BME101 / BME201: FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Unit-3: Introduction to Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
Refrigeration: Refrigerating effect, Ton of Refrigeration; Coefficient of performance, methods of
refrigeration, construction and working of domestic refrigerator, concept of heat pump.
Air-Conditioning: Its meaning and application, humidity, dry bulb, wet bulb, and dew point
temperatures, comfort conditions, construction and working of window air conditioner.
Refrigeration
Refrigeration: meaning: It is a process of lowering the temperature of a space or system below
ambient temperature. In another word, it is a type of artificial cooling in a space. Heat extract from a
system (whose cooling is to be done) at low temperature and discharge to the atmosphere at high
temperature. It is a process in which a device consumes energy for transferring the heat energy from a
low temperature reservoir to high temperature reservoir as show in the fig. 1.

In older times, main purpose of refrigeration was the production of ice for food and beverages
preservation. Now days it is not only used for food preservation but also for chemical and
petrochemicals, pharmaceutical, data centers and other industries. It also has a great importance
for transport industry in the current and coming scenario for food (vegetable and fruits), essential
medicines transportation from one city to another. Petrochemical industries utilize refrigeration for
controlling the necessary reactions in their field.

Introduction: As mentioned refrigeration deals with cooling of bodies or fluids to temperatures

lower than those of surroundings. This involves absorption of heat at a lower temperature and
rejection to higher temperature of the surroundings. Refrigeration and air conditioning are
generally treated in a single subject due to the fact that one of the most important applications of
refrigeration is in cooling and dehumidification as required for summer air conditioning.
 Relation between refrigeration and air conditioning

The temperature range of interest in refrigeration extends down to about –100oC.. Now-a-days
refrigeration has become an essential part of food chain- from post-harvest heat removal to
processing, distribution and storage. Refrigeration has become essential for many chemical and
processing industries to improve the standard, quality, precision and efficiency of many
manufacturing processes.
Air-conditioning is one of the major applications of refrigeration. Air-conditioning has made the
living conditions more comfortable, hygienic and healthy in offices, work places and homes. Air-
conditioning involves control of temperature, humidity, cleanliness of air and its distribution to meet
the comfort requirements of human beings and/or some industrial requirements. Air-conditioning
involves cooling and dehumidification in summer months; this is essentially done by air-
conditioning.

Need for refrigeration

1. In hotels and households, food items, both cooked and uncooked, can be preserved for a long
time in low temperatures.
2. Storage of fruits and vegetables makes it possible to add fresh salads to the menu all year
round.
3. Storage of fish, meat and other perishables items safely for longer periods is possible due to
refrigeration.
4. Seasonal food items can be bought from the market in bulk quantity at relatively cheaper
price, stored in refrigerated conditions and later used during off season.
5. Cooling of desserts and drinks

Heat Engines, Heat Pumps and Refrigerators

By the end of this lesson you will be able describe the difference between a heat engine and a heat
pump/refrigerator and be able to differentiate between the efficiency and the coefficient of
performance.
Basic principle of heat engine: A heat engine is a device that converts heat to work. It takes heat
from a high temperature reservoir, then does some work like moving a piston, lifting weight etc. and
finally discharges some heat energy into the low temperature reservoir.
You may be familiar with the concept of the heat engine, which uses cyclical processes to turn
thermal energy into work. A cyclic process is one in which the system periodically returns to its
initial state. The first practical heat engine was the steam engine, which heralded the beginning of the
industrial revolution. Schematically it can be represented as

Heat Engine Efficiency

Let us derive an expression for the efficiency of a heat engine. We can define heat engine efficiency
as: η=W/Q1
Where,
W = Work done by the engine
Q1 = Heat taken from the source
W=Q1−Q2
Hence the heat engine efficiency is:
η=(Q1−Q2) / Q1
η=1− (Q2/ Q1)
So for Q2 = 0 efficiency will be 100% but, in actual, this is not possible because there will be some
loss of energy in the system. Hence, for every engine, there is a limit for its efficiency.
From here, thermal efficiency representing the amount of heat converted into work done. But in case
of refrigeration, work is not come out as output. Here, thermal efficiency representing the amount
of work required for conversion of mechanical work or electrical work into net heat output. An
economic refrigeration cycle or higher thermal efficiency refrigeration cycle is one that not only
removes higher amount of heat from the colder region but also consumes less amount of work for
doing so. So, ratio of desired heat output to work input is refrigeration called coefficient of
performance (COP). In case of heat pumps, COP is the ratio of net heat added (to the hot
reservoir) to the work input.
HEAT PUMPS: Heat pumps are designed to move thermal energy opposite to the direction of heat
flow by absorbing heat from a cold space and release it to a warmer one• ’
A device which transfers heat from a cooler to a warmer body (by receiving energy) is called a heat
pump. A refrigerator is a special case of heat pump. Just as efficiency was defined for a heat engine,
for a heat pump the coefficient of performance (COP) is a measure of how well it is doing the job
Refrigerator: Refrigeration Cycle: Heat flows in direction of decreasing temperature, i.e., from
high-temperature to low temperature regions. The transfer of heat from a low-temperature to high-
temperature requires a refrigerator and/or heat pump. Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the
same device; they only differ in their objectives.
A refrigerator takes out heat from a lower temperature T2 and releases it to a higher temperature T1.
For this process to occur, work must be done on the system. Below is the schematic representation of
the process:
Comparison of Heat Engine, Heat Pump and Refrigerator

