DUNMAN HIGH SCHOOL

9646 H2/ 8866 H1 PHYSICS

Year 5 (2013)

TOPIC 1: MEASUREMENT
Lecturer: Mr. Lim Teck Seng

Content

1. Physical Quantities & SI Units

2. Errors and uncertainties
3. Scalars and vectors

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

(a) recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A),
temperature (K), amount of substance (mol).
(b) express derived units as products or quotients of the base units and use the named units listed in
‘Summary of Key Quantities, Symbols and Units’ as appropriate.
(c) show an understanding of and use the conventions for labelling graph axes and table columns as set
out in the ASE publication (SI Units, Signs, Symbols and Abbreviations), except where these have been
superseded by (Signs, Symbols and Systematics (The ASE Companion to 5-16 Science, 1995)).
(d) use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or multiples of
both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ), milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M),
giga (G), tera (T).
(e) make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus.
(f) show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors (including zero errors) and random
errors.
(g) show an understanding of the distinction between precision and accuracy.
(h) assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual, fractional or percentage
uncertainties (a rigorous statistical treatment is not required).
(i) distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each.
(j) add and subtract coplanar vectors.
(k) represent a vector as two perpendicular components.

Reference
Text: Longman A-level Course in Physics
Website http://www.rit.edu/~uphysics/uncertainties/Uncertaintiespart2.html
http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/physics/APPhyNet/Measurement/Measurement_Intro.html

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

1 Physical Quantities and SI Units

What is a physical quantity?

Any scientifically measurable quantities are called physical quantities.
e.g. temperature, force, electric current, pressure, mass, energy, etc.

What are features of physical quantities?

All physical quantities consist of a numerical value and a unit.
e.g. mass = 65.0 kg

Physical Numerical unit

Quantity value

AO(a) recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s),
current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol).

Physical Quantities

Base Derived
quantities quantities

What is a base quantity?

The seven physical quantities of the SI system by which all other physical quantities are defined.

They are: mass, length, time, temperature, amount of substance, electric current and luminous
intensity.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Summary of the base physical quantities, units and symbols:

Base Quantity Base unit Symbol Definition

Mass (m) Kilogramme kg The unit of mass is equal to the mass of the
international prototype kilogram (a platinum-iridium
cylinder) kept at the Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures (BIPM), Sevres, Paris.

Length (l) Metre m The unit of length is equal to the length of the path
travelled by light in a vacuum during the time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second.

Time (t) Second s The unit of time is the duration of exactly 9 192 631 770
periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the
caesium-133 atom at a temperature of 0 K.

electric current (I) Ampere A The unit of electrical current is the constant current
which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors,
of infinite length and negligible cross-section, placed 1
m apart in a vacuum, would produce a force between
these conductors equal to 2×10−7 N per metre of length.

thermodynamic Kelvin K The unit of thermodynamic temperature (or absolute

temperature (T) temperature) is the fraction 1/273.16 of the difference
between the absolute zero of temperature and
thermodynamic temperature at triple point of water. *

amount of Mole mol A mole is the amount of substance that contains the
substance (n) number of molecules (or atoms if the substance is
monoatomic) equal to Avogadro Constant. Avagadro
Constant is the number of atoms in 0.012 kg of pure
carbon-12; this number (NA) is approximately equal to
6.02214199×1023. *

luminous intensity Candela cd The unit of luminous intensity is the luminous intensity,
in a given direction, of a source that emits
(not in syllabus) monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz and
that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt
per steradian.

Note: the units are expressed in small letters when written in full.
*Need to memorise

AO (b) express derived units as products or quotients of the base units and use the named
units listed in ‘Summary of Key Quantities, Symbols and Units’1 as appropriate.

What are derived units?

Derived units are units that are derived from base units and can be expressed in terms of products
and quotients of base units.

1
Refer to Appendix A.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Likewise, a derived quantities are physical quantities that are derived from base quantities and can be
expressed in terms of products and quotients of base quantities.
Examples:
Derived quantity Obtained from Derived unit
Density mass kg
= kgm 3
volume m 3

Velocity displacement ms 1
time
Kinetic energy 1
 mass  velocity 2 
kg ms 1  2
= kgm 2 s 2
2
Frequency Number of cycles per unit time s−1

Force mass x acceleration kgms−2

Pressure force kgm−1s−2

area
Charge Current x time As

Potential work Kgm2A−1s−3

difference ch arg e

Unitless quantities
1
1. all numbers, e.g. 2, ,  ,e
2
2. trigonometrical functions, e.g. sine, cosine, tangent

3. all logarithmic functions, e.g. logx, ln

x x
4. powers, e.g.
10 , the ratio y must be unitless. If x has a unit, then the unit of y must have
y

the same unit as that of x.

5. Unitless physical constants: e.g. refractive index of glass, relative density of a liquid.

Uses of Base Units

- To find units of unknown quantities in an equation.

- To check homogeneity of a physical equation.

