LOGIC definite alm (Glenn, 1957).

Every science, therefore has both

Logic, standing at the very foundation of philosophy, a material object and a formal object
encompasses all other types of knowledge. It directs the
mind in the process of reasoning so that it proceeds in an 1. Material Object of Philosophy. The material object is the
orderly and error-free manner. To place logic in its proper subject matter of a science the field in which the science
perspective, a brief discussion about philosophy is works (Glenn, 1957). For instance, in cosmology, the material
appropriate. object encompasses the whole universe, from the largest
galaxies to the subatomic particles. In the case of philosophy,
1.1 NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy has an the material object is all things.
etymological definition, which states the origin of the term,
and also a real definition, which explains what it actually 2. Formal Object of Philosophy. The formal object is that
studies. special thing which a science seeks in a certain field. It is the
special aim, end-in-view, or point- of focus of a science as it
1. Etymological Definition of Philosophy. The term deals with the subject matter (Glenn, 1957). For instance, in
philosophy comes from the Greek words philo, meaning cosmology, the special point-of-focus of its study is the origin,
"love," and sophia meaning "wisdom." Literally, philosophy evolution, and structure of the universe, and by extension,
means "love of wisdom." Thus, a philosopher is a lover of humanity's place in it. The formal object has two subdivisions:
wisdom. the formal object quod and the formal object quo.