Unit of refrigeration:
• Unit of refrigeration is Ton. Amount of heat required to remove from 1000 Kg (1Ton)
of water at 0oC to convert it into ice at 0oC in 24 hours is known as 1Ton of
refrigeration or unit of refrigeration.
• In another words amount of heat absorbed during melting of 1000 kg of ice at 0oC in
24 hours.
• Calculation of unit of refrigeration
• As we know latent heat for 1 kg of ice is 335 KJ
• And from the definition of 1 Ton of refrigeration
• 1 Ton = 1000 Kg of ice * Latent heat of 1 kg of ice / 24 hours
• = (1000×335)/ (24×60) in one minute
• = 232.6 kJ/min However, for actual calculation, it is always taken as 210 kJ/min. •
So, 1 Ton ≈ 3.5kW or 12,000 BTU/h
Numerical problems:
1. A refrigeration system produces 40 kg/hr of ice at 0oC from water at 25oC. Find the refrigeration
effect per hour and TR. If it consumes 1 kW of energy to produce the ice, find the COP. Take latent
heat of solidification of water at 0oC as 335 kJ/kg and specific heat of water 4.19 kJ/kg oC.

Example 2:
Example 3: A house hold refrigerator is maintained at a temperature of 2°c. Every time the door
is opened, warm material is placed inside, introducing an average of 420kJ. But making only a
small change in the temperature of the refrigerator. The door is opened 20 times a day, and the
refrigerator operates at 15% of ideal COP. The cost of work is 4 Rs per kWhr. What is the monthly
bill for this refrigerator? The atmosphere is at 30°C.

So, each time the door is opened, 285.13 kJ of work is to be done by fridge and that much electrical
energy is consumed. The fridge is opened 20 times a day or 600 times a month.
So, monthly consumption = 285.13 x 600 = 171079.4 kJ
Cost = 4 rs/ kWh = 4/3600 Rs/kJ
Bill = cost x consumption= 4/3600 x 171079.4 = 190 rupees

Example.4: Carnot refrigeration cycle absorbs heat at 270 K and rejects heat at 300 K.
(a) ) Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle.
(b) If the cycle is absorbing 1130 kJ/min at 270 K, how many kJ of work is required per second.
(c) If the Carnot heat pump operates between the same temperatures as the above refrigeration cycle,
what is the coefficient of performance?
(d) How many kJ/min will the heat pump deliver at 300 K if it absorbs 1130 kJ/min at 270 K.
Example 5: The capacity of a refrigerator is 200 TR when working between – 6°C and 25oC.
Determine the mass of ice produced per day from water at 25°C. Also find the power required to
drive the unit. Assume that the cycle operates on reversed Carnot cycle and latent heat of ice is 335
kJ/kg
Application: The major applications of refrigeration can be grouped into following four major
equally important areas.
1. Food processing, preservation and distribution
2. Chemical and process industries
3. Special Applications
4. Comfort air-conditioning
1. Food processing, preservation and distribution
a) Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables b) Fish
c) Meat and poultry d) Dairy Products
e) Beverages f) Processing and distribution of frozen food
2. Chemical and process industries
a) Separation of gases b) Condensation of Gases
c) Dehumidification of Air d) Solidification of Solute
e) Storage as liquid at low pressure f) Removal of Heat of Reaction:
g) Cooling for preservation h) Recovery of Solvents
3. Special Applications
a) Cold Treatment of Metals b) Medical
c) Ice Skating Rink d) Construction
e) Desalination of Water f) Ice Manufacturing