If units of each term on LHS = units of each term on RHS, the equation is said to be
homogeneous or dimensionally consistent.

Note: Checking homogeneity does not guarantee that the equation is physically correct!

Use base units to check the homogeneity of equation.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

An equation is homogeneous if each of the terms in the equation can be expressed using the
same units.

A physically correct equation must always be homogeneous. However, a homogeneous

equation need not be physically correct. Why?.

There are two basic reasons:

(1) The value of the coefficient may be incorrect.

e.g. E  3mv 2 where E = kinetic energy

1
The coefficient 3 is incorrect! The value should be instead.
2

(2) Missing or extra terms that may have the same unit.

1
e.g. E mv 2  mgh where E = kinetic energy
2

There is an extra term mgh, which happens to have the same unit as kinetic energy.
This is an extra term.

Example: Bernoulli’s equation, which applies to fluid flow states that

p + hg + ½ v2 = k
Where p is pressure, h is height,  is density, g is acceleration of free fall, v is velocity
and k is constant. Show the equation is dimensionally consistent and state the SI unit
for k.

Unit of p = Nm-2 = kgms−2m−2 = kg m−1s−2 Since all terms have the same unit, the equation is
dimensionally consistent.
Unit of hg = m(kgm−3)(ms−2) = kg m−1s−2 SI unit for k = kg m-1s-2

Unit of ½ v2 = (kgm−3)(m2s−2) = kg m−1s−2 NOTE: Homogeneous equation is not necessary.

physically correct.

AO(c) show an understanding and use the conventions for labelling graph axes and table
columns.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Conventions for Labelling Table Columns

 All readings or measurements should be tabulated in vertical columns;
For example

V/V I / mA t/s a / ms−2 m / kg lg (m /

kg)
3.0 0.30 2.0 5.0 2.500 0.3979

 For the column headings, use the standard notation of “quantity / unit”; it means
“quantity divided by unit”.

For example

Writing t = 2.0 s as t / s = 2.0,

the expression becomes a pure number. The column with t / s thus consists of just pure
numbers with no units.

 The unit should be written in the index form, e.g. use ms−2 and not m / s2.

 For columns that involve logarithms, either lg or ln, the unit of the variable must be stated.

For example, lg(m / kg), ln(T / s).

It should be noted that after taking lg or ln, the resulting values have no units.

Conventions for Labelling Graph Axes xlm

 when plotting graphs, both axes must be labelled with 3

the physical quantities and their associated units (e.g.
2
x l m and t / s). Therefore, there is no need to write unit
to every number label on the axes. 1
0
4 5 6 7 t /s

AO(d) use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or
multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (µ), milli (m), centi (c),
deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T).

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

10n Prefix Symbol Name Decimal equivalent

10-12 pico p Trillionth 0.000,000,000,001
10-9 nano n Billionth 0.000,000,001
10-6 micro µ Millionth 0.000,001
10-3 milli m Thousandth 0.001
10-2 centi c Hundredth 0.01
10-1 deci d Tenth 0.1
100 - - One 1
103 kilo k Thousand 1,000
106 mega M Million 1,000,000
109 giga G Billion 1,000,000,000
1012 tera T Trillion 1,000,000,000,000

AO(e) make reasonable estimates of physical quantities within the syllabus.

The following are compilations of some estimates: (not exhaustive)

Mass Approximately (kg) Scientific Order of

notation magnitude
Tennis ball 0.057 5.7 x 10-3 -3
An apple 0.350 3.50 x10-1 -1
Adult Asian man 75 7.5 x 101 1
Car 1000 - 1500 1.0 x 103 3
SBS bus 10,000 1.0 x 104 4
Earth 6.0 x 1024 6.0 x 1024 24

Length Approximately (m) Scientific Order of

notation magnitude
Diameter of hair 0.0002 (0.2 mm) 2 x 10-4 -4
Finger 0.070 (7.0 cm) 7.0 x 10-2 -2
Width of a car 1.7 1.7 x 100 0
Football field 100 1.0 x 102 2
Radius of Earth 6.4 x106 6.4 x106 6

Speed Approximately (ms-1) Scientific Order of

notation magnitude
Fastest runner 10 1.0 x 101 1
Sound in air 330 3.3 x 102 2
Light in vacuum (c) 3.00 x 108 3.00 x 108 8
α-particle 0.1 c 3.00 x 107 7
β-particle 0.9 c 2.70 x 108 8

Temperature Approximately (K) Scientific Order of

notation magnitude
Room (Singapore) 306 (33C) 3.06 x 102 2
Candle flame 1000 – 1700 3
Blue Bunsen flame 3000 3.00 x 103 3

Tested in A level: accelerating p.d. in cathode ray tube: kV or 103 V

Speed limit of Singapore expressway: 80 kmh−1
Power of domestic light 40 to 100 W

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

2 Errors and Uncertainties

Uncertainty is the range of values on both sides of a measurement in which the actual value of the
measurement is expected to lie. It is determined by the graduation of scale of the measuring
instrument.

