during incubation. Faecal coliform has the ability to
ferment carbohydrates at 44.5°C within 24 hours while the rest of the total coliform group will
not.

For the detection of the coliforms in water MPN Method is followed in our laboratory. Serial
dilution tests measure the concentration of a target microbe in a sample with an estimate called
the most probable number. In water coliforms are present in very small concentration and in
this respect, we cannot use normal plating method. In MPN method a large volume of water
can be used for inoculation. It is a statistical approximation method and not provide the actual
number of bacteria. Only viable organisms are enumerated by the MPN determination. For the
estimation the bacteria are distributed randomly within the sample. The bacteria are separate,
not clustered together, and they do not repel each other. Every tube whose inoculum contains
even one viable organism will produce detectable growth or change. The individual tubes of
the sample are independent.

There are five tube method of MPN estimation and three tube method of MPN estimation are
used in detecting total coliforms, faecal coliforms and E coli in food and water. Here we are
demonstrating the 5tube MPN estimation method.
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 Flow chart for the MPN Estimation for Coliforms in water

Prepare 5 tubes of 10 ml Prepare 5 tubes of 10 Prepare 5 tubes of 10

volume of Double ml volume of Single ml volume of Double
strength MacConkey / strength MacConkey / strength MacConkey
broth – (A) broth – (B) broth – (C)

/ Add 10 ml inoculum /
Add 10 ml inoculum Add 0.1ml inoculum
into A into B into C

incubate for 24hrs at 37 o C

Positive tubes show the colour change towards yellow with gas
production. Compare the results with standard MPN table

For the confirmation of Total Coliforms

inoculate from the positive tubes from above to
BGLB 2% broth

Positive results are growth and gas production.

Inoculate from the positive Inoculate from the positive

tube to EC broth tube to Tryptone broth

For Faecal Coliforms for E coli

Incubate at 44.5 OC for 24 hrs

EC broth positive tubes By adding 4 drops of Kovacs indole

shows growth and gas reagent pink/ red colour develop at
production the top layer shows the positive result

Compare the results with standard MPN table

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11.2 ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FOOD POISIONING BACTERIA’S
The microbiological parameters determined in fish and fishery products are:

• Total Plate Count (TPC)

• E. coli
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Vibrio cholerae
• Vibrio parahaemolyticus
• Salmonella spp.
11.2.1 Total Plate Count

Bacteria in fish come from any sources like air, water or soil. They occur naturally in fish or
come to fish through contamination. Enumerating the total number of bacteria will give the
product’s overall quality and safety. TPC gives an estimation of total viable cells in a fish
sample. We are providing all favourable conditions like nutrients, water activity, optimum
temperature, gaseous atmosphere to the bacteria and by utilizing this situation by the bacteria
and form new cells. These progenies will accumulate in a place and form a colony. A single
colony contain millions of cells, it formed from a single cell. Hence by counting the number of
colonies will give the population of the inoculum.

11.2.2 E. coli

E. coli is Gram-negative, rod shaped facultative anaerobic and non-sporulating. Most E. coli
strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning in humans. The
harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing
vitamin K, and by preventing the establishment of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine.

E. coli and related bacteria constitute about 0.1% of gut flora, and faecal-oral transmission is
the major route through which pathogenic strains of the bacterium cause disease. Cells are able
to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them ideal indicator
organisms to test environmental samples for faecal contamination. E. coli is a good faecal
indicator organism because this live longer than pathogenic organism, found in large numbers,
less risky to collect or culture in a laboratory. However, their presence does not necessarily
mean that pathogens are present, but rather indicates a potential health hazard.

11.2.3 Staphylococcus aureus

It is asporogenous, non-motile, Gram-positive cocci. Human skin and nose, ear gum, hands
are the vehicle of S. aureus. It is an indicator of hygienic practices in a fish processing unit. In
small numbers it creates no severe infection to the consumer. They are in sufficient large
numbers required for the producing the enterotoxin. The cooked and processed food are more
susceptible to S. aureus because of the occurrence of low number of other competing
organisms.

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11.2.4 Salmonella spp.

They are Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria. They do not form spores. Main source of
Salmonella is warm blooded animals, mammals, birds, insects, rodents and lizards. Fish
collected from the polluted water are usually contaminated with salmonella. Salmonella can
survive the freezing temperature of -40 oC and during the storage at -18oC they can survive up
to 9 months.

11.2.5 Vibrio cholerae

Vibrio cholerae is a gram negative, non-spore forming, curved rod that is oxidase positive. It
is very motile and has a single polar flagellum. The bacterium is 1- 3 µm by 0.5-0.8 µm, is a
facultative anaerobe and is part of the Vibrionaceae family. Serogroups O1 (classical and El
Tor biotypes) and O139 are primarily responsible for cholera outbreaks. Pathogenic serogroups
produce cholera toxin (CT) while non-pathogenic strains may or may not produce this toxin.
Recently, V. cholerae serogroup O75 strains possessing the cholera toxin gene were isolated
from patients with severe diarrhoea, and serogroup O141 has been associated with sporadic
cholera-like diarrhoea and bloodstream infections. Humans are the source of the bacteria.
Contaminated water, food, unhygienic hands of the food handlers transmit the bacteria.

11.2.6 Vibrio parahaemolyticus

It is of marine origin and found in seawater, sediments, fishes and shell fishes of marine and
estuarine water. It is a Gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium exhibiting pleomorphism. All
strains are motile, halophilic and facultatively anaerobic bacteria. It prefers 3% salt for its
growth. Preferred pH is alkaline in a range of 7.4 to 8.6. It is very sensitive to heating, drying,
freezing and smoking and mild heating can inactivate this organism. Avoidance of the cross
contamination of the finished food and raw material result in the elimination of this bacteria.

11.2.7 Sterility test for cans (for testing aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in canned food)

During canning all the vegetative forms of the bacteria, their enzymes and almost all the spores
are eliminated. Under processing or any other can defects may lead to the bacterial
contamination. Under processed and leaking cans are of major concern and both are potential
health hazards. Naturally, if Clostridium botulinum (spores, toxin, or both) is found, the hazard
is obvious. Intact cans that contain only mesophilic, Gram-positive, spore forming rods should
be considered under processed. It must be determined that the can is intact and that other factors
that may lead to under processing, such as drained weight and product formulation, have been
evaluated.