Application of refrigeration in Food processing, preservation and Distribution

Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables: It is well-known that some bacteria are responsible for
degradation of food, and enzymatic processing cause ripening of the fruits and vegetables. The
growth of bacteria and the rate of enzymatic processes are reduced at low temperature. This helps in
reducing the spoilage and improving the shelf life of the food.
Fish: In India, iced fish is still transported by rail and road, and retail stores store it for short periods
Meat and poultry: These items also require refrigeration right after slaughter during processing,
packaging. Short-term storage is done at 0oC. Long-term storage requires freezing and storage at -
25oC
Dairy Products: The important dairy products are milk, butter, buttermilk and ice cream. To maintain
good quality, the milk is cooled in bulk milk coolers immediately after being taken from cow
Beverages: Production of beer, wine and concentrated fruit juices require refrigeration. The taste of
many drinks can be improved by serving them cold or by adding ice to them.
Candy: Use of chocolate in candy or its coating with chocolate requires setting at 5-10oC otherwise it
becomes sticky. Further, it is recommended that it be stored at low temperature for best taste
Processing and distribution of frozen food: Many vegetables, meat, fish and poultry are frozen to
sustain the taste, which nearly duplicates that of the fresh product. Freezing retains the sensory
qualities of colour, texture and taste apart from nutritional qualities.
Supermarket refrigeration: Supermarket refrigeration is gaining popularity all over the world. At
present this constitutes the largest sector of refrigeration in developed countries. In a typical
supermarket a large variety of products are stored and displayed for sale
Applications of refrigeration in chemical and process industries
The industries like petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants and paper pulp industries etc. require
very large cooling capacities. The requirement of each industry- process wise and equipment-wise is
different hence refrigeration system has to be customized and optimized for individual application.
The main applications of refrigeration in chemical and process industries involve the following
categories
Separation of gases: In petrochemical plant, temperatures as low as –150oC with refrigeration
capacities as high as 10,000 Tons of Refrigeration (TR) are used for separation of gases by fractional
distillation.
Condensation of Gases: some gases that are produced synthetically, are condensed to liquid state by
cooling, so that these can be easily stored and transported in liquid state. For example, in synthetic
ammonia plant, ammonia is condensed at –10 to 10oC before filling in the cylinders, storage and
shipment. This low temperature requires refrigeration.
Dehumidification of Air: Low humidity air is required in many pharmaceutical industries. This is
also required to prevent static electricity and prevents short circuits in places where high voltages are
used. The air is cooled below its dew point temperature, so that some water vapour condenses out and
the air gets dehumidified.
Solidification of Solute: One of the processes of separation of a substance or pollutant or impurity
from liquid mixture is by its solidification at low temperature
Storage as liquid at low pressure: Liquid occupies less space than gases.
Removal of Heat of Reaction: In many chemical reactions, efficiency is better if the reaction occurs
below room temperature. This requires refrigeration
Cooling for preservation: Many compounds decompose at room temperature or these evaporate at a
very fast rate. Certain drugs, explosives and natural rubber can be stored for long periods at lower
temperatures
Recovery of Solvents: In many chemical processes solvents are used, which usually evaporate after
reaction. These can be recovered by condensation at low temperature by refrigeration system
Special applications of refrigeration: In this category we consider applications other than chemical
uses. These are in manufacturing processes, applications in medicine, construction units etc.
Cold Treatment of Metals: The hardness andwear resistance of carburized steel can be increased by
this process. Keeping the cutting tool at –100oC for 15 minutes can also increase the life of cutting
tool
Medical: Blood plasma and antibiotics are manufactured by freeze-drying process and drugs.
Ice Skating Rinks: Due to the advent of artificial refrigeration, sports like ice hockey and skating do
not have to depend upon freezing weather. These can be played in indoor stadium where water is
frozen into ice on the floor.
Construction: Setting of concrete is an exothermic process. If the heat of setting is not removed the
concrete will expand and produce cracks in the structure.
Desalination of Water: In some countries fresh water is scarce and seawater is desalinated to obtain
fresh water. Solar energy is used in some cases for desalination. An alternative is to freeze the
seawater. The ice thus formed will be relatively free of salt. The ice can be separated and thawed to
obtain fresh water
Ice Manufacture: This was the classical application of refrigeration. Ice was manufactured in plants
by dipping water containers in chilled brine and it used to take about 36 hours to freeze all the water
in cans into ice.
Refrigeration systems are also required in remote and rural areas for a wide variety of applications such as
storage of milk, vegetables, fruits, food grains etc., and also for storage of vaccines etc. in health centers
TERMS USED IN REFRIGERATION:

REFRIGERANT – It is the substance used for heat transfer in a refrigeration system. It takes up
heat from inside the refrigerator cabinet and releases it to outside atmosphere.
SENSIBLE HEAT – The heat which is used to raise or lower the temperature of a substance.
LATENT HEAT – Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released when a substance changes its
physical state. Latent heat is absorbed upon evaporation, and released upon condensation to liquid
(as in clouds).
EVAPORATION – It is the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous state due
to an increase in temperature and/or pressure.
CONDENSATION - It is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid
phase, and is the reverse of evaporation.
Specific heat: The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by
one degree Celsius.
Specific Volume: Specific volume is a property of materials, defined as the number of cubic meters
occupied by one kilogram of a particular substance. The standard unit is the meter cubed per
kilogram (m3/kg or m3·kg−1).
Desirable properties of refrigerants
1. Low boiling point and Low freezing point.
2. Low specific heat and Its Latent Heat of vaporization should be high so that quantity of high
refrigerant can be minimized
3. High critical pressure and temperature.
4. Low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
5. High thermal conductivity to compact evaporator and condenser.
6. It should be non-poisonous and non-irritant.
7. It should be non-flammable.
8. It should be chemically stable.
9. It should be non-corrosive and should not react with the parts / components of the system.
10. It should have no objectionable odour or smell.
11. It should be easily and reliably detectable in case of leakage.
12. Its cost should be low and It should be easily available

Refrigeration Cycle: Heat flows in direction of decreasing temperature, i.e., from high-temperature
to low temperature regions. The transfer of heat from a low-temperature to high-temperature requires
a refrigerator and/or heat pump. Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same device; they
only differ in their objectives the performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms
of coefficient of performance (COP):

The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle operating between two specified
temperature levels. It sets the highest theoretical COP. The coefficient of performance for Carnot
refrigerators and heat pumps are:
The Ideal Vapor‐Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor-compression refrigeration is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators, air conditioners,
and heat pumps.