2. Real Definition of Philosophy. The real definition of a. Objectum Formale Quod of Philosophy. The objectum
philosophy can be thus stated: scientia rerum per causas formale quod is the special or immediate viewpoint from
primas sub lumine rationis naturalis." This may be translated which a thing is examined. For example, a tree may be judged
as: "the science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes, according to its color or shape, whether it is material or living,
and principles acquired by the aid of human reason alone" and whether it is a being as opposed to nothing, among
(Hermida, 1996). others (Reyes, 1988). In philosophy, the formal object quod
are the first causes and the highest principles of things.
a. Philosophy is a science. Philosophy is not based on mere
opinion or theories or hypotheses; it is based on certain b. Objectum Formale Quo of Philosophy. The objectum
knowledge derived from reasoned demonstration of causes formale quo or the medium is the light or vehicle by which
and reduced to a system. the science studies its object. For example, the formal
medium for color is light; for sound, air; and, for scientific
b. Philosophy is a science of all things. Philosophy is the knowledge, reasoning (Reyes, 1988). In philosophy, the
science of beings, i.e., all things that can be reached by the formal object quo is the natural reason alone, particularly,
human mind. This includes man, the world, and the abstractive power of reason.
God-everything that is or becomes or is known. The objects of philosophy as compared to the objects of
particular sciences and theology are summarized in Table1
c. Philosophy searches for the ultimate reasons, causes,
and principles of all things. A reason is that which explains Empirical sciences (anatomy, physiology, etc.) limit
something; a cause is that which contributes in any positive themselves to the search for the immediate causes as known
manner toward the production of a thing; and, a principle is by reasoning. Philosophy is a science that deals with last and
that from which something proceeds. The way philosophy ultimate causes as known by reasoning. Theology is a science
investigates is critical, deep, and impartial. In simple terms, that tackles last and ultimate causes as known by faith and
philosophy goes beyond any common sense." Philosophy reasoning.
studies the ultimate why's and wherefore's of all things. It
examines in detail all realities in their ultimate causes, 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY Studying giving or doing
reasons, and principles. Other sciences investigate solely philosophy could be beneficial in many regards because
superficial, cursory, concrete, and tangible realities. They philosophy touches on so many subjects and especially,
concern themselves with proximate (or secondary) causes, because most of it’s methods are usable in any field. We can
reasons, and principles. get lots of things from philosophy. As discussed In the
Department of Philosophy page of the Miami University Web
d. Philosophy uses the power or natural light of reason. site (2003), philosophy has the following user.
Philosophy makes use of knowledge acquired by human
recron alone. This means that philosophy does not base its 1. General Problem Solving. The study of philosophy
knowledge on authority, but solely on the reasoning power enhances one's problem- solving capacities in ways no other
of the human mind. Divine revelation, therefore, is formally activity does: (a) it improves one's ability to analyze concepts,
excluded as a source of information although it can assist the definitions, arguments, and problems; (b) it contributes to
mind by pointing out the right direction to the solution of a one's capacity to organize ideas and issues, to deal with
problem. questions of value, and to extract what is essential from
masses of information; (c) it enables one to distinguish fine
1.2 OBJECTS OF PHILOSOPHY Every science does two things. differences between views and, at the same time, to discover
First, if treats of a certain subject matter. Secondly, it treats common ground between opposing positions; and (d) it
of its subject matter in a certain way and with a special teaches on how to synthesize a variety of views or
perspectives into a unified whole. In a gist, philosophy helps
one learn how to generate ideas (creative thinking) as well as attributes, and operations of God (Roa, 2007). It covers the
evaluate these ideas (critical thinking). demonstrability and actual demonstration of the existence of
God; His essence and attributes; His immanent operations,
2. Communication Skills. Philosophy contributes uniquely i.e., intellection and volition; and His transient operations, i.e.,
to the development of expressive and communicative powers. creation, conservation, concurrence, governance, and
It provides some of the basic tools of self-expression for providence.
instance, skills in presenting ideas through well-constructed,
systematic arguments that other fields either do not use or C.Cosmology. The name cosmology comes from the Greek
use less extensively. Doing philosophy helps one to better words cosmos, meaning "universe," and logos meaning
express what is distinctive of one's view; enhances one's "science or study." Thus, cosmology studies the nature and
ability to explain difficult material; and helps one to eliminate origin of the universe. It is the science which considers the
ambiguities and vagueness from one's writing and speech. ultimate principles and causes of mobile beings in general
(Pasigui, Parallag, Requidan, & Tabin, 2006). This includes the
3. Persuasive Powers. Philosophy provides training in the essential principles of natural bodies, matter and form,
formulation of good arguments and thinking up of apt change, motion, time, place, space, causality and finality,
examples, and thereby helps one become convincing. One generation, and corruption.
