Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Why Study Physics?

1.2 Talking Physics.
1.3 The Use of Mathematics.
1.4 Scientific Notation and Significant Figures.
1.5 Units.
1.6 Dimensional Analysis.
1.7 Problem-Solving Techniques.
1.8 Approximation.
1.9 Graphs.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

1.4 Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
This is a shorthand way of writing very large and/or very small
numbers.
Example: The radius of the sun is 700,000 km. In scientific
notation, this is written as

7.0  105 km.

When properly written, the first

number will be between 1.0 and 10.0

Example: The radius of a hydrogen atom is 0.0000000000529 m.

This is more easily written as 5.29  10−11 m.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Significant Figures (有效數字)
The answer to the last example in the preceding slide is
1.23 GJ—not 1234.8 MJ or 1.2348 GJ as your calculator would show.
• That's because the given quantity, 343 kWh, has only three
significant figures.
• That means we believe that the actual value is closer to
343 kWh than to 342 kWh or 344 kWh.
• If we had been given 343.2 kWh, we would know that the value is
closer to 343.2 kWh than to 343.1 kWh or
343.3 kWh.
• In that case, the number given has four significant figures.
• Significant figures tell how accurately we know the values of
physical quantities.
• Calculations can't increase that accuracy, so it's important to report
the results of calculations with the correct number of significant
figures.
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 Rules for Identifying Significant Figures
1. Nonzero digits are always significant.
2. Final or ending zeros written to the right of the decimal point
are significant. (Example: 7.00)
3. Zeros written to the right of the decimal point for the purpose
of spacing are not significant. (Example: 0.0007)
4. Zeros written to the left of the decimal point may or may not
be significant. For example, 200 cm could have one, two, or
three significant figures; it’s not clear from the number alone.
Rewriting such a number in scientific notation is one way to
remove the ambiguity.
5. Zeros written between significant figures are significant.
(Example: 1001)
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 Significant Figures in Calculations
1. When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the
result is as precise as the least precise of the quantities (see
Example 1.4 in the text).
2. When quantities are multiplied or divided, the result has the
same number of significant figures as the quantity with the
smallest number of significant figures (see Example 1.5 in the
text).
3. In a series of calculations, rounding to the correct number of
significant figures should be done only at the end, not at each
step. It’s a good idea to keep at least two extra significant
figures in calculations, then round at the end.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 圖中的滴定管，它的最小測量單位是0.1 mL，所讀取的滴定體積為2.15 mL。

◼ 2.1是刻度上可準確讀到的數字，稱為精確數值（certain digits）；
◼ 「1」右方的數值「5」則為估計值（uncertain digit），這可能隨不同的人
判讀而有不同的估計差異。
◼ 精確數值加上一位估計值的所有數字，稱為有效數字，2.15 mL為3位有效數
字。

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 以實驗室常用電子天平進行秤量為例，同一藥品若用兩種不同精密度的天平稱
量，得到1.10 g及1.0745 g二組數據，顯示兩台天平的精密度分別為±0.01 g及
±0.0001 g。

記錄數字「1.10 g」中的 0 很重要，不得略寫為1.1 g，因為這會誤以為天平

的稱重誤差為±0.1 g。因此記錄實驗測量數據時，要特別注意有效數字，即記
錄精確讀到的數值再加一位估計值。

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 「0」這個數字的出現常會令有效位數有些困擾

其原則為：
◼ 小數點後面的「0」均為有效數字，例如1.10為三位有效數。
◼ 夾在數字中間的「0」均為有效數字，例如1.0725為五位有效數字。
◼ 所有非零數值前的「0」均不是有效數字，例如0.011 為二位有效數字。
◼ 然而在整數中的尾數若為「0」時會具有混淆性，例如「1500 mL」可能是二位有
效數字，但也可能為三位或四為有效數字，為正確表示「1500 mL」測量值的有效
數字，可根據最小測量單位，以科學記數法表示。例如：

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 當多個數字要進行四則運算時，必須注意有效位數的決定。

Ex：
(1) 752.46 − 21 = 731.46，答案應表示為731，雖然752.46的不準度在小數點後
第二位，但是21的不準度卻在個位，這將導致其差731.46中自個位起均為不準位數，
按規定只能保留一位有誤差的數值，因此在此例中不準位取在最前面的個位，經四
捨五入取捨後為

(2) 若為乘除運算，所得答案須配合有效位數最少的數值，以下算式為例，最小有
效位數為「0.011」的二位有效數字，所以最後答案也以二位有效數字表示。

所有非零數值前的「0」均不是有效數字

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 1.5 Units
Some of the standard SI unit prefixes and their respective
powers of 10:

Prefix Power of 10 Prefix Power of 10

tera (T) 1012 centi (c) 10−2
giga (G) 109 milli (m) 10−3
mega (M) 106 micro ( μ) 10−6
kilo (k) 103 nano (n) 10−9

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Dimensions and Units
Dimensions are basic types of quantities that can be measured or
computed. Examples are length, time, mass, electric current, and
temperature.