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 Total Plate Count, and tests for E. coli, S. aureus

Weigh 10g of sample and add 90 ml buffer solution (1:10 dilution)

Add 0.5 ml to
Add 1 ml from above to 9ml Baird Parker
/ Add 0.5 ml to Turgitol- /
buffer solution (1:100 dilution) (BP) Agar
7 (T-7) Agar

Add 1 ml from above to 9ml buffer

solution (1:1000 dilution)

Add 1 ml from above to 9ml buffer

solution (1:10000 dilution)

Add 1 ml of each dilution to empty sterile

Petri dish

Add 20 ml TGBE Agar

Incubate the plates at 37oC for

48 hrs 48hrs
24 hrs

White circular colonies Lime yellow, circular, flat Black colonies with
non-mucoid colonies white margin
occasionally with rust surrounded by a zone
brown centre and a of clearance
yellow zone around

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 Calculation

TPC /gm = Number of colonies × Dilution factor (cfu per gm)

Weight of the sample

E coli /gm = Number of colonies × Dilution factor × 2 (cfu per gm)

Weight of the sample

S. aureus/gm = Number of colonies × Dilution factor × 2 (cfu per gm)

Weight of the sample

Page | 69
 Test for Salmonella

Add 25 gm of sample to 225 ml Lactose Broth (pre-enrichment media)

Incubate for 24 hrs at 37oC

/ Transfer 0.1 ml from above to 10 ml of

Transfer 1 ml from above to 10 ml of

Selenite cysteine broth (SCB) / /

Tetrathionate broth (TTB) Rapport-
Vassiliadis (RV)
media
Incubate for 18-24 Incubate for
hrs at 37oC 24 hrs at 42oC

Streak a loopful from above tubes to selective plates

Bismuth Sulphite Hekton’s Enteric Xylose Lysine

/ /
Agar (BSA) Agar (HEA) Desoxycholate Agar (XLDA)

Incubate for 48 hrs at 37oC

Incubate for 24 hrs at 37oC

Black to brownish, with Blue green colonies with Red colonies with
silvery metallic sheen / or without black centre / black centre

Transfer typical positive colonies to

Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) Lysine Iron Agar (LIA)

Agar
Incubate the slants at 37oC
for 18-24 hrs

Alkaline(red) slant and acid (yellow) Alkaline (red)butt and alkaline(red)

butt with H2S and gas production slant with H2S production
Further confirmation by biochemical tests

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 Test for Vibrio cholerae

Add 25g sample to 225 ml Alkaline Peptone Water (APW) - Enrichment media

Incubate for 24 hrs at 37oC

Streak onto Thiosulphate Citrate Bile Salt Sucrose (TCBS) Agar - Selective streaking

Incubate for 24 hrs at 37oC

Yellow flat smooth 2-3mm diameter colonies with

opaque centre and transparent periphery

Transfer typical positive colonies to

Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) Kligler Iron Agar

Agar slant (KIA) slant

Incubate the slants at 37oC

for 18-24 hrs

Acidic (yellow) slant and acidic Alkaline(red) slant and acidic

butt(yellow), no blackening butt(yellow), no blackening
Further confirmation by biochemical tests

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 Test for Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Add 25g sample to 225 ml Alkaline Peptone Water + 3% salt (APW + N3) -
Enrichment media

Incubate for 24 hrs at 37oC

Streak onto Thiosulphate Citrate Bile Salt Sucrose Agar + 3% salt (TCBS + N3) -
Selective streaking

Incubate for 24 hrs at 37oC

Round 3-5 mm diameter green or blue-green colonies

with green or blue centre

Transfer typical positive colonies to

Triple Sugar Iron Agar with 3% Kligler Iron Agar 3% salt

salt (TSI + N3) slant (KIA + N3) slant

Incubate the slants at 37oC

for 18-24 hrs

Alkaline (red) slant and acid but Alkaline (red) slant and acid butt
(yellow), no H2S production (yellow), no blackening

Further confirmation by biochemical tests

Page | 72
 Sterility test for Canned products

Samples are drawn from cans incubated at 37oC for 14 days

Cans are washed with chlorine water & wiped dry with sterile cotton

Disinfect the can top by flaming alcohol (do not flame the swollen cans)

With a sterile sharp tool make a With a sterile sharp tool cut open the cans
puncture on can top further and make a puncture on can top

Pipette out 1 ml liquid medium Aseptically transfer solid contents to 2

and inoculate into 2 tubes each of tubes each of

Bromocresol Purple Dextrose Broth (BCPDB) Cooked Meat Medium

(CMM)
overlay with sterile
liquid paraffin

Incubate one set of BCPDB at 37oC for Incubate one set of CMM at 37oC for
96-120 hr and second set at 55oC for 96-120 hr and second set at 55oC for
24-48 hrs 24-72 hrs

Positive tubes show turbidity Positive tubes show turbidity

Further confirmation by sub-culturing and Gram staining

Page | 73
 12. ON – BOARD HANDLING AND SASHIMI GRADE TUNA
PREPARATION
12.1 INTRODUCTION

Sashimi is a traditional Japanese dish, made from thin slices of premium-quality raw fish. The
most popular sashimi fish are the red-meat species, particularly tunas and skipjack. 'Sashimi'
in fact means much more than just 'raw fish'; the term implies specific requirements regarding
freshness, appearance, presentation, texture and taste.

Only genuine premium-quality fish will fetch a good price on the sashimi market. Fish grading
is determined by several factors, both biological and non-biological:

• A fishing crew can exercise little control over the biological factors, which include
species, age, size, degree of sexual maturity and the presence of parasites or diseases.
The size, species and stage of sexual maturity are very important because they
determine the fat content of the fish. The tuna with the highest fat content attracts the
best prices in the sashimi market.
• The non-biological factors are within the crew's control. They include the fishing
method used and the handling and chilling techniques applied to the fish after capture.
There are many ways of handling and packing fresh tuna, but only a few permits the export of
a high-grade product to the sashimi markets. This booklet, primarily intended for crew
members on tuna long liners, attempts to describe in detail a handling and refrigeration method
which will meet the exacting standards of the Japanese fresh tuna market.

For certain stages of the handling process, various alternative techniques are described, since
requirements may vary from importer to importer. It is therefore essential that the fishing boat
operator be aware of his buyer's specific requirements.

Some fishing boat operators export to several international markets (for example, the largest
and highest-grade tuna are exported to Japan, while smaller, lower-grade tuna are marketed in
Australia); crew members may therefore need to handle each fish according to its intended
market.