2.1 Experimental Errors

Error is the difference between the measured value and the ‘true value’.

For example, the accepted value of acceleration due to gravity g at a certain location is 9.81ms-2. If
an experimental determination yields a result of 9.9 ms-2, the error is 0.1 ms-2.

Note:
 Blunders such as misreading a ruler or calculation mistakes should NOT be quoted as errors in
this context!

 (Absolute) Errors are estimates and hence they are expressed only to one significant figure.

 Uncertainties in measured quantities arise from:

o limitations of the observer;
o instrumental limitations;
o the method used (the experimental design).

2.2 Types of Experimental Errors

AO(f) show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors (including zero
errors) and random errors.

In assessing errors, whether human or instrumental, there are two types of errors:

(1) systematic errors and (2) random errors

(1) Systematic errors are consistent deviation of readings from the true value with a fixed pattern.
They have the same magnitude and sign.

Systematic errors are more serious forms of errors since they cannot be corrected by taking repeated
readings or by any other form of averaging.

However, they can be reduced or eliminated by careful design of an experiment, and good
experimental techniques.

Examples of Systematic Errors:

Error Sources Descriptions Corrections

 Due to  zero errors on the scales of  correct all measured readings by
apparatus instruments negating the error accordingly.
 poor calibration of  calibrate the instrument properly
instruments before experiment

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 Due to  consistent parallax error  adopt the correct way to take

poor which affect all the readings in the reading: ensure that the line of sight is
experiment- same way, for instance, taking perpendicular to the measuring scale.
al technique readings off a scale from a fixed
angle.
 Due to  background radiation causes Take the external factor(s) into account
external the count rate of your radioactive and adjust all readings appropriately. For
factors sample to be consistently higher instance,
than the true reading.  Measure the count rate of
background radiation and subtract it
from the readings.

(2) Random errors are present when the measured readings are scattered about the mean value
with no fixed pattern. They have equal probability of having different magnitudes and signs.

Random errors are of varying signs and magnitudes and cannot be eliminated, but they can usually
be reduced by taking average of repeated readings or using other averaging methods.

Examples of Random Errors:

Error Sources Descriptions Methods to reduce error

 Due to  inconsistent reaction time  To reduce the random
inability of when using stop watch to errors, take the time of 20
observer to measure the period of an oscillations then find the mean
repeat his action oscillation. period.
precisely  random parallax error,
when the line of sight of  Can be avoided if
observer is sometimes on one observer’s line of sight is
side of the perpendicular to the perpendicular to the scale. (i.e.
scale and sometimes on the aligning his eyes with the
other side. pointer and scale).

 Due to  fluctuations in the  Random errors can be

environmental measurement (of length, time, reduced by taking average of
conditions like current, etc.) repeated readings.
pressure,
temperature
 Due to the  Precision of  To measure the
limited sensitivity metre rule: 1mm thickness of a coin with only a
of instruments. vernier calliper: 0.1mm metre rule, the random errors
micrometer screw gauge: 0.01 mm can be reduced by determining
the mean thickness of a stack
of 10 identical coins. (Use a
micrometer screw gauge if it is
available).

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Distinguish between systematic and random errors using Illustrations.

Random errors
The figure shows a spread of
readings caused by random errors;
these are approximately centred
about a mean value which coincides True value
with the true value. If a systematic
error is present, the mean value will
be shifted.
Systematic error
The effects of random errors and of systematic errors appear in graphs as illustrated below.

‘best fit’ line ‘best fit’ line

‘true’ line ‘true’ line

y y y

‘true’ line

x x x
No error Random error Systematic error
2.3 Precision and Accuracy

AO(g) show an understanding of the distinction between precision and accuracy.

Good precision, Good accuracy, Good precision and accuracy

Poor accuracy Poor precision (small random error, small
(small random error, but (large random error, systematic error)
large systematic error!) small systematic error)

The precision of a measurement is how close the experimental values are to each other. Precision is
also a term used to describe the level of uncertainty in an instrument’s scale.

Good precision means the readings are mostly very close to their mean, and is associated with small
random errors.

Accuracy is the closeness of experimental value to the true value of the quantity being measured.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Good accuracy means the reading or the mean of a set of readings is very close to the true value, and
is associated with small systematic errors.

Illustration:

The first few decimal places of the true value for the mathematical constant  are 3.142, and the
accepted value for the speed of light in a vacuum is 2.99792458 x 108 ms1.

Thus, 3.14 is an accurate value for  to three digits precision, and 3.0 x 108 ms1 is an accurate
value for the speed of light in a vacuum to two digits precision.

Worked Example 1

Student A carried out a series of experiments to obtain the value of the Earth’s gravitational
acceleration g. He was very careless and did not take into account the mass of the mass holder. This
resulted in all recorded values of the mass being smaller than the actual mass. He obtained the
following values of g:

Reading/ ms-2 10.33 10.32 10.31 10.30 10.29

Given that the actual value of g = 9.81 ms-2, comment on the accuracy and precision for this
experiment.