Schematic diagram for ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

T-s and P-h diagrams for an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

 1-2: A reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the refrigerant. The saturated vapor at state 1
is superheated to state 2.
wc =h2 − h1

2-3: An internally, reversible, constant pressure heat rejection in which the working substance is de-
superheated and then condensed to a saturated liquid at 3. During this process, the working substance
rejects most of its energy to the condenser cooling water.
qH = h2 − h3
(Dome left side liquid right side vapour with in dome liquid and vapour)
3-4: An irreversible throttling process in which the temperature and pressure decrease at constant
enthalpy. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture.
h3 = h4
4-1: An internally, reversible, constant pressure heat interaction in which the refrigerant (two-phase
mixture) is evaporated to a saturated vapor at state point 1. The latent enthalpy necessary for
evaporation is supplied by the refrigerated space surrounding the evaporator. The amount of heat
transferred to the working fluid in the evaporator is called the refrigeration load.
qL = h1 − h4

REFRIGERATION PROCESS: The main components of a refrigeration process are:

1. Evaporator
2. Compressor
3. Condenser
4. Expansion Valve
EVAPORATOR: In the evaporator the Refrigerant absorbs the heat from the object to be cooled
and it gets heated up. The heat absorbed is the latent heat of vaporization of the liquid refrigerant and
therefore the refrigerant under goes a change of state i.e. from liquid to vapours without any change
in temperature. The vapour refrigerant then returns to the compressor.
COMPRESSOR: The vapour refrigerant is compressed at a very high pressure and temperature. It
than passes through the condenser coil.
CONDENSER: While passing through the condenser the refrigerant rejects heat either to air or to
surrounding water which gets heated up. The refrigerant condenses to cold liquid state but at high
pressure. This high pressure colder refrigerant then passes through the expansion valve.
EXPANSION VALVE: The expansion valve cools down the refrigerant to a low temperature and
also reduces the pressure.
It can be adjusted to control the temperature and pressure to which the refrigerant goes to the
evaporator.
The cool refrigerant is now ready to absorb heat from the hot objects while i t passes through
the evaporator.
* Efficiency of Refrigeration System is expressed as Coefficient of Performance (COP) and is
defined as the ratio of refrigeration effect produced to the mechanical work done.
REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Vapor compression refrigeration system:

The Vapor compression refrigeration system is the most popular and widely used system in
refrigeration and air conditioning both for industrial and domestic applications.
The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle involves four components: compressor, condenser,
expansion valve/throttle valve and evaporator. It is a compression process, whose aim is to raise the
refrigerant pressure, as it flows from an evaporator. The high-pressure refrigerant flows through a
condenser/heat exchanger before attaining the initial low pressure and going back to the evaporator. A
more detailed explanation of the steps is as explained below.

Part 1: Compression: The refrigerant (for example R-717) enters the compressor at low temperature
and low pressure. It is in a gaseous state. Here, compression takes place to raise the temperature
and refrigerant pressure. The refrigerant leaves the compressor and enters to the condenser. Since
this process requires work, an electric motor may be used. Compressors themselves can be scroll,
screw, centrifugal or reciprocating types.

Part 2: Condensation: The high pressure, high temperature gas releases heat energy and condenses
inside the "condenser" portion of the system. The condenser is in contact with the hot reservoir
of the refrigeration system. (The gas releases heat into the hot reservoir because of the external
work added to the gas.) The refrigerant leaves as a high-pressure liquid.

Part 3: Throttling or Expansion Valve: When the refrigerant enters the throttling valve, it expands
and releases pressure. Consequently, the temperature drops at this stage. Because of these
changes, the refrigerant leaves the throttle valve as a liquid vapor mixture, typically in proportions of
around 75 % and 25 % respectively. Throttling valves play two crucial roles in the vapor compression
cycle. First, they maintain a pressure differential between low- and high-pressure sides. Second, they
control the amount of liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator.
Part 4: Evaporation: At this stage of the Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle, the refrigerant is
at a lower temperature than its surroundings. Therefore, it evaporates and absorbs latent heat of
vaporization. Heat extraction from the refrigerant happens at low pressure and temperature. Because
a low pressure is maintained, the refrigerant is able to boil at a low temperature. So, the liquid absorbs
heat from the cold reservoir and evaporates. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a low
temperature, low pressure gas and is taken into the compressor again, back at the beginning of the
cycle

Construction and working of Domestic Refrigerator

The main components include:

1) Refrigerant: It is a working fluid flow through all working parts or internal parts of the
refrigerator. The main function of a refrigerant is to give the cooling effect in the evaporator. It
absorbs heat from the evaporator and rejects it to the environment.
2) Compressor: It is located in the back of the refrigerator as shown in the figure above. It
compresses the refrigerant (coming from the evaporator) to the high temperature and pressure for
rejecting heat from the refrigerant. It is only part of the refrigerant which consume energy (electric
energy).
3) Condenser: It is copper pipe arrangement (as heat exchanger) commonly located in the back of
refrigerator. It rejects the refrigerant heat to the environment (by air cooling), which is absorbed by
the refrigerant in evaporator and compressor. For increasing the surface area of the copper pipe
arrangement, it is finned externally, which ultimately increases the heat transfer.
4) Expansive valve or the capillary: Refrigerant coming from the condenser having high pressure
and for decreasing its pressure, volume of the passage increases by the help of capillary tubes
or expansion value. It is a thin copper pipe with number of turns. When refrigerant passed
through capillary tubes, pressure and temperature drops suddenly.
5) Evaporator or chiller or freezer: It is also a heat exchanger, where refrigerant enters at low
pressure and temperature and absorb the heat from the substance to be cooled. It is made up of copper or
aluminum tubes (plate type of evaporators also used in domestic refrigerator) having number of turn
in it. After evaporator, refrigerant flow to the compressor and repeats the cycle. 6) Temperature
control device or thermostat: Thermostat is a device which controls the temperature inside the
refrigerator with the help of a sensor connected to evaporator. Its control presents as a knob (older or
small refrigerators) inside the refrigerator or push switch outside the refrigerator (modern refrigerators).
Whenever the temperature inside the refrigerator reaches to set temperature of thermostat, it cut down
the electricity supply to compressor and when temperature goes above to certain level, thermostat
resupply the electricity to compressor.
7) Defrost system: Defrost system available in old or small refrigerators which helps in removing the
excess amount of ice from the evaporator compartment. It can be manually control by the help of
thermostat button or by an automatic system which is a combination of electric heater and timer. There
are different evaporator versions in the market, but the major classifications are liquid cooling and air
cooling, depending whether they cool liquid or air respectively.
To avoid continuous running of electric motor (motor required running the compressor) and
unnecessary work of compression, thermostatic control is used which senses the set interior
temperature and stops the motor from running and when the temperature raises again, the motor
restarts and the Compressor starts working again.
Compressor is the most expensive part of the refrigeration cycle and its repair is difficult. An
inefficient or defective compressor is generally replaced with a new one.
Working of Domestic refrigerator
Before going to the working of domestic refrigerator, one should know that cooling of a space is done by
removing the heat from that space to atmosphere (outside that space). It is not possible without any
external assistance. Here, this external assistance is done with the help of compressor (only element
consuming external energy i.e. electrical energy). Whereas, others component not consuming any
type of external energy.