12.2 THE TOOLS NEEDED

Before hauling in the longline, the crew should prepare the necessary equipment to deal rapidly
with the fish which will be hauled aboard:

• gloves, preferably cotton, for all handling purposes,

• a mat or a foam pad to lay the fish on,
• a club to stun the fish,
• a spike to kill them,
• lengths of monofilament nylon cord to destroy the spinal cord ('Tanaguchi' method),
• a sharp knife to bleed and gut the fish,

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 • a stiff brush to scrub out the gill cavity,
• elasticised cloth sleeves or 'socks' to protect the fish when they are placed in brine.
12.3 GAFFING THE FISH AND LANDING IT

The appearance of the fish is an important factor in the price which can be obtained for it.
Always treat your fish with great care and always wear gloves when you are handling it.

The appearance of the fish is an important factor in the price which can be obtained for it.
Always treat your fish with great care and always wear gloves when you are handling it.

• Always gaff the fish through the head (Figure 3).

• Never gaff the fish through the body, the throat or the heart2 (Figure 4).
• Use two gaffs for big fish, the second through the mouth (Figure 5).
• It is advisable to lift the fish's tail to help haul it on board.
• The fish should be landed on a foam pad or a mat.
• Take care to fold the pectoral fins under the fish so that they are not damaged.
• Carry out all subsequent handling on the foam pad or mat.

12.4 KILLING THE FISH

On arrival in Japan, each sashimi-grade tuna will be very closely inspected. Any fish which
has not been killed in the way described below will inevitably be down-graded. To avoid such
loss of value, the destruction of the brain and neutralisation of the nervous system should be
performed on all sashimi tunas (yellowfin and bigeye weighing over 30 kg).

Once aboard, the fish should be killed immediately

• Stun the fish with a sharp blow to the top of the head, between the eyes, using a fish
club or other such blunt instrument (Figure 6).
• Use the fish club to disengage the hook from the fish's mouth.
• Stand over the fish, steadying it firmly with your legs braced against the pectoral fins.
• Locate the soft spot (Figure 7) by running your thumb over the top of the head.
• Insert a spike into the soft spot at a 45° angle. If the spike is inserted in the right place,
the fish will give one last shudder (the body will stiffen, the mouth will fall open and
the first dorsal fin will open) before going limp (Figure 8). If this does not happen, the
soft spot should be spiked again.

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 • The spike should be moved around to destroy the brain until the body stops moving and
the jaw goes slack.

It is advisable to pith the fish ('Tanaguchi' method) after killing it:

• Using a saw-edged knife or a small saw, cut out a piece of flesh just above the soft spot
(Figure 9) to expose the brain.
• Insert a length of rigid monofilament nylon into the brain and push it as far as possible
into the neural canal to destroy the spinal cord (Figure 10). The fish should give one
last shudder.
• Leave the length of monofilament in the neural canal, but cut it off to leave the last ten
centimetres emerging from the fish's head.

12.5 BLEEDING THE FISH

Bleeding the fish immediately after killing it1 improves the appearance of the flesh and keeps
it fresh. This is a vital stage for the quality of the fish and its subsequent value on the sashimi
market.

• Bleed the tuna by making a cut in the side of the fish with a knife, five to ten centimetres
behind the base of the pectoral fin. The cut, two centimetres deep at most, should be
mad e perpendicular to the pectoral fin recess, on both sides of the fish (Figure 13).
Blood should flow freely from these cuts.
• Make a cut in the membrane between the gill collar and the gills in order to sever the
arteries supplying the gills, then place a hosepipe carrying sea water in the fish's mouth
in order to wash the blood out of the gill cavity (Figure 14).
• Leave the fish to bleed for five to ten minutes.

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 • Some buyers may also require that the fish be cut on either side of the tail. This cut,
between the third and fourth tail finlet from the tail (see Figure 1), is not very efficient
for bleeding purposes. It should only be done if the buyer requests it.

12.6 GUTTING

The internal organs (intestines, gills, etc.) contain a lot of bacteria which accelerate the process
of deterioration in fish. They should therefore be removed as quickly as possible.

• Make a lengthways cut ten to fifteen centimetres1 long in the fish's stomach up to one
centimetre in front of the anus. This cut should be made in the direction in which the
scales lie, in other words towards the anus (Figure 15).
• Pull the digestive tube and the gonads out through this cut.
• Cut off the end of the digestive tube and the gonads near the anus (Figure 16).
• Another method involves making a ventral cut the same length as the one described
above but, instead of stopping before the anus, the cut is extended by a circle around
the anus (Figure 17), without severing the digestive tube and the gonads.
• Insert a knife behind the gill cover and cut ten centimetres towards the eye (Figure 18).
Repeat the procedure on the other side.

• Cut the connection between the gills and the lower jaw1 (Figure 19).
• Cut the membrane between the gills and the gill collar along its whole length on both
sides of the fish (Figure 20).
• Cut the connection between the gills and the base of the skull (Figure 21).
• Remove the gills and internal organs in one piece through the gill opening (Figure 22).
This stage is sometimes made difficult by the presence of membranes connecting the
gonads to the abdominal wall.
• Rinse thoroughly.

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12.7 CLEANING

• Carefully cut the membrane adhering to the gill collar. With the knife, scrape the edge
of the collar until you get down to white bone (Figure 23).
• Remove all the pieces of flesh, tendon and membrane from the gill cavity.
• Scrub the base of the skull and the vertebrae, so as to remove all coagulated blood and
kidneys (Figure 24).
• Scrub the inside of the abdominal cavity without removing the white membrane (the
swim bladder) which covers the backbone.
• Carefully rinse the fish, inside and outside.
• The two lobes of the caudal fin may be cut off. Some buyers request a special way of
preparing large yellowfin tuna: the second dorsal fin and the anal fin, which are very
long in adults, should be cut half way through at their base using a saw-edged knife or
a saw (Figure 25).
• The fish is now ready to be placed in brine or ice (Figure 26).

12.8 ON-BOARD STORAGE

Tuna are 'warm-blooded' fish, i.e., their internal temperature remains constant (about 28 °C)
for their whole life. This temperature can rise for short periods of time to 35 X or even 40X
under certain conditions (stress, struggle during capture, etc.). In order to keep the fish in
pristine condition, the internal temperature must be lowered as quickly as possible to 0°C and
then maintained during all the following stages (storage on board, unloading, packing,
transport).