A unit is a standard amount of a dimensional quantity (for

example, meters, seconds, pounds, etc.). There is a need for a
standardized international system of units in physics. SI units will
be used throughout this class.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 The SI Unit System
Provides precise definitions of seven fundamental physical
quantities
• Length: the meter (m)
• Time: the second (s)
• Mass: the kilogram (kg)
• Electric current: the ampere (A)
• Temperature: the kelvin (K)
• Amount of a substance: the mole (mol)
• Luminous intensity: the candela (cd)
燭光（拉丁語：Candela），發光強度的單位，國際單位制七個基本單位之
一
Supplementary units describe angles
• Plane angle: the radian
• Solid angle: the steradian
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 SI Base Units
These units are based on an agreed upon international standard.
Table 1.1 SI Base Units
Quantity Unit Name Symbol Present Definition (2017)*
Length meter m The distance traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval
of 1/299 792 458 s.
Mass kilogram kg The mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.
Time second s The duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels
of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
Electric current ampere A The constant current in two long, thin, straight, parallel
conductors placed 1 m apart in vacuum that would produce a
force on the conductors of 2 × 10−7 newtons per meter of length.
Temperature kelvin K The fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the
triple point of water.
Amount of substance mole mol The amount of substance that contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
Luminous intensity candela† cd The luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that
emits radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watts per steradian.
*New definitions of the SI base units are expected to be finalized in 2018.
†Not used in this book
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 Operational Definitions

Units for length and time are defined operationally, so their definitions
can be implemented in any laboratory.
• The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during
a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
• The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
An operational definition for mass, based on Planck's constant, has not yet
been fully implemented.
• Currently, the kilogram is defined by the international prototype
(artifact) kilogram kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sèvres (國際度量衡局), France.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Derived Units
A derived unit is composed of combinations of base units.
Example: The SI unit of energy is the joule:

1 joule = 1 kg m2/s2

The joule is a derived unit. Kilograms (kg), meters (m),

and seconds (s) are base units.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Converting Units
Units can be freely converted from one to another.
Examples:
12 inches = 1 foot
1 inch = 2.54 cm

Example: The density of air is 1.3 kg/m3. Change the units to

slugs/ft3.

1 slug = 14.59 kg, 1 m = 3.28 feet

3
kg  1 slug   1 m  −3
1.3 3    3.28 feet  = 2.5  10 slugs ft 3

m  14.59 kg
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 SI Prefixes and Scientific Notation
The vast range of quantities that occur in physics are best expressed with
ordinary-sized numbers multiplied by powers of 10:
• 31416.5 = 3.14165 × 104
• 0.002718 = 2.718 × 10–3
SI prefixes describe powers of 10:
• Every three powers of 10 gets a
different prefix.
• Examples:
• 3.0 × 109 W = 3.0 GW
(3 gigawatts)
• 1.6 × 10–8 m = 16 nm
(16 nanometers)
• 1012 kg = 1 Pg
(1 petagram)
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 1.6 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensions are basic types of quantities such as length [L]; time
[T]; or mass [M].

The square brackets refer to

dimensions, not particular units.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Dimensional Analysis Example
Text problem 1.92: Use dimensional analysis to determine how
the period of a pendulum depends on mass, the length of the
pendulum, and the acceleration due to gravity (here the units are
distance/time2).

Mass of the pendulum [M]

Length of the pendulum [L]
Acceleration of gravity [L/T2]

The period of a pendulum is how long it takes to complete 1

swing; the dimensions are time [T].

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Problem 1.92 Solution
This is essentially done by trial and error. Don’t be afraid of
making a mistake. The answer is the square root of [L]/[L/T^2]:

[L]
[T] =
[L]/[T]2
length of pendulum
 period 
acceleration due to gravity

We can only conclude that it is proportional. An unknown

(unitless) constant of proportionality may be present.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 1.7 Problem-Solving Techniques
General guidelines:
1. Read the problem thoroughly.
2. Draw a picture.
3. Write down the given information.
4. What is unknown?
5. What physical principles apply?
6. Are multiple steps needed?
7. Work symbolically! It is easier to catch mistakes.
8. Calculate the end result. Don’t forget units!
9. Check your answer for reasonableness.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 1.8 Approximation
All of the problems that we do in physics are an approximation of
reality. We will use models of how things work to compute our
desired results. The more effects we include, the more correct our
results will be.
Often, we can obtain a satisfactory answer by estimating.
Example (text problem 1.52): Estimate the number of times a
human heart beats during a lifetime. Say a typical heart beats
about 60 times per minute, and a lifetime is about 75 years.