Answer: mean = (10.33 + 10.32 + 10.31 + 10.30 + 10.29)/ 5 = 10.31 ms-2

The readings are quite precise because there is only a small spread about the mean value.
The readings are not accurate because the mean value deviates from the true value.

Worked Example 2
Student B measured the gravitational constant g a number of times and got the following results

Reading/ ms-2 12.20 9.81 7.42 9.99 9.63

How do these results compare to those of Student A in worked example 1?

Student B’s mean reading = (12.20 + 9.81 + 7.42 + 9.99 + 9.63)/ 5 = 9.81 ms-2
Student A’s mean reading = 10.31 ms-2 > 9.81 ms-2
Since the Student B’s mean reading is equal to the true value, 9.81 ms-2, Student B’s readings are
more accurate.

Range of Student B’s readings = Largest reading - smallest reading = 12.20 - 7.42 = = 4.78 ms-2
Range of Student A’s readings = 10.33 - 10.29 = 0.04 ms-2
Since Student A’s readings have a smaller spread, which implies smaller random errors. His readings
are more precise.

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2.4 Absolute and Relative (Fractional and Percentage) Uncertainties

2.4.1 (Absolute/ Actual) Uncertainty in a Reading

 A reading is the single determination of a value at one point on a measuring scale.

 Generally a reading can be estimated to half of the smallest division on a measuring scale.

10 11 12 13

R1 = 10.40 cm R2 = 11.55 cm R3 = 12.65 cm

 The (actual or absolute) uncertainty in the reading of an instrument is thus taken as half the
smallest division. In the above illustration, the absolute uncertainty is 0.05 cm.

 To indicate the magnitude of uncertainty, R1=10.40 cm in the above illustration is written as

R1 = (10.40  0.05) cm. This means that R1 can take values in the range between 10.35 cm to
10.45 cm.

 The absolute uncertainty 0.05 cm is also known as the maximum uncertainty in the reading.

 The absolute uncertainty should always be rounded off to 1 significant figure only.

 In general, all readings can be recorded in the form R  R in which R is the absolute
uncertainty. R should be rounded to the same number of decimal places as the uncertainty R.
For example (10.0 ± 0.1) cm should not be written as (10 ± 0.1) cm

Relative Uncertainties

The uncertainty of a measured value can also be presented as a percent or a simple fraction.
R
(a) The fractional uncertainty of R =
R
R
(b) The percentage uncertainty of R = 100%
R

For example, the measurement (208 ± 1) mm,

Absolute uncertainty = 1 mm (1 s.f.)

1
Fractional uncertainty = = 0.0048 (2 s.f.)
208
Percentage uncertainty = 0.0048 x 100% = 0.48% (2 s.f.)

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Note that the absolute uncertainty has units, whereas fractional and percentage uncertainties are
ratios and therefore are dimensionless.

While the absolute uncertainty is an indication of the scale sensitivity or the accuracy of the measuring
instrument used, the percentage error is useful to compare the absolute error and the quantity value
to tell whether the error is negligible or significant.

Worked Example 1
A metre rule has a precision to 1 mm, vernier callipers to 0.1 mm and a micrometer screw gauge to
0.01 mm. If these instruments were to be used to measure the diameter of a wire which is 2.5 mm,
what would be the respective percentage uncertainties?

For ruler, % uncertainty = (1/2.5) x 100% = 40 %

For vernier callipers, % uncertainty = (0.1/2.5) x 100% = 4 %

For micrometer % uncertainty = (0.01/2.5) x 100% = 0.4%

Worked Example 2
A student makes measurements from which he calculates the speed of sound as 327.66 ms 1. He
estimates that his result contains a percentage error of  3%. Give his result reduced to the
appropriate number of significant figures.

v
x 100% = 3%
v

v
= 0.03
v

v = 0.03 x 327.66 = 10 ms1 (to 1 s.f.)

v  v = (330  10) ms1 (v expressed to same d.p as v )

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2.4.2 Propagation of Uncertainties

AO (h) assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual,

fractional or percentage uncertainties (a rigorous statistical treatment is not required).

The result of an experiment is seldom obtained by a single measurement; very often it is obtained by
measuring a few related quantities. The overall estimate of uncertainty is called the consequential
uncertainty.

There are established statistical rules for calculation of consequential uncertainty from individual
pieces of information. The A-level course only requires a simplified version of the statistical treatment.

The guiding principle in all cases is to consider the maximum uncertainty i.e. the worst case scenario.

Basic Rules of Consequential Uncertainties at a Glance

Suppose A and B are measured quantities, A and B are the corresponding (actual) uncertainties.

Given that n and m are numerical constants, e.g. ½, 3, .