To obtain a top-quality product, we recommend the use of the following two-stage procedure:

• Lower the internal temperature of the fish by placing it in brine (a slurry of crushed ice
and seawater).
• After 24 hours, put the fish in ice and keep it there until arrival in port.

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12.9 CHILLED BRINE

The main advantage of brine is that the entire surface of the submerged fish (including the
abdominal cavity) is in direct contact with the cooling medium. This is the most efficient
technique for rapidly lowering the core temperature of the fish.

• How is the brine prepared?

Make a slurry of crushed ice and seawater in a fish box, using a ratio of 2 parts ice to
1-part seawater.
• How long should the fish stay in the brine?
The length of time the fish should be left in the brine depends on its size. 6-12 hours is
advisable for small sashimi tuna (30 to 40 kg). It is preferable to leave larger fish in the
brine longer (up to 24 hours) to be sure that they are chilled to the core. Although fish
can be left in the brine for several days, we recommend that they be removed after 24
hours at the most, otherwise their colour will begin to fade and their eyes will go white.
• What kind of brine box?
It is preferable to use a large (2 m3 or more) insulated box with several compartments
and a drainage hole. In heavy seas, the compartments will help limit the rocking of the
fish inside the box. It is advisable to have two brine boxes on board.
Some comments and advice

• Before placing it in the brine, each fish should be individually wrapped in a cotton
gauze 'sock' (or in a plastic bag with a lot of holes in it). This avoids damage due to the
fish rubbing against one another. This 'sock' is removed before the fish is packed for
export. It can be washed and used again.
• Adding salt to the brine lowers the temperature by several degrees and makes it possible
to chill the fish more rapidly.
• Check the brine regularly and add ice whenever necessary. Stir the slurry often to keep
it well mixed and to avoid the formation of 'pockets' of warm water.
• Too little ice in the slurry leads to poor cooling and loss of quality.
• Too many fish in a box also leads to poor cooling and loss of quality.
• A probe thermometer allows measurement of the fish's core temperature. Its use is
recommended as it makes it possible to transfer the fish to the hold at the correct time
(transfer to the hold should take place when the fish's body core temperature is between
0°C and +3°C).

12.10 ICING

• When the fish have been sufficiently chilled (0°C to 3°C at the centre), they must be
removed from the brine box and rinsed quickly with sea water to wash off any
impurities or blood which were present in the brine.
• Carefully transfer the fish to the ship's hold. Avoid gaffing the fish, dragging them along
the ship's deck or damaging their eyes.
• Cover the fish with ice in successive layers (a layer of ice, a layer of fish, a layer of ice,
etc.). It is preferable, whenever possible, to have no more than three layers of fish
(otherwise, the fish at the bottom of the hold run the risk of damage from the weight of
the ice and other fish placed on top of them).
• The heaviest fish should be placed at the bottom of the hold.

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 • Once in the ice, the fish does not need to be handled again.
• A fish prepared in this way (placed in brine, then stored in ice) can be left in the ice for
up to two weeks.

12.11 OTHER METHODS OF ON-BOARD STORAGE

12.11.1 Direct icing

• Some long liners do not use brine and ice their catch immediately. In order to use this
method properly you should proceed as follows:
• Place one layer of fish, belly downwards, on a thick layer of ice. Completely surround
each fish and fill its gill and abdominal cavities with ice.
• Avoid piling up more than three layers of fish.
• Avoid placing fish in contact with the edges of the ice box (or hold) or in contact with
one another.
• When the fish is iced immediately, the heat it gives off melts the layer of ice in direct
contact with it. This creates air pockets which isolate the fish and prevent it from being
properly refrigerated.
• After twenty-four hours, it is important to eliminate these air pockets by starting the
icing procedure all over again.
• Contrary to freezing in brine, this method does not require the use of a gauze 'sock' to
protect the external appearance of the fish.
• A sashimi-grade tuna can be kept on ice for up to two weeks.

12.11.2 Refrigerated Sea water

Some long liners are equipped to store fish in refrigerated sea water (RSW). Sashimi-grade
tuna may be kept in refrigerated sea water for several days, but not more than one week.

12.11.3 UNLOADING

The following rules are important during unloading.

• Do not twist the fish when removing them from the ice, as this entails a risk of making
the fillets an odd shape and damaging the fish's external appearance. They should be
grasped by the head rather than the tail.
• Handle the fish gently. Do not throw them or drag them along the deck or the ground.
• Do not leave the fish too long in the open air or sunlight. Put the fish on ice or pack it
for export as soon as possible.

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 13. HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT
(HACCP)
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a process-control system designed to
identify and prevent microbial and other hazards in food production includes steps designed to
prevent problems before they occur and to correct deviations as soon as they are defected. Such
preventive control systems with documentation and verification are widely recognized by
scientific authorities and international organizations as the most effective approach available
for producing safe food.
HACCP is endorsed by the scientific and food-safety authorities such as the National Academy
of Sciences and the National Advisory Committee on Microbiology Criteria for Foods
(NACMCF), and by international organizations like the Codes Alimentarius Commission and
the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods.
The HACCP system has been successfully applied in the food industry The system fits in well
with modern quality and management techniques. There are seven discrete activities that are
necessary to establish, implement, and maintain a HACCP plan, and these are referred to as the
seven principles in the Codex Guideline (1997).
The seven principles are the following:
Principle 1: Conduct a Hazard Analysis
Identify hazards and assess the risks associated with them at each step in the commodity
system. Describe possible control measures. Hazards (biological, chem ical, and physical) are
conditions which may pose an unacceptable health risk to the consumer. A flow diagram of the
complete process is important in conducting the hazard analysis. The significant hazards
associated with each specific step of the manufacturing process must be listed. Preventive
measures (temperature, pH, moisture level, etc.) to control the hazards are also listed.
Principle 2: Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPS)
A critical control point is a step at which control can be applied and is essential prevent or
eliminate a food-safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level. Critical Control Point (CCP)
is a point, step, or procedure in a food process at which control can be applied and, as a result,
a food-safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level. A food-
safety hazard is any biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause a food to be
unsafe for human consumption.
Principle 3: Establish Critical Limits
Each control measure associated with a CCP must have an associated critical limit which
separates the acceptable from the unacceptable control parameter. A critical It is the maximum
or minimum value to which a physical, biological, or chemical and must be controlled at a
critical control point to prevent, eliminate, or reduce e hazard to an acceptable level.
Principle 4: Establish a Monitoring System
Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation at a CCP to assess whether the slep
is under control, i.e., within the critical limit(s) specified in Principle 3. Monitoring is a planned