learns to build and defend one's own views, to appreciate
competing positions, and indicate forcefully why one d. Philosophical Psychology (or Rational Psychology).
considers one's own views preferable to alternatives. These Psychology is derived from the Greek words psyche, meaning
capacities can be developed not only through reading and "soul," and logos, meaning "science or study." Thus,
writing in philosophy, but also through continuous practice in psychology studies the soul. Philosophical or rational
formulating sound and valid arguments. psychology deals with man not only as a sensing and thinking
being but also as a being composed of body and soul; it treats
4. Writing Skills. Writing is taught intensively many the whole being of man as man (Buenaflor, 2006). This
philosophy courses, and many regularly assigned branch. of philosophy covers the concept of life and its
philosophical texts are unexcelled as literary essays. operation, the soul, sensation and appetition, and
Philosophy teaches interpretive writing through its intellection and volition.
examination of challenging texts, comparative writing
through emphasis on fairness to alternative positions, E. Metaphysics (or Ontology). The word ontology comes
argumentative writing through developing students' ability to from the Greek words onta, which means "being," and logos,
establish their own views, and descriptive writing through which means "science or study. Thus, ontology is a study of
detailed portrayal of concrete examples- the anchors to being. It is concerned with the nature of existence of things
which generalizations must be tied. Structure and technique, and the status of reality. Ontology is actually a branch of
then, are emphasized in philosophical writing. Originality is metaphysics.
also encouraged, and students are generally urged to use the
imagination and develop their own ideas. Metaphysics is derived from the Greek words meta, meaning
"beyond," and physikon meaning "nature." Thus,
1.4DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy is divided into the metaphysics studies the nature of the mind, the self, and
practical and the theoretical according to its function consciousness. It includes the concept of being, its analogy
and fundamental attributes, the problem of evil, act and
1. Theoretical (or speculative) philosophy enriches the mind potency, essence and existence, substance and accidents,
by principles to be speculated upon or to be known. It does supposit and person, and causality (Roa, 2007).
not directly impose laws or norms as guidance for thought.
Its function is primarily cultural, e.g., The sun is 93 million 2. Practical philosophy perfects the will by principles to be
miles away; Light travels at the rate of 186, 000 miles per practiced. It presents related data from which the directive
second; Earth has only one moon (Artigas, 1984). Theoretical laws or norms are immediately derived.
philosophy includes epistemology, theodicy, cosmology,
philosophical psychology, and metaphysics. Its function is primarily directive: logic aims at norms for
correct thinking while ethics aims at a norm for correct acting.
A. Epistemology (or Criteriology). The word epistemology For example, the ten commandments are not merely to be
comes from the Greek words episteme, meaning recognized and memorized; they must be understood and
"knowledge," and logos meaning "science or study." Thus, lived. In this same manner, the rules for correct thinking
epistemology is the science of knowledge. It is the science of should be applied (Artigas, 1984). Practical philosophy
true and certain knowledge (Glenn, 1957). Epistemology includes logic, ethics, and axiology.
comprises the statement of and solution to the critical
problem (including its nature, origin, and objectivity), and A. Logic. The name logic comes from the Greek word logike,
validity of knowledge, truth, and certitude. which means. "thought." Logic is the science and art of
correct thinking (Bachhuber, 1966). It studies the laws of
thought. It covers the study of ideas and terms, judgment
b. Theodicy (or Natural Theology). The term theodicy is and proposition, reasoning and syllogism, among others.
derived from the two Greek words theos, which means
"God" and dike, which means "justice." Thus, theodicy is a
study which investigates the nature, existence, essence,
B. Ethics (or Moral Philosophy). The term ethics is derived
from the Greek word ethos, meaning "characteristic way of 2. Formal Object of Logic. The correctness of the thinking
acting an attribute appropriate to man as a rational being. process is the formal object of logic, where correctness
The Latin word for ethos is mos (or mores), which may be the means conformity with a set of rules (Agapay, 1991).
reason why ethics is sometimes called moral philosophy (Roa, Correctness implies right order, consistency, reasonable
2007). Ethics is the science which investigates the morality of procedure, necessary relationship, and valid inference (Joven,
human acts or conduct. It is concerned with human acts and 2006).
the principles of human actions, ultimate end of man, the Correctness (or validity) does not necessarily mean
determinants of morality, law, and conscience. truth. Ergo, logic must not be confused with epistemology.
Epistemology studies the acts of the intellect from the
C. Axiology. The name axiology comes from the Greek viewpoint of truth and certitude; whereas, logic studies the
words axies, meaning "worthy," and logos meaning acts of the intellect from the viewpoint of correctness or
"discourse" or "study." Axiology is the discourse or study of validity. Mere correctness or validity does not warrant
the system and nature of judgments or worthiness. it logicality, for thinking is logical only when it is correct as well
includes the study of values, its origin, types, and as true. Thinking (or reasoning), therefore, must be both
characteristics (Roa, 2007). correct and true.