Addition
If R1 = A + B, then R1 = A + B

Subtraction Adding absolute uncertainties

If R2 = A  B, then R2 = A + B

Multiplied by a constant
R3 A
If R3 = n A, then R3 = |n|A Note: 
R3 A
Product
If R4 = A x B

R4 A B
 
R4 A B

Quotient
A
If R5 = Adding relative uncertainties
B

R5 A B
 
R5 A B

Power

R6 A
If R6 = An, then n
R6 A

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Summary

1. If Z = mA + nB, then  Z = |m|A +|n|B Note: m, n are numerical constants

Z A B
2. If Z = kAm x Bn, where k is a numerical constant, then m n
Z A B
3. Other functions: e.g. Z = sin A, Z = ln A

Use the general approach: Z = ½ (Zmax – Zmin)

Propagation Rules of Consequential Uncertainties – Explained.

In the following discussion, we consider A ± A, B ± B and C ± C as measured quantities;

k, m, n are numerical constant, e.g. ½, 3, .

Uncertainties are treated as relatively small values so that the approximations can be justified.

1. Addition and Subtraction of Measurements

When adding or subtracting measurements, add their absolute uncertainties.

Z=A+B or Z=A–B

The maximum uncertainty, Z = A + B for both cases.

Suppose we need to add the measurements A: (20 ± 2) cm and B: (10 ± 1) cm

The best estimate for the sum of these two measurements is 20 cm + 10 cm = 30 cm

The smallest possible sum in adding these two measurements is 18 cm + 9 cm = 27 cm.
The largest possible sum in adding these two measurements is 22 cm + 11 cm = 33 cm.

Therefore, the range of possible sum ranges from 27 cm to 33 cm.

The sum can be expressed as (30 ± 3) cm.

Instead of going through the tedious steps like the above, apply the short-cut rule!

Verify that subtracting measurements works the same way.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

When multiplying measurement by a numerical constant, multiply the uncertainty by the same
constant.

Z = kA, the associated (absolute) uncertainty Z = kA

 Think of the above as a special case of rule 1. For instance, Z = 3A = A + A + A

 For the case of dividing measurement by a numerical constant k, think of it as multiplying the
inverse of the constant, 1/k.
 Note that the relative uncertainty of Z is equal to that of A, as the constants cancelled in the ratios.

Example
The thickness of 100 pages of a book is measured to be 9.0 mm using an instrument with precision to
0.1 mm. Determine the thickness of a page with its associated uncertainty.

Thickness of 100 pages, T = (9.0 ± 0.1) mm

The average thickness of one page, t = T/100 = 9.0 / 100 = 0.090000 mm (leave in many d.p. first)

1 1
t = T = (0.1) = 0.001 mm (to 1 s.f.)
100 100

Thus, t ± t = (0.090 ± 0.001) mm = (9.0 ± 0.1) x10-2 mm (t expressed to same d.p as t )

Worked Example 1
Given the quantities: x = 4.0  0.5, z = 5.36  0.04
Determine the value of y in the following relationship: y = x + 3z

Solution:
y = 4.0 + 3(5.36)
= 20.08000000 (leave in many d.p. first)

y = x + 3z
= 0.5 + 3(0.04)
= 0.6 (to 1 s.f.)

y  y = 20.1  0.6 (y expressed to same d.p as y )

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

2. Multiplication and Division of Measurements

When multiplying or dividing measurements, add their fractional uncertainties.

Z=AxB or Z=A÷B

Z A B
The relative uncertainty,   for both cases.
Z A B

Suppose you need to multiply A: (20 ± 2) cm by B: (10 ± 1) cm.

The best estimate of the product is 20 cm x 10 cm = 2.0 x 102 cm2

The smallest possible value would be 18 cm x 9 cm = 1.6 x 102 cm2,
The largest reasonable value would be 22 cm x 11 cm = 2.4 x 102 cm2.
The product must be (2.0 ± 0.4) x 102 cm2.

Check this rule for division for yourself.

Example:
A particle was found to travel (2.0 ± 0.2) cm in (3.0 ± 0.6) s. Determine the speed of the particle and
its associated uncertainty.

v = s / t = 2.0/3.0 = 0.666667 cms-1 (leave in many d.p. first)

v s t 0.2 0.6
     0.3
v s t 2.0 3.0
So v = 0.3 (0.6667 cms-1) = 0.2 cms-1 ( to 1 s.f.)
v ± v = (0.7 ± 0.2) cms-1 (v expressed to same d.p as v)

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

n
The fractional uncertainty in A is n times the fractional uncertainty in A.

Z A
Z = An, The relative uncertainty, n
Z A

Z A
 Think of the above as a special case of rule 2. For instance, Z = A3 = A x A x A, thus 3
Z A
3
1
 -3
Note that for the case of negative powers, e.g. Z = A , it is the same as   , thus
 A
Z A
3 , which is still positive.
Z A
1 Z 1 A
 For the case of taking roots, e.g. Z = n A , It can be written in the form: A n , thus 
Z n A

Summary

1. If Z = mA + nB, then R =|m|A +|n|B Note: m, n are numerical constants

Z A B
2. If Z = kAm x Bn, where k is a numerical constant, then m n
Z A B

Example
Given that a sphere of radius r = (18.5 ± 0.5) mm, find the volume of the sphere with its associated
uncertainties.