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sequence of measurements or observations to ensure the product or process is in control. It
allows processors to assess trends before a loss of control occurs. Adjustments can be made
while continuing the process. The monitoring interval must be adequate to ensure reliable
control of the process.
Principle 5: Establish a Procedure for Corrective Action, when Monitoring at a CCP
indicates a Deviation from an Established Critical Limit
These are actions to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation from an established critical
limit. The final rule requires a plant's HACCP plan to identify the corrective actions to be taken
if a critical limit is not met. Corrective actions are intended to ensure that no product injurious
to health or otherwise adulterated as a result of the deviation enters commerce. HACCP is
intended to prevent product or process deviations. However, should loss of control occur, there
must be definite eps in place for disposition of the product and for correction of the process.
These must be pre-planned and written. If, for instance, a cooking step must result in a product
center temperature between 165°F and 175°F, and the temperature is 163°F. be corrective
action could require a second pass through the cooking step with an increase in the temperature
of the cooker.
Principle 6: Establish Procedures for Verification to Confirm the Effectiveness of the
HACCP Plan
Such procedures include auditing of the HACCP plan to review deviations and product
dispositions, and random sampling and checking to validate the whole plan The HACCP
regulation requires that all plants maintain certain documents including its hazard analysis and
written HACCP plan, and records document the monitoring of critical control points, critical
limits, verification activities, and the handling of processing deviations. The HACCP system
requires the preparation and maintenance of a written HACCP plan together with other
documentation. The must include all records generated during the monitoring of each CCP and
notations of corrective actions taken. Usually, the simplest record keeping system possible to
ensure effectiveness is the most desirable.
Principle 7: Establish Documentation Concerning all Procedures and Records
Appropriate to these Principles and their Application
Validation ensures that the industry or the plant complies with the required design or plan; that
is, they are successful in ensuring the production of safe product. Plants will be required to
validate their own HACCP plans, FSIS (Food Safety and or Inspection Service) will not
approve HACCP plans in advance but will review them for conformance with the final rule.
Verification ensures the HACCP plan is adequate, that is, working as intended Verification
procedures may include such activities as review of HACCP plans. CCP records, critical limits,
and microbial sampling and analysis. Requirement of FSIS is that the HACCP plan includes
verification tasks to be performed by plant personnel. Further, verification tasks would also be
performed by FSIS inspectors Both FSIS and industry will undertake microbial testing as one
of several verificative activities.
Verification has several steps. The scientific or technical validity of the hazard analysis and the
adequacy of the CCPs should be documented. Verification of the effectiveness of the HACCP

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plan is also necessary. The system should be subject to periodic revalidation using independent
audits or other verification procedures
HACCP offers continuous and systematic approaches to assure food safety. In light of recent
food-safety-related incidents, there is a renewed interest in HACCP from a regulatory point of
view. Both FDA and USDA are proposing umbrella regulations, which will require HACCP
plans of industry. The industry will do well to adopt HACCP approaches to food safety whether
or not it is required.
HACCP system verification activities include the following
• Review of the HACCP system and its records
• Observation of operations at CCPS
• Asking employees questions, especially those that monitor CCP's
• Routine checks of monitoring procedures and equipment
• Review of critical limit deviations and non-conforming product handling and
dispositions
• Internal auditing of the HACCP system
• External third-party auditing of the HACCP system
• Microbiological sampling of product contact surfaces
• Microbiological sampling of the product
• Official evaluation of the product

CCP’s IN SEAFOOD INDUSTRY

➢ CCP – 1: Raw Material Receiving

In microbiology tests TPC will be done to check whether harmful
pathogenic bacteria are present or not.
e.g., E. coli, S. Typhi

➢ CCP – 2: Cooking (if cooking is done for the raw material)

Appropriate temperature - 100 °C

Note: if cooking process is not present then CCP – 2 will be avoided.

➢ CCP – 3: Packaging
To avoid physical hazards.

➢ CCP – 4: Allergens
Allergens must be added on the label while labelling.

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 14. GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES AND
SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
14.1 GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES

10 Principle of Good Manufacturing Practises

Good manufacturing practices is part of quality assurance which are particularly set of
guidelines including basic control measure and procedures to be followed to meet standard
specification of product which are safe to consume by human. These regulations address a
variety of areas, including cleanliness, personnel qualifications and record-keeping, all in an
attempt to ensure safety in the manufacture and care of FDA-regulated products by minimizing
the chance of contamination or human error. To follow good manufacturing practices there are
10 basic principles which need to be addressed.

PRINCIPLE 1: Step by step written procedures

All operating procedures and work instructions should be written down and made available to
employees for better understanding of the facility working procedures. Standard operating
procedures are established methods that are to be followed routinely for the performance of the
designated operations.

PRINCIPLE 2: Follow procedures

In the food industry it is critical that good procedures are in place to ensure a controlled and
consistent performance. Written procedures are to be concise and logical so that it is easy to
follow and understand. While following SOP or written procedure it is important to mark that
no shortcuts should be taken as they lead to deviation from the procedure which may lead to
hazards.

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PRINCIPLE 3 Document work

Prompt and accurate documentation of work provides official information or serves as a record
helping in compliance and traceability. In case of error, these records can serve as the basis of
investigation. E.g., Equipment user manual, GMP Manual

PRINCIPLE 4 Validate work

Establishing documentary evidence that the procedure, process or activity and production
maintains the desired level of compliance at all stages. Maintaining and validating of consistent
performance is very important. Correctly following written procedures are necessary.

PRINCIPLE 5 Integrate productivity, quality & safety into facilities & equipment

During construction of company facility and equipment it is important to integrate productivity,

quality & employee safety. Designing and assigning location of equipment should suit its
intended use. Segregation of materials, products and their components to minimize confusion
and potential mix up and error This reinforces the goals of quality and consistency at all stages
of the process. Product quality is impacted by factors like air, water, lightning and ventilation
temperature.

PRINCIPLE 6 Maintain facilities & equipment

Proper maintenance of equipment and facility with valid documentation backing the details for
maintenance minimizes any safety concern and avoid potential issues relating to contamination
and quality control. Proper maintenance schedule prevent equipment breakdown, reduces risk
of product contamination and maintain the validated state of the facility or equipment.

PRINCIPLE 7 Define, develop & demonstrate job competency

Each employee should be provided with training whose activities could affect product quality.
Training should be inclusive of basic training on theory & practice of GMP as well as role

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related training. Employees should demonstrate job competence by producing quality products
in a safe & efficient manner.