Heat flows from refrigerating space to refrigerant (flowing in evaporator at low pressure) due to high
temperature of refrigerating space as compare to refrigerant. Heat conducted by the refrigerant has to be
removed to the environment and for this; its temperature should be more than environment. Now,
compressors help in increase the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant (gaseous state). As we
know that, with the increase of pressure, boiling point of the refrigerant also increases. This high
temperature and pressure refrigerant pass through condenser, where it loses its latent heat (changes
phase) to the environment due to its high temperature as compare to the outside (environment) air and
convert to liquid refrigerant. After condenser, refrigerant temperature must be decreases below the
temperature of refrigerating space (for the transfer of heat from refrigerating space to refrigerant) and for
this expansion of refrigerant is required. Expansion valve or capillary tube is used for the expansion of
refrigerant; capillary tube is made up of copper tube of thin diameter and longer length. Here,
expansion process is acting as throttling process and decreases the temperature and pressure of the
refrigerant. Majority of cooling of refrigerant is done under this process.
This low temperature and pressure refrigerant pass through evaporator, where refrigerant absorbs
thermal energy in the form of latent heat from food stuff (available in refrigerating space) and
converted into vapors. Here, boiling point of the liquid refrigerant is -20-degree C and any food stuff
having temperature more than this make the refrigerant to boil. At last this low-pressure vapor
refrigerant flow to compressor and cycle continuous till the compressor works.
Note: As the boiling point of refrigerant is the function of pressure. This change in boiling point with
pressure is utilizes in compressor and capillary for changing the phase of refrigerant.
Some technical points of a domestic refrigerator
Reciprocating type of compressor is utilized, which is hermetically sealed (electric motor and
compressor is enclosed in a single container).
Capillary having very less diameter and longer length, which increases the friction (with the
increase of length of pipe friction increases) in flow of refrigerant and due to this high- p r e s s u r e
refrigerant converted to low pressure refrigerant.
Except compressor, no other moving parts utilized, this is the reason for higher life of refrigerator.
In late 90s CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) were used as refrigerant, which is replaced with HCFCs
(hydro chlorofluorocarbon) in starting of 20s due to its bad effect on environment especially on ozone
layer. Most common HCFC is “R-22”
Refrigerator capacity is measured in 'Litre', that is why refrigerator volume or storage space
measured in liters.
 BME101 / BME201: FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
Air-Conditioning: Its meaning and application, humidity, dry bulb, wet bulb, and dew point
temperatures, comfort conditions, construction and working of window air conditioner.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
Any type of conditioning of air which includes circulating air in a room, filtering air, cooling or
heating air, humidifying or dehumidifying air. Complete air conditioning would mean all such
processes being carried on air. Refrigeration plant is necessary for such air – conditioning system

It is a system for controlling the humidity, ventilation, and temperature in a building or vehicle,
typically to maintain a cool atmosphere in warm conditions

Application of air conditioning: Air-conditioning is required for improving processes and