4 3 4
V=  r =  (18.5)3 = 26522 mm3 (leave in many d.p. first)
3 3
V r  0.5 
The fractional uncertainty of V, 3  3   0.081
V r  18.5 
V
Absolute error of V, V =  V = 0.081 x 26522 = 2000 mm3 (to 1 s.f.)
V
Thus V  V = (27000  2000) mm3 = (2.7  0.2) x104 mm3 (V expressed to same d.p as V)

Worked Example 2
l
The formula for the period of a simple pendulum is T = 2 . Such a pendulum is used to
g
determine g. The fractional error in the measurement of the period T is x and in the measurement of
the length l is y. Assume there is no other sources error, what is the greatest fractional error in the
calculated value of g?

4 2l g l T
Solution: g=  2 = y + 2x
T2 g l T

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Mixtures of multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, and powers, and other functions

For complicated functions or special functions, Z

Absolute uncertainty = ½ (maximum possible value of Z – minimum possible value of Z)

Z = ½ (Zmax – Zmin)

Or simply,

Absolute uncertainty = maximum possible value of Z – Z

Z = Zmax – Z

 The difference in methods may result in slightly different uncertainty results. All answers are
acceptable as long as the method is logical.

Example
Consider S = x cos  for x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm,  = (53 ± 2) °. Find S with its uncertainty.

S = (2.0 cm) cos 53° = 1.204 cm

To get the largest possible value of S

we would make x larger, (x + x) = 2.2 cm, and  smaller, ( - ) = 51°.

Smax = (S + S) = (2.2 cm) cos 51° = 1.385 cm.

S = Smax – S = 1.385 − 1.204 = 0.2 cm  (to 1 s.f.)

Then S = (1.2 ± 0.2) cm.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

3 Scalars and vectors

AO (i) distinguish scalar and vector quantities and give examples of each.

 A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that can be expressed by a magnitude only. It DOES NOT
have a direction. It is completely specified by its numerical value and unit.

 Scalar quantities can be added or subtracted using rules of algebra.

e.g. 10 kg sugar + 12 kg sugar = 22 kg sugar

 A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has BOTH magnitude and direction. It must be
specified with its value, unit and direction.

e.g.: 2.5 ms-1 due East

direction

magnitude

 In print, a vector is often denoted by a letter in bold type, e.g. force F. In written form, it is either or

F or f . The magnitude is indicated as | F |.

 A vector can be represented with an arrow whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the
vector, is correctly orientated with respect to a reference direction

v measured 4.9 cm F 2.8 cm

N 30 o

Scale: 2 cm represents 1 ms-1. Scale 1 cm: 5 N

The velocity is 2.45 ms-1 due East. The force F is 14 N, in a direction 30o to
the horizontal.

The table below shows a list of scalar and vector quantities:

Scalar quantity Vector quantity

distance displacement
speed velocity
temperature acceleration
energy force
power momentum
mass weight
density moment
pressure torque
volume electric field A B
time magnetic flux density A=B
AO (j) add and subtract coplanar vectors

21
A B
A=–B
Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Equal vectors
Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Negative vector
The negative of a vector has the same magnitude but opposite direction.

Coplanar vectors are vectors that lie on the same plane (2-dimension).

Unlike scalar quantities, vector quantities cannot be added or subtracted using algebra. Instead a
vector diagram is needed.

(1) Vector Addition

a. Triangle method

Stack the vectors such that one vector has its tail placed at the tip of the previous vector.
B
A + B 
A

The resultant vector is represented by the line with a double arrow directed from the tail of the
first vector to the tip of the last vector.

b. Parallelogram method.

Put the vectors to be added ‘tail to tail’. Complete the parallelogram. The resultant vector is
the diagonal from the tail of the two vectors to the other vertex of the parallelogram.

B
A + B  A

Example
Evaluate the resultant displacement of a ship which travels 30 km due north then 40 km due east.
north 40 km
end point north

30 km R OR 30 km R

start point 40 km
Methods to determine the resultant magnitude and direction

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

1) Draw the vector to scale, measure the resultant magnitude using a ruler, and angle (for
direction) using protractor.

2) (a) Use Pythagoras Theorem, trigonometric function to solve for right angle triangle.
(b) Use Sine Rule, Cosine Rule for irregular triangle.

north
Worked Solution:
40 km end point

R = R  402  302 = 50 km
30 km
  = tan-1(40/30) = 53.1o

R
The resultant displacement is 50 km, 53.1o East
of North.
start point

Practice:

Two forces act at a point P as shown below. Determine (magnitude and direction of) the resultant of
these two forces.

P 25 N
Solution
40

P 25 N
 140 40
48 N

Find magnitude by Cosine Rule, 48 N

R2 = 252 + 482 – 2 x 25 x 48 cos140 R
R = 69 N

Find the angle by Sine Rule

sin sin140

48 69

 = 26.6

Thus the resultant force is 69 N, 26.6 clockwise from the 25 N force.