PRINCIPLE 8 Make cleanliness a daily habit

This principle outlines the importance of ensuring a product to be protected from contamination
by practicing good hygiene. This can be achieved by incorporating cleanliness in the workplace
on daily basis. All cleaning and sanitization procedure should be diligently followed. Apart
from reporting conditions that may lead to contamination it is important to minimize human
contact with product and equipment. Food contamination can either physical, chemical or
microbiological in nature. Contamination can be of indirect form as well like unintentional
transfer from one to another posing hazard like allergen.

PRINCIPLE 9 Build quality into the product

Every step in the products life cycle requires effective controls to ensure the quality of the
product which can be achieved by controlling components, controlling the manufacturing
process, packaging & labelling controls, holding and distribution controls.

Components can be kept in check by controlling ensuring all material and components are
meeting the defined specifications. All components should be identified and stored in
quarantine area for sampling & testing. For Controlling manufacturing process all product
should have master record outlining specification with individual batch/history record. To
enable traceability assigning batch no. to all products inspecting packaging & labeling before
processing new batch are few of packaging and labelling control methods. And for holding and
distributional control proper controls to be in place against contamination, mix ups and errors

PRINCIPLE 10 Conduct compliance & performance audits

Only way to determine how well GMP is being implemented is to conduct planned and periodic
audits. Audits must be conducted to assess whether the facility is following GMP. Audits can
be internally held to ensure GMP compliance by in house audits or external audits can be
conducted by external bodies such as FDA etc.

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 14.2 SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
14.2.1 What is a Sanitation Standard Operating Procedure (SSOP)?
A Sanitation Standard Operating Procedure (SSOP) is a written document of procedures
or programs used to maintain equipment and the environment in a sanitary condition for
food processing. It is a step-by-step description of cleaning and sanitizing procedures and
specifies

• what is to be cleaned
• how it is to be cleaned,
• how often it is to be cleaned, and
• what records are used to monitor the procedures.

An SSOP is a fundamental part of a Food Safety Plan. It may be a stand -along procedure
or may be a Prerequisite Program (PP). It shall be updated whenever there is a change in
processes or chemicals used. It should be reviewed annually with the Food Safety Plan.
An SSOP may written for

• a piece of equipment,
• several pieces of equipment in a process,
• an environmental area,
• as a Master Sanitation Plan for the whole facility.

14.2.2 TIPS FOR WRITING SSOPS

Use Clear Language
SSOPs should be written in a concise, easy-to-read format. Simple, direct terms are the
most effective. Ambiguous directions, or long instructions can be difficult to follow
correctly.

If employees are not native English speakers, consider having a alternative version
available in their first language. When training non-native English speaking employees,
it is critical that they understand the details of the procedures and the proper use of
chemicals before beginning their job. This will ensure the utmost sanitary condition for
processing, reduce food safety risk, and minimize employee accidents.

Completely Describe the Steps

An SSOP is a step-by-step document.

• use a numbered sequence for the steps

Describe the steps completely.

• identify specific cleaning chemicals (type, brand, name, concentration)

• include the temperature and time conditions needed to achieve proper cleaning

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Add notes for clarification as needed.

• notes are particularly useful when identifying specific hazards, such as making
sure the correct personal protection equipment (PPE) is put on prior to handling
caustic chemicals.
An SSOP should be considered a training document.

• when a new or relief employee is asked to do this task, can they follow this SSOP
and get the job done correctly and timely?

Identify the Monitoring Records

Monitoring records are an integral part of a Food Safety Plan. Monitoring records are
logs, charts, and other documents that prove that cleaning and sanitizing occurred.
Monitoring records should be filled in the date and signature or initials of the person
completing the task.

If it wasn't documented, it wasn't done!

Examples of monitoring records include

• chemical concentration logs,

• cleaning schedule logs,
• pasteurization chart with the CIP cycle, and
• periodic checklists on the Master Sanitation Plan.

14.2.3 ELEMENTS OF AN SSOP

Here is a checklist of elements that should be included in an SSOP:

• Company Name
• Date (most recent update or effective date)
• Version ID
• SSOP Number (optional). Some companies assign numbers to their SSOPs, they
may combine the SSOP number and version. Example: SSOP #3, version 5 may
be SSOP: 3.05
• Title (the name of the procedure or program)
• Scope or Introduction (what is covered)
• Frequency (how often this should be done)
• Procedures: Step-by-step instructions. Use a logical, sequential order/ Add notes
as needed for clarification. Specify: chemicals (type, brand name), chemical
concentration, time, temperature. Break into sections for multiple tasks.
• Recordkeeping. Identify which forms or logs are used. Example: chemical
concentration logs.
• Person responsible for the SSOP content and updates. Include signature and date
lines.
• Page numbers

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14.2.4 SCOPE
Cheese process equipment includes the pasteurizer, cheese vat, cheese press, tables, and
utensils used during the manufacture of cheese.
14.2.5 CLEANING AND SANITIZING SCHEDULE
Processing equipment is sanitized immediately prior to use and cleaned at the end of each
processing day.

MANUAL SANITIZING
1. Fill 5-gallon bucket with room temperature water.
2. Add 1 packet of ABC powdered sanitizer (HIJ Company) to the bucket. Stir to
dissolve.
3. Sanitize equipment using a clean brush, making sure to sanitize all surfaces and
parts.

MANUAL CLEANING (IN A SINK)

1. Dismantle equipment to be cleaned and rinse parts with warm water.
2. Make cleaning and sanitizing solutions according to manufacturer’s
instructions.
Note: wear appropriate personal protection equipment (gloves, eye protection)
3. Wash parts using a clean brush, making sure to wash all surfaces and parts.
4. Rinse thoroughly with warm water to remove cleaner residues.
5. Rinse parts with sanitizer solution.
6. Visually inspect parts for damage and residual cleaner.

14.2.6 CIP CLEANING OF THE HTST PASTEURIZER

1. Continue the flush rinse after product processing until the clean water comes out of the
product lines (at least 20 min). Maintain water level in balance tank.

2. Prepare the HTST and Homogenizer for CIP.

• Turn the Temperature Set Point down to allow the flow to divert. Shut off the
booster pump, homogenizer, and hot water system. Turn off the chilled water.
• Turn the switch on the Back Panel (CIP box) from Product to CIP.
• Reconnect the product recirculation line. Remove end caps and reconnect the
bypass line on the homogenizer.
• Turn the Product Flow to CIP on the Control Panel.
3. Turn HTST system back on and stabilize conditions.