Logical thinking is a natural human capability that allows 2.3 IMPORTANCE OF LOGIC. Logic has very practical
individuals to reason out correctly. But to ensure that applications, touching on basically all aspects of human life.
reasoning methods are correct, there is a need to study the
science of logic and examine explicitly and systematically the 1. Logic contributes to the quality of human life. Man, in
norms of validity applicable to intellectual knowledge. This point of size, is indeed only an atom compared with the
part sets the domains of logic and critical thinking. universe. But, he outweighs the whole totality of matter
precisely because of his intelligence, reason, and will; and
2.1 NATURE OF LOGIC. Hymologically, logic comes from the because of this marvellous power, man has been able to lock
Greek word logike, meaning, #hought,kten on, for discourse. the secrets and mysteries of human life. Logic is the very
It is the once and art of cored thinking (or reasoning) (De science that aims to develop these powers of intelligence,
Leon, 2003) reason, and will necessary for the cultivation and enrichment
of the human condition. Without logic, science would not be
1.Logic is a Science. Science is knowledge, but not all possible; and without science, human civilization would not
knowledge is science. In science, knowledge must be true and have gone this far.
systematized.
Knowledge is true when the judgment of the mind is in 2. Logic leads to the formation of a reasonable human being.
agreement with the objective thing judged (Glenn, 1957); it is Man may not have a horse's strength and speed, a cat's
systematized when it follows procedures, structures, keenness of sight, and a bird's pair of wings to cross
principles, and rules. uncharted oceans; nevertheless, he is superior to all these
Logic is a science because it is a systematized body of logical animals because he has reason. Logic the philosophical
truths and principles governing correct thinking (Cruz, 2005). discipline of correct thinking (reasoning)- helps contribute to
the formation of a truly reasonable human being.
2.Logic is an Art. Art is the ability to perform a difficult and
complicated operation easily, spontaneously, and effectively. 3. Logic tends to perfect man's gift of natural logic. Man's
In this sense, logic is an art since it aims to develop the habit ability to reason correctly is innate to him. He has the gift of
of thinking easily, spontaneously, and effectively common sense this is natural logic. During the prehistoric era,
(Montemayor, 1993); it aims to develop mastery and skill in natural logic guided man to the use of fire and the wheel.
reasoning. These discoveries laid the cornerstone of progress and
civilization.
2.2 OBJECTS OF LOGIC Logic, as a specialized branch of However, natural logic (or common sense) needs to be
philosophy, has its own material and formal objects. trained and sharpened to reach its fullness. Without proper
instruction, natural logic is prone to mistake, leaving the
1. Material Object of Logic. The material object or subject process of reasoning to "trial-and-error." Thus, the science
matter of logic is thinking (or reasoning). Logic is concerned and art of logic is inescapably necessary in perfecting man's
with the acts of the intellect, more specifically with the gift of natural logic.
thinking or reasoning process. Logic promotes good thinking,
i.e.. creative thinking and critical thinking. 4.Logic gives man norms for distinguishing correct from
Compared to ordinary thinking, critical thinking skills incorrect thinking. The study of logic enables one to pinpoint
equip man to better distinguish the true from seemingly true the defects of faulty arguments. It helps one to explain
statements, the reasonable from the unreasonable judgment, exactly what is wrong with the arguments and to give the
and the acceptable from the unacceptable inference (Rivas & flaw a name. Moreover, it helps one to think with order and
Nael, 2006). ease, and without error.
2.4 DIVISIONS OF LOGIC,logic may be divided according to
the three acts of the intellect simple apprehension, judgment,
and reasoning

1. Simple Apprehension is the act by which the intellect

grasps or apprehends the essence of a particular thing (Glenn,
1957). This act produces concepts or ideas which are
materialized through terms.

2. Judgment is the act by which the intellect pronounces

upon the agreement or disagreement between two ideas,
which the mind has formed and compared (Glenn, 1957).
Judgment produces enunciation and is externalized through a
proposition (a statement expressing truth).

3. Reasoning is the act by which the intellect relates several

judgments to arrive at a new judgment that necessarily
follows from the relationships established (Rivas & Nael,
2006). The product of reasoning in argument and its material
expression is syllogism.
These three mental operations constitute the bases of
rational knowledge as opposed to sense knowledge. While
rational knowledge begins with perception of the material
qualities of physical objects by the senses, mere perception
constitutes sense knowledge and its study belongs properly
to psychology.
These mental operations, which provide the elements of the
subject matter (material object) of logic and the bases of
inferential functions, are summarized in Figure 2.