materials apart from comfort air-conditioning required for comfort of persons. The life and
efficiency of electronic devices increases at lower temperatures. Computer and microprocessor-
based equipment also require air-conditioning for their efficient operation. Modern electronic
equipment with Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) chips dissipates relatively large quantities of
energy in a small volume. As a result, unless suitable cooling is provided, the chip temperature can
become extremely high. As the computing power of computers increases, more and more cooling
will be required in a small volume. Air-conditioning applications can be divided into two categories,
namely, industrial and comfort air-conditioning.
Industrial Air conditioning
• It provides air at required temperature and humidity to perform a specific industrial process
successful
• Design conditions are not based on human comfort but purely on the requirement of
industrial process
The main purpose of industrial air conditioning systems is to provide conducive conditions so that
the required processes can be carried out and required products can be produced. Of course, the
industrial air conditioning systems must also provide at least a partial measure of comfort to the
people working in the industries. The following are the applications to name a few.
Laboratories: This may involve precision measurement to performance testing of materials,
equipment and processes at controlled temperature and relative humidity. Laboratories carrying out
research in electronics and biotechnology areas require very clean atmosphere.
Printing: Some colour printing presses have one press for each colour. The paper passes from one
press to another press. The ink of one colour must get dried before it reaches the second press, so
that the colors do not smudge. And the paper should not shrink, so that the picture does not get
distorted. This requires control over temperature as well humidity.
Manufacture of Precision Parts: If the metal parts are maintained at uniform temperature during
manufacturing process, these will neither expand nor shrink, maintaining close tolerances. A lower
relative humidity will prevent rust formation also. A speck of dust in a switch or relay can cause
total or partial malfunction in spacecraft. The manufacture of VLSI chips, microprocessors,
computers, aircraft parts, Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), nanomaterial fabrication and
many areas of modern progress require a very clean atmosphere and proper control over humidity.
Textile Industry: The yarn in the textile industry is spun and it moves over spools at very high
speeds in modern machines. It is very sensitive to humidity. Pharmaceutical Industries: In these
industries to obtain sterile atmosphere, the airborne bacteria and dust must be removed in the air-
conditioning system by filters. These industries require clean rooms. If capsules are made or used in
the plant, then air has to be dry otherwise the gelatin of capsules will become sticky.
Photographic Material: The raw material used for filmmaking has to be maintained at low
temperature, since it deteriorates at high temperature and humidity. The film also has to be stored at
low temperature. The room where film is developed requires 100% replacement by fresh air.
Farm Animals: The yield of Jersey cows decreases drastically during summer months. Low
temperature results in more efficient digestion of food and increase in weight of cow and the milk
yield. Animal barns have to be ventilated in any case since their number density is usually very
large. In many countries evaporative cooling is used for creating comfort conditions in animal
houses.
Computer Rooms: These require control of temperature, humidity and cleanliness. The
temperature of around 25 oC and relative humidity of 50% is maintained in these rooms. The dust
spoils the CD drives and printers etc.; hence the rooms have to be kept clean also by using micro
filters in the air-conditioning system.
Power Plants: Most of the modern power plants are microprocessor controlled. In the earlier
designs, the control rooms were very large and were provided with natural ventilation. These days
the control rooms are very compact, hence these require air- conditioning for persons and the
microprocessors.
Vehicular Air-conditioning: Bus, train, truck, car, recreational vehicle, crane cabin, aircraft and
ships all require air-conditioning. In bus, train aircraft and ship, the occupancy density is very high
and the metabolic heat and water vapour generated by persons has to be rejected. The cooling load
in these is very high and rapidly changes that provides a challenge for their design.

Comfort Air conditioning

• It is the process of giving comfort atmosphere to majority of the occupant
• It is subdivided into Summer A/C Winter A/C Year – round A/c
Comfort Air-Conditioning: Energy of food is converted into chemical energy for functioning of
brain, lungs, heart and other organs and this energy is ultimately rejected to the surroundings. Also
the internal organs require a temperature close to 35oC for their efficient operation, and regulatory
mechanisms of human body maintain this temperature by rejecting appropriate amount of heat.
Human beings do not feel comfortable if some extra effort is required by the body to reject this
energy. The air temperature, humidity and velocity at which human body does not have to take
any extra action, is called comfort condition.
The residences, offices, shopping centers, stores, large buildings, theatres, auditorium etc. all have
slightly different requirements and require different design. The required cooling capacities also
vary widely depending upon the application. The factory assembled room air conditioners are very
widely used for small residences, offices etc.
Hospitals require sterile atmosphere so that bacteria emitted by one patient does not affect the other
persons. This is specially so for the operation theatres and intensive care units. In these places no
part of the room air is re-circulated after conditioning by A/C system. In other places up to 90% of
the cold room air is re-circulated and 10% outdoor fresh air is taken to meet the ventilation
requirement of persons. In hospitals all the room air is thrown out and 100% fresh air is taken into
the A/C system. Since, outdoor air may be at 45oC compared to 25oC of the room air, the
air- conditioning load becomes very large. The humidity load also increases on this account.
Restaurants, theatres and other places of amusement require air-conditioning for the comfort of
patrons. All places where, a large number of people assemble should have sufficient supply of fresh
air to dilute CO 2 and body odours emitted by persons. In addition, people dissipate large quantities
of heat that has to be removed by air- conditioning for the comfort of persons. These places have
wide variation in air- conditioning load throughout the day. These have large number of persons,
which add a lot of water vapour by respiration and perspiration. The food cooked and consumed
also adds water vapour. This vapour has to be removed by air-conditioning plant.
Air-conditioning in stores and supermarkets attracts more customers, induces longer period of
stay and thereby increases the sales. Supermarkets have frozen food section, refrigerated food
section, dairy and brewage section, all of them requiring different temperatures. The refrigeration
system has to cater to different temperatures, apart from air-conditioning. These places also have a
wide variation in daily loads depending upon busy and lean hours, and holidays.
Large commercial buildings have their own shopping center, recreation center, gymnasium
swimming pool etc. Offices have very high density of persons during office hours and no occupancy
during off time. Modern buildings of this type are called intelligent buildings where air-conditioning
requires large amount of energy and hence is the major focus.

Since persons have to spend a major part of their time within the building, without much exposure
to outdoors, the concept of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has become very important. IAQ addresses
to these issues and gives recommendation for their reduction to safe limits. Sick building syndrome
is very common in poorly designed air conditioned buildings due to inadequate ventilation and use
of improper materials. The sick building syndrome is characterized by the feeling of nausea,
headache, eye and throat irritation and the general feeling of being uncomfortable with the indoor
environment. In developed countries this is leading to litigation also.