• Check water level in balance tank and add water if needed.

• Release the backpressure using the Back Pressure Regulating Valve.
• Adjust the Temperature Set Point to 180°F.
• Turn on the Homogenizer and Booster Pump to High Speed. Turn on the Hot Water
System at the control panel.

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4. Add Caustic and circulate for 20 min.

• Add city water to the balance tank to a level just below the side port.
• Add 4.5 lbs of caustic (EFG caustic cleaner by HIJ Company) to balance tank
• Take a sample of the caustic solution from the balance tank and check
concentration using the test kit for Caustic Wash. Record concentration of caustic
wash on the Sanitation Test Log.
• Caustic solution should be 1 - 1.5%; adjust concentration and retest as needed.
• Switch between Forward and Diverted Flow a few times to clean the entire system.
5. Drain caustic solution.

• Turn Flow Valve to Drain.

• When balance tank is almost empty add clean water to balance tank for rinse.
6. Rinse with clean water 20 - 30 min.

• Add acid and circulate for 20 min.

• Turn flow valve back to Forward Flow F/F.
• Add city water to the balance tank to a level just below the side port.
• Add 1.5 lbs of acid (KLM acid cleaner by HIJ Company) to balance tank.
• Take a sample of the acid solution from the balance tank and check concentration
using the test kit for Acid Wash. Record concentration of acid wash on the
Sanitation Test log.
• Acid solution should be 8,000 - 10,000 ppm; adjust concentration and as needed.
• Switch between forward and diverted flow a few times to clean the entire system.
8. Rinse with clean water 30 - 45 min.

• Turn flow valve to Drain.

• When balance tank is almost empty, add clean water to balance tank for rinse. Add
water as needed to complete rinse cycle.
• After rinse is complete, drain tank until only a small amount remains in the bottom.
9. Cool System.

• Turn off Steam Valve at control panel and allow the temp to drop below 140°F.
• Adjust the Temperature Set Point to 120°F.
• Wait until the temperature of the system is < 120°F before turning off the system.

14.2.7 RECORDKEEPING

• The results from testing the concentrations of cleaning solutions are recorded on
the
• Sanitation Test Log immediately following the test.
• CIP cleaning of the pasteurizer is recorded on the Pasteurization Chart at the end
of the production run each day.
• Manual cleaning of the cheese vat, tables and equipment is recorded on the Daily
Cleaning Log.

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 15. TRADABILITY
FOREIGN TRADE POLICY
Foreign Trade Policy is a set of guidelines and instructions established by the DGFT in matters
related to the import and export of goods in India. The Government of India, Ministry of
Commerce and Industry announces Export Import Policy every five years. The new FTP (2015-
20) came into force i.e., 01/04/2015. The export Import Policy (EXIM Policy) is updated every
year on the 31st of March and the modifications, improvements and new schemes are effective
w.e.f. 1st April of every year.
TRADE AGREEMENTS
Trade agreements are any contractual measures with other state or states regarding trade
relationships, which can be bilateral (between two states) or multilateral (between more than
two states or countries). Trade agreements are one of the approaches to diminish unilateral
barriers of several types, including tariffs, non-tariff barriers, and outright preventions, thus
opening all parties to the remuneration of increased trade. While entering into trade agreements
utmost precautions are necessary to take care of the national security and to preserve or protect
local culture from foreign manipulations.
Various general features of trade agreements are
➢ reciprocity,
➢ a most-favoured-nation (MFN) clause, and
➢ national treatment of non-tariff barriers.
India views Regional Trading Arrangements (RTA’s) as ‘building blocks’ towards the overall
objective of trade liberalisation. Hence, it is participating in a number of RTA’s which include
Free Trade Agreements (FTA’s); Preferential Trade Agreements (PTA’s); Comprehensive
Economic Cooperation Agreements (CECA’s); etc. These agreements are entered into either
bilaterally or in a regional grouping

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 16. STANDARDISATION IN SEAFOOD PRODUCTS
16.1 Permitted antibiotic residues

16.1.1. FDA approved aquaculture drugs

Drug species Withdrawal time Tolerance limit

Oxytetracycline Salmonids 21 d 2.0 ppm

(OTC) Catfish 21 d 2.0 ppm
lobster 30 d 2.0 ppm
Sulfamerazine trout 21 d nil
sulfadimethoxine salmonids 42 d 0.1 ppm
Oremetoprim catfish 3d 0.1 ppm

16.1.2. European union standards

S. no. Antibiotics *MRL (in ppm)
1. Antibiotic residues (anti – infection agents, nil
antibiotics and quinolones)
2. Sarafloxacin (Salmonidae) 0.03
3. Nafacillin (in bovine tissue) 0.3

16.1.3. Indian standards

s. no. Antibiotics *MRL (in ppm)
1. Chloramphenicol nil
2. Furazolidone nil
3. Neomycin nil
4. Tetracycline 0.1
5. Oxytetracycline 0.1
6. Trimethroprim 0.05
7. Oxclinic acid 0.3
8. Nalidixic acid nil
9. sulphamethoxazole nil

16.2 Standards for fish/ fishery products

16.2.1 Raw products
1. 1 PC at 37°C 5 x 105 /g
2. Coliforms
a. Faecal coliforms 20/g
b. E. coli 20/g
3. Coagulase +ve staphylococci 100/g
4. Salmonella Absent in 25g
5. Vibrio cholerae Absent in 25g
6. Listeria monocytogenes Absent in 25g

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 7. Histamine ≤ 50ppm
8. Indole < 50 μg/100g
9. PSP 80 μg/100g
10. DSP 20 μg/100g
11. Filth Nil
12. DDT/DDE < 5ppm
13. Aldrin, Dialdrin < 0.3ppm
14. PCB’S < 2ppm
15. Cd < 3ppm
16. Pb 1.5ppm
17. Hg 0.5ppm
18. Antibiotic residues Nil (0.1ppm tetracyclines are permitted
by Japan)
19. TVBN 30mg/100g
20. Dioxins 4 picogram per gram of fresh weight