 60 beats   60 minutes   24 hours   365 days   75 years 

 1 minute   1 hour   1 day   1 year   1 lifetime 
   
= 2.4  109 beats lifetime
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 Estimation

For many purposes we need only a rough idea of the size of an object or
physical effect.
Estimation can provide substantial insight into a problem or physical
situation.
Example: What's the United States' yearly gasoline consumption?
• There are about 300 million people in the U.S., so perhaps about 100
million cars in use (108 cars).
• A typical car goes about 10,000 miles per year (104 miles).
• A typical car gets about 20 miles per gallon.
• So in a year, a typical car uses (104 miles)/(20 miles/gallon) = 500 gal.
• So the United States' yearly gasoline consumption is about
(500 gal/car)(108 cars) = 5 × 1010 gallons (about 200 GL).
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 1.9 Graphs
Experimenters vary a quantity (the independent variable) and
measure another quantity (the dependent variable). One graphs
the dependent variable (vertical axis) versus the independent
variable (horizontal axis).

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Label Axes
Always label the axes with both the quantity and its unit. For
example, in a graph of position versus time:

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Example Graphing Problem
(text problem 1.56) A nurse recorded the values shown in the
table for a patient’s temperature. Plot a graph of temperature
versus time and find (a) the patient’s temperature at noon, (b) the
slope of the graph, and (c) if you would expect the graph to
follow the same trend over the next 12 hours? Explain.

The given data: Time Decimal time Temp (degrees F)

10:00 AM 10.0 100.00
10:30 AM 10.5 100.45
11:00 AM 11.0 100.90
11:30 AM 11.5 101.35
12:45 PM 12.75 102.48

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Problem Solution Part 1

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Problem Solution Part 2
a) Reading from the graph: 101.8 degrees F.

T2 − T1 101.8 F − 100.0 F
b) slope = = = 0.9 F hr
t2 − t1 12.0 hr − 10.0 hr

c) No. The patient would not survive such a large temperature

increase.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
 The density of aluminum is about =
2.70 g/cm3. In SI units, this is equal
to
• 2.70 103 kg/m3.
• 2.70 kg/m3.
• 2.70 102 kg/m3.
• 2.70 106 kg/m3.
• 2.70 105 kg/m3.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Suppose the position of a particle as a function of time is
given by
x = x0 + v0t + at + ct .
1
2
2 3

The dimensions of the coefficient c are

–1 –1
• L T .
–3
• LT .
–1 3
• L T .
3
• LT .
–1
• L T.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Suppose the position of a particle as a function of time is
given by
x = x0 + v0t + at + ct .
1
2
2 3

The dimensions of the coefficient c are

–1 –1
• L T .
–3
• LT .
–1 3
• L T .
3
• LT .
–1
• L T.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Which of the following correctly
ranks the lengths from largest to
smallest?
• 1 mi, 1 km, 2000 m, 106 m
• 1 km, 1 mi, 2000 m, 106 m
• 2000 m, 106 m, 1 km, 1 mi
• 1 mi, 2000 m, 1 km, 106 m
• 2000 m, 1 mi, 1 km, 106 m

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Which of the following correctly
ranks the lengths from largest to
smallest?
• 1 mi, 1 km, 2000 m, 106 m
• 1 km, 1 mi, 2000 m, 106 m
• 2000 m, 106 m, 1 km, 1 mi
• 1 mi, 2000 m, 1 km, 106 m
• 2000 m, 1 mi, 1 km, 106 m

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 Ex. (a) What is the value of π(8.104)2, written with the correct number of
significant figures?
Ans: 206.3

Ex. What is the difference between 103.2 and 101.84 written with the
correct number of significant figures?

Ans: 1.4

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 百分誤差及準確度
凡是由量度所得的測量值，因最後一位數字都是估計值，所
以常常是不準確的。因此理論值(公認值)與測量值的差，稱
為誤差(error)。

誤差與公認值的比值，以百分數表示，稱為百分誤差
(percentage error)或稱相對誤差(relative error)。

量度之準確度(exact degree)定義為：

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

 例題
甲生做牛頓第二運動定律實驗，若加速度的理論值為 9.8
m/s2，而測出的加速度值是 9.6 m/s2，求百分誤差及準確
度？

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education