In the earlier systems little attention was paid to energy conservation, since fuels were abundant
and inexpensive. The energy crisis in early seventies, lead to a review of basic principles and
increased interest in energy optimization. The concept of low initial cost with no regard to operating
cost has become obsolete now. Approaches, concepts and thermodynamic cycles, which were
considered impractical at one time, are receiving serious considerations now. Concepts of hybrid
cycles, heat recovery systems, alternate refrigerants and mixtures of refrigerants are being proposed
to optimize energy use. Large-scale applications of air-conditioning in vast office and industrial
complexes and increased awareness of comfort and indoor air quality have led to challenges in
system design and simulations. Developments in electronics, controls and computers have made
refrigeration and air-conditioning a high-technology industry.

Terminologies used in Air Conditioning

Psychrometry: The study and measurement of the properties of air and water vapour mixture is
known as psychrometry.
Dry Air: Atmospheric air consisting of a mixture of gases excluding its water vapour content is
known as dry air.
Moisture: The water vapour contained in air is called moisture.
Moist Air: Atmospheric air along with gases and water vapour is known as moist air.
Unsaturated Air: The moist air which does not contain the maximum amount of water vapour
that it can hold at a given temperature is known as unsaturated air.
Saturated Air: The mist air which contains the maximum amount of water vapour that it can
hold at a given temperature is known as saturated air.
Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): The reading of temperature of air given by an ordinary
mercury thermometer, having its bulb dry and not under the sun or other heat radiating objects.
Dew Point Temperature (DPT): At atmospheric temperature atmospheric air always contains
water in form of vapours .If this air is cooled down, the water vapour is turned into water
droplets. This temperature at which the water vapours turn into water droplets is called dew
point temperature.
Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT): Temperature of air indicated by a mercury thermometer whose
bulb is covered by a piece of wet muslin (a cotton fabric) is known as wet bulb temperature.
Specific Humidity (SH): It is defined as the total quantity of water vapour in the moist air.
Specific humidity (SH) is the mass of water vapor present in a given mass of gas, e.g., kg water
vapor / kg dry gas
Relative Humidity (RH): It is defined as the ratio of actual moist air content of a given
volume at a particular temperature to the maximum amount of water vapour if the air is
saturated at the same temperature.
Is a ratio, expressed in percent, of the amount of atmospheric moisture present relative to
the amount that would be present if the air were saturated. Since the latter amount is
dependent on temperature, relative humidity is a function of both moisture content and
temperature.
Human comfort: The human comfort depends upon physiological and psychological condition.
The most acceptable definition, from the subject point of view, is given by the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) which states: human comfort is
that conditions of mind, which expressed satisfaction with the thermal environment.
Factors Affecting Human Comfort
1. Effective temperature
2. Heat production and regulation in human body
3. Heat and moisture losses from the human body
4. Moisture content of air
5. Quality and quantity of air
6. Air motion
7. Hot and cold surfaces
8. Air stratification
Effective Temperature: The degree of warmth or cold felt by a human body depends mainly on the
following three factors:
1. Dry bulb temperature,
2. Relative humidity and
3. Air velocity.
In order to evaluate the combined effect of these factors, the effective temperature is employed. It is
defined as that index which collates the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and
air velocity on the human body. The numerical value of effective temperature is made equal to
the temperature of stills (i.e. 5 to 8 m/min air velocity) saturated air, which produces the same
sensation of warmth or cold as produced under the given conditions. The practical application of
the concept of effective temperature is presented by the comfort chart. This chart is the result of
research made on different kinds of people subjected to wide range of environmental temperature,
relative humidity and air movement by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). In the comfort chart, the dry bulb temperature is
taken as abscissa and the wet bulb temperature of ordinates

In these types of air conditioning system, the air is brought to the required dry bulb temperature and
relative humidity for human health, comfort and efficiency. If sufficient data of the required is not
available, then it is assumed to be 22-24 °C dry bulb temperature and 4 0% relative
humidity (Human comfort).
Ex. In homes, offices, shops, restaurants, theatres, hospitals, schools etc. are using air-conditioning
systems to give comfort to people.

Heat Production and Regulation in Human Body: The rate of heat production depends upon the
individual’s health, his physical activity and his environment. The rate at which the body produces
heat is metabolic rate. The heat production from a normal healthy person when a sleep (called base
metabolic rate) is about 60 watts and it is about ten times more for a person carrying out sustained
very hard work.
Heat and Moisture Losses from the Human Body: The heat is given off from the human body as
either sensible or latent heat or both. In order to design any air-conditioning system for spaces
which human bodies are to occupy, it is necessary to know the rates at which these two forms of
heat are given off under different conditions of air temperature and bodily activity.
Moisture Content of Air: The moisture content of outside air during winter is generally low and it
is above the average during summer, because the capacity of the air to carry moisture is dependent
upon its dry bulb temperature. This means that in winter, if the cold outside air having a low
moisture content leaks into the conditioned space, it will cause a low relative humidity unless
moisture is added to the air by the processes of humidification. In summer, the reverse will
take place unless moisture is removed from the inside air by the dehumidification process.
Quality and Quantity of Air: The air in an occupied space should, at all times, be free from toxic,
unhealthful or disagreeable fumes such as carbon dioxide. It should also be free from dust and
odour.
Air Motion: The air motion which included the distribution of air is very important to maintain
uniform temperate in the conditioned space. The air velocity in the occupied zone should not exceed
8 to 12m/min.
Cold and Hot Surfaces: The cold or hot objects in a conditioned space may cause discomfort to the
occupants.
Air Stratification: The movement of the air to produce the temperature gradient from floor to
ceiling is termed as air stratification. In order to achieve comfortable conditions in the occupied
space, the air conditioning system must be designed to reduce the air stratification to a minimum.