(2) Vector subtraction

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1


  
A − B = A +  B  .
Example  
A 20 N − B
15

30 N

 
i.e. A 20 N + 30 N -B
15

30 N Check
Resultant = ( - )  
using cosine rule that | A - B | = 12 N,
15
using sine rule that it is 139o to the horizontal.
20 N

Vector subtraction can come about when we want to determine the change in a certain
physical quantity.
  
A change in a physical quantity Δ Q = final value Q f – initial value Q i

  
Mathematically it is written as Δ Q = Q f – Q i

Practice:

An object is moving at 5.0 ms-1 due east. Its direction changes to due south with a
speed of 7.5 ms-1. Determine the change in the velocity.

(i) Change in velocity Δ v = v f – v i . A vector diagram is needed for the

  
vector subtraction.

Δv = vf – vi
N    Δ  7.5 ms-
= 7.5 ms-1 − 5.0 ms-1
1

5.0 ms-
1
= 7.5 ms-1 + 5.0 ms-1

| Δv | = 5.02  7.52 = 9.0 ms

-1

5.0
 = tan-1 = 33.7 Thus, the change in velocity is 9.0 ms -1 with
7.5
bearing 213.7

24
Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

AO(k) represent a vector as two perpendicular components

Since two vectors can be added to give a resultant vector, any vector can be broken up (or resolved)
into two vectors or components. It is more convenient to resolve a vector into two mutually-
perpendicular components through the use of trigonometry and Pythagoras theorem. Mutually-
perpendicular vectors are independent of each other.

Practice
For each given vector shown, draw the two perpendicular components in the direction given by the
dotted lines and state their magnitudes in terms of the respective hypotenuses and angles.

example

10 N
10 sin 45o

45o

10 cos 45o

20 N 30o

20 sin 30o 20 cos 30o

Each of the vectors above is resolved into two perpendicular components. A vector can be resolved
into infinite pairs of perpendicular components. The choice of directions depends on the problem at
hand.

Example 1:

An object rests on the plane of an inclined slope as shown. The

weight W acts vertically down. Draw components of the weight

(a) parallel to the slope

(b) perpendicular (normal) to the slope.

Label the magnitude of the two components in terms of W and .

W sin θ
W cos θ
W

25
Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Example 2

The 5 forces shown act on an object. Find the resultant force due to them.
+y
90 N
27 N

34o 80 N

20o
+x
10o o
60
100 N

52 N
 Resolve the vectors into two mutually perpendicular components:

Vector/N x-component /N (+ ) y-component /N (+)

100 −100 cos10 − 100 sin10

27 0 27

90 90 sin34 90 cos34

80 80 cos20 80 sin20

52 52 cos60 −52 sin60

Resultant 53 67

 Draw vector diagram to show the resultant vector

+67 N

R

 Compute the magnitude of the resultant vector



+53 N
R= 672  532 =85 N

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

 Indicate the direction with an angle with reference to

a certain direction on the diagram and calculate the
angle

 = tan-1 (67/53)
= 52

 Write a complete statement to specify the magnitude

and direction of the resultant vector

The resultant force is 85 N, 52 anticlockwise from +ve x axis.

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Measurement Summary (Physical Quantities and Units)

1. Quantity = Numerical Value Unit e.g. mass = 5 kg

Basics Quantity = Numerical Value Basic Unit e.g. time = 3 s

Derived Quantity = Numerical Value Derived Unit e.g. speed = 10 ms-1

2. Basic Units: kg m s A mol K cd

3. Steps to find unit of an unknown quantity

(a) state the defining equation
(b) make the unknown quantity the subject
(c) derive the units of the unknown quantity in term of the basic units of the
known quantities
(d) simplify the units

4. A physically correct equation must be homogeneous. However, not all homogeneous

equations are physically correct.

Measurement Summary (Errors and Uncertainty)

- due to factors like human, instrumental, techniques, environmental

Errors

Systematic Errors Random Errors

 All readings deviate from the true  Scatter of readings about a mean
value in one direction with a fixed value
magnitude  Equal chance of being higher or
 Either Consistent over-estimation lower than mean value
OR Consistent under-estimation  Unpredictable
 Reproducible, Predictable  Can be reduced by taking
 Can be corrected average of large number of
 Examples are: readings
zero error (please elaborate),  Examples are:
calibration error Human error: stopping stopwatch
background count rate Limitation of instrument
Non-uniformity of material
Measurement techniques
Environmental: Wind

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 Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

If systematic error occurs, readings are not accurate (deviation between mean value and
‘true’ value is large)

If random error occurs, readings are not precise (scatter, range of readings is large)

Error leads to uncertainty

Calculation of Uncertainty

Max, min method By formula* By rules of thumb

(theory) (theory, tutorial lesson) (practical, SPA lesson)

Find Zmax, If Z = mA + n B +, - : least dp

Find Zmin, Then Z  m A  n B x, : least sf

 Z = ½ (Zmax - Zmin) constant does not affect result

If Z = k A m B n
function: sf remains the same
Z A B
Then m n For lg and ln, no. of dp of result
Z A B
follows no. of sf of qty

can add one more sf if needed

Note: m, n and k are constant (esp for cases of 1 or 2 sf)

Steps to calculate the value of a physical quantity z with its uncertainty ∆z

(1) Express the unknown quantity as the subject.

(2) Calculate the numerical value of the unknown quantity z without the uncertainty first
(leave in many dp first).
(3) Apply formula* to find the absolute uncertainty ∆z of unknown quantity.
(4) Express uncertainty ∆z to 1 sf.
(5) Round the quantity z to the same dp as the uncertainty ∆z.
(6) Express answer to standard form (not always compulsory but good practice)
(7) Write the quantity with its uncertainty and the unit (z ± ∆z) unit
(Note: unit should be written outside bracket)

Z Z
Fractional uncertainty: Percentage uncertainty: x 100%
Z Z

(usually expressed to 2 s.f.) (usually expressed to 2 s.f.)

Measurement Summary (Vectors)

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Scalar quantity has magnitude but no direction.

Vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.

To find resultant

RY
Note: R2 = RX2 + RY2
R
≡ θ = tan-1 (RY/ RX)
θ

Rx
To resolve into components
RY
R
≡ Note: Rx = R cos θ
θ RY = R sin θ

Rx
Addition of vector (used for finding resultant)

Parallelogram “Head to tail”

method method

B
R2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos θ
A θ α
R A
β
R sin  sin  sin 
 
R A B
B
R=A+B
~ ~ ~
To find change in velocity:

Step 1: Δ v = v f – vi
~ = v~ + (–~ v) Note: – vi has same magnitude as vi but in opposite direction
f i
~ ~ ~ ~
Step 2: Apply vector addition to find Δv in term of both magnitude and direction.
~

Topic Term/key word Definition

30
Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

Physical Physical Quantity Any scientifically measurable quantities are called physical
Quantities and quantities. It has a numerical magnitude and may have a unit.
Units
Measurement Base quantities The seven physical quantities of the SI system by which all other
Techniques physical quantities are defined.

They are: mass, length, time, temperature, amount of substance,

electric current and luminous intensity.

Base Units The seven units of the SI system, related to the base quantities,
whose magnitude is defined without referring to other units.

They are: kg, m, s, K, mol, A and cd.

Note: cd (unit for luminous intensity is not in the syllabus).

Derived Are physical quantities that are derived from base quantities
quantities and can be expressed in terms of products and quotients of
base quantities.

Derived units Are units that are derived from base units and can be expressed
in terms of products and quotients of base units.

Dimensionless One that is represented by a number and a unit not derived

quantity from base units

Unitless quantity It is a dimensionless quantity. It is represented only by a

number

Homogeneous Equation where units of all the terms are the same. Each term
Equation in the equation must correspond to the same physical quantity.

Experimental Uncertainties in measured quantities that arise from difference

errors sources due to:
(a) Limitations of observer
(b) Measuring instrument used
(c) Method used

Random errors Random errors are present when the measured readings are
(2006) scattered about the mean value with no fixed pattern. They
have equal probability of having different magnitudes and signs.

Systematic errors Systematic errors are consistent deviation of readings from the
(2006) true value with a fixed pattern. They have the same magnitude
and sign.

Precision # The precision of a measurement is how close the experimental

values are to each other. Precision is also a term used to

31
Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

describe the level of uncertainty in an instrument’s scale.

Accuracy # The closeness of experimental value to the true value of the

quantity being measured.
Uncertainty Uncertainty is the range of values on both sides of a
measurement in which the actual value of the measurement is
expected to lie. It is determined by the graduation of scale of the
measuring instrument.
Absolute Absolute uncertainty depends on the separation between scale
uncertainty markings. Readings are usually taken to the smallest or half of
the smallest scale graduation depending on the nature of the
experiment and the instrument used.
Fractional Fractional uncertainty is the ratio of absolute uncertainty to the
uncertainty measured value of a quantity.

Percentage Fractional uncertainty expressed in percentage form.

Uncertainty
Vector Vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and
(2009) direction. It must be specified with its value, unit and direction.
Scalar Scalar is a physical quantity that has only magnitude but does
(2009) not have a direction. It is completely specified by its numerical
value and unit.

APPENDIX A

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Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

SUMMARY OF KEY QUANTITIES, SYMBOLS AND UNITS

The following list illustrates the symbols and units that will be used in question papers.
Usual Usual
Quantity symbols Usual unitsQuantity symbols Usual units
Base Quantities
mass m kg electric current I A
length l m thermodynamic temperature T K
Time t s amount of substance n mol
Other Quantities
distance d m elementary charge e C
displacement s, x m electric potential V V
area A m2 electric potential difference V V
volume V, v m3 electromotive force E V
density ρ kg m-3