N.B: Items 12, 13, 14 & 18 are necessary for molluscs and their products.
16.2.2 Cooked products
1. 1 PC at 37°C 1 x 105 /g
2. E. coli < 1/g or Nil
3. Faecal coliform < 1/g or Nil
4. Coagulase +ve staphylococci 100/g
5. Salmonella Absent in 25g
6. Vibrio cholerae Absent in 25g
7. Listeria monocytogenes Absent in 25g
8. Histamine (in Scombroid fish) ≤ 50ppm
9. Indole 25 - 50 μg/100g
10. PSP 80 μg/100g
11. DSP 20 μg/100g
12. Filth Nil
13. DDT/DDE < 5ppm
14. Aldrin, Dialdrin < 0.3ppm
15. PCB’S < 2ppm
16. Cd (Cadmium) < 3ppm
17. Pb < 1ppm
18. Hg 0.5ppm
19. Antibiotic residues Nil

N.B: Items 13, 14, 15 & 19 are necessary for aquaculture products. Items 10 and 12 are
necessary for molluscs and their products.
16.2.3 Cuttlefish/ Squid
Mercury 1.0 mg/kg
Zinc 50.00 mg/kg
Copper 20.00 mg/kg
Arsenic 7.5 mg/kg
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 Lead 1.5 mg/kg
Tin 250.0 mg/kg
Cadmium 3.00 mg/kg
Nickel 80 mg/kg

Note:
PSP – Paralytic shellfish poison
DSP – Diarrhoetic shellfish poison
DDT – Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
PCB – Poly chlorinated biphenyls
(Source: Bureau of Indian Standards)
16.3 Microbiological Requirements for Fresh and Frozen Fish And Shell Fish (Bacterial
Count Maximum /G)
Name of Fresh/ SPC E. coli Coagulase Faecal Salmonella
fish/ shell frozen +ve Streptococci
fish Staphylococci
Mackerel Fresh 1,00,000 20 - - Nil
Threadfin Fresh 1,00,000 20 - - Nil
Pomfrets Fresh 1,00,000 20 - - Nil
Mackerel Frozen 1,00,000 10 - - Nil
Threadfin Frozen 1,00,000 10 - - Nil
Pomfrets Frozen 1,00,000 10 - - Nil
Seer fish Frozen 1,00,000 10 - - Nil
Lobster Frozen 5,00,000 20 100 - Nil
tails
Shrimps Frozen 5,00,000 20 100 100 Nil
(whole &
headless)
Shrimps Frozen 10,00,000 20 100 100 Nil
(peeled &
deveined)
Shrimps Frozen 1,00,000 Nil 100 100 Nil
(cooked)
Cuttlefish Frozen 1,00,000 10 100 - Nil

16.4 Standards for Water for Processed Food Industry and For Ice Manufacture
S. no Characteristic Tolerance
Food Ice
1. Colour (Hazen units), Max 20 5
2. Turbidity (Units), Max 10 5
3. Odour None None
4. pH 6.5 to 9.2 6.5 to 9.2
5. Total dissolved solids mg/L, Max 1000 1000

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 6. Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/L, Max - 100
7. Total hardness (as CaCO3), mg/L, Max 600 600
8. Sulphate (as SO4), mg/L, Max 200 200
9. Fluoride (as F), mg/L, Max 1.5 1.5
10. Chloride (as Cl), mg/L, Max 250 250
11. Cyanide (as CN), mg/L, Max 0.01 0.01
12. Selenium (as Se), mg/L, Max 0.05 0.05
13. Iron (as Fe), mg/L, Max 0.3 0.3
14. Magnesium (as Mg), mg/L, Max 75.0 125
15. Manganese (as Mn), mg/L, Max 0.2 0.2
16. Copper (as Cu), mg/L, Max 1.0 1.0
17. Lead (as Pb), mg/L, Max 0.1 0.1
18. Chromium (as Cr+6), mg/L, Max 0.05 0.05
19. Zinc (as Zn), mg/L, Max 15.0 15.0
20. Arsenic (as as), mg/L, Max 0.2 0.2
21. Nitrate (as N), mg/L, Max 20 -
22. Phenolic substances (as C6H5OH), mg/L, Max 0.001 0.001
23. Total coliforms MPN/100 <1 <1
24. TPC – TPC/ml 50 -
25. Proteolytic & Lipolytic organism (combined count/ml) 5 -

(Source: Bureau of Indian Standards)

16.5 Antibiotic Prohibited in The Cultured Prawn
i. All Nitrofurans including
• Furaltadone
• Furazolidone
• Furylfuramide
• Nifuratel
• Nifuroxime
• Nifurprazine
• Nitrofurantion
• Nitrofurazone
ii. Chloramphenicol
iii. Neomycin
iv. Nalidixic acid
v. Sulphamethoxazole
vi. Aristolochia spp and preparations thereof
vii. Chloroform
viii. Chlorpromazine
ix. Colchicine
x. Dapsone
xi. Dimetridazole
xii. Metronidazole
xiii. Ronidazole
xiv. Ipronidazole

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 xv. Other nitroimidazoles
xvi. Clenbuterol
xvii. Diethylstibestrol (DES)
xviii. Sulfonamide drugs (except approved Sulfadimethoxine, Sulfabromomethazine and
sulfaethoxypyridazine)
xix. Fluoroquinolones
xx. Glycopeptides
(Source: Bureau of Indian Standards)
16.6 Grade - wise product yield from prawns of different sizes (expressed as % of raw
material)
Product style Grade Variety of prawn

P. Indicus M. dobsoni & P. stylifera

M. affinis
Head less 8 – 12/1b - - -
U 15/1b - - -
11 – 15 - - -
16 – 20 65 65 -
21 – 25 65 65 -
26 – 30 65 65 -
31 – 35 63 63 -
36 – 40 63 63 -
41 – 50 62 62 -
51 – 60 61 61 -
61 – 70 60 60 -
71 - 90 58 58 -
P&D 91 – 110 38 38
111 – 130 38 38
100 – 200
200 – 300 34 - 35 34 – 35
300 – 500 30 – 32 28 - 30
PUD 80 – 120 40 – 42
100 – 200 39 – 40 35 – 38
200 – 300 38
300 – 500 35 - 36

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 INDUSTRIAL VISITS
##WORLD FISHERIES DAY##

## FSI EXHIBITION (MATSYA SHIKARI

AND MATSYA DARSHINI) ##

##NEEKANTI SEAFOOD INDUSTRY##

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##FISHERIES SURVEY OF INDIA (FSI)##

Page | 98
 ## CIFT (CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF FISHERIES TECHNOLOGY) &
CMFRI (CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE) ##

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##FAREWELL##

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Page | 101
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