Classification of Air Conditioning Systems

According To the Purpose
1. Comfort air conditioning system.
2. Industrial air conditioning system
According To a Season of the Year
1. Winter air conditioning system.
2. Summer air conditioning system.
3. Year-round air conditioning system.
According To the Arrangement of Equipment
1. The unitary air conditioning system
Window type units
Split type units or Vertical packed units or PTAC systems
2. Central air conditioning system.
Comfort Air Conditioning system
In these types of air conditioning system, the air is brought to the required dry bulb temperature and
relative humidity for human health, comfort and efficiency. If sufficient data of the required is not
available, then it is assumed to be 21°C dry bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity (Human
comfort).
Ex. In homes, offices, shops, restaurants, theatres, hospitals, schools etc. are using air-conditioning
systems to give comfort to people.
Industrial Air Conditioning System
In these types of air conditioning system, the inside dry bulb temperature and relative humidity of
the air is kept constant for working of the machine and for the manufacturing process.
Textile mills, Paper mills, Machine part manufacturing plants, Tool room, Photographic etc. are
using this type of air-conditioning systems.
Winter Air Conditioning System
In winter air conditioning system, the air is heated, which is generally followed by humidification
(Heating and humidification).

Construction and working of window air conditioner.

• Air conditioning is the process of giving comfort to the occupant in a particular space
irrespective of any external climatic conditions
A window air conditioner is the simplest type of AC unit. It's a single unit with all of the parts and
components contained inside one box or casing. This type of AC is usually mounted or installed in a
window and plugs into a traditional electrical outlet.
 It is the simplest form of an air conditioning system
 Usually mounted on windows or walls.
 It is a single unit that is assembled in a casing where all the components are located.
 This unit has a double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on both sides of the motor.
 One at the evaporator side and the other at the condenser side.
 Evaporator side will face the room and the condenser side face outside
 The front panel is the one that is seen by the user from inside the room where it is installed
and has a user interfaced control be it electronically or mechanically.
 The front panel has adjustable horizontal and vertical(some models) window blind or shutter
with horizontal slats that are angled to admit light and air where the direction of air flow are
adjustable to suit the comfort of the users
 This is a completely self-contained unit with the compressor, condenser, evaporator,
refrigerant piping and air filter all assembled in a very compact manner.
 The window AC is usually 0.5 to 5 tons in capacity.
 It is easy to install, operate and maintain.
 It requires at least one wall of the room free and open to atmosphere, so that the air is
discharged in the open.
These units are available as window type or split type. These systems use a vapour compression
refrigeration system with a sealed compressor and forced convection type evaporators and
condensers
Figure shows the schematic of a widow type room air conditioner. In this type all the components
are housed in a single outer casing. In a split type air conditioner, the compressor and condenser
with fan (commonly known as condensing unit) are housed in a separate casing and are kept away
from the indoor unit consisting of the evaporator, blower, filter etc. The outdoor and indoor units are
connected by refrigerant piping. For medium sized buildings factory assembled package units are
available, while for very large buildings a central air conditioning system is used.
Indoor Side Components
The indoor parts of a window air conditioner include:
• Cooling Coil with an air filter mounted on it. The cooling coil is where the heat exchange
happens between the refrigerant in the system and the air in the room.
• Fan Blower is a centrifugal evaporator blower to discharge the cool air to the room.
• Capillary Tube is used as an expansion device.
• Operation Panel is used to control the temperature and speed of the blower fan. A
thermostat is used to sense the return air temperature and another one to monitor the
temperature of the coil.
• Filter Drier is used to remove the moisture from the refrigerant.
• Drain Pan is used to contain the water that condensate from the cooling coil and is
discharged out to the outdoor by gravity
Outdoor Side Components
The outdoor side parts include:
Compressor is used to compress the refrigerant.
Condenser Coil is used to reject heat from the refrigeration to the outside air.
Propeller Fan is used in air-cooled condenser to help move the air molecules over the surface of the
condensing coil.
Fan Motor

Operations: Once the room temperature has been achieved, the compressor cuts off. The
evaporator blower fan will suck the air from the room to be conditioned through the air filter and the
cooling coil. Air that has been conditioned is then discharge to deliver the cool and dehumidified air
back to the room. This air mixes with the room air to bring down the temperature and humidity
level.
The introduction of fresh air from outside the room is done through the damper which is then mixed
with the return air from the room before passing it over the air filter and the cooling coil.
The air filter which is mounted in front of the evaporator acts as a filter to keep the cooling coil
clean to obtain good heat-transfer from the coil
Central Air Conditioning System
It is a most important type of air conditioning system, it uses when the required cooling capacity
25TR or more. It uses when the air flow is more than 300 m³/min or different zones in a building are
to be air-conditioned

Application of Air-Conditioning
• Using air-conditioner is common in food cooking and processing areas. Used in hospital
operating theatres to provide comfortable conditions to patients. And many more industries
like Textile, Printing, Photographic and much more.
• Air-conditioning system used as the commercial purpose for a human being. Example, in
Theatres, Departmental store-room etc.
• Many of transport vehicles use air-conditioning systems such as cars, trains, aircraft, ships
etc. This provides a comfortable condition for the passengers.
• The air-conditioning system used in Television-centres, Computer centres and museum for a
special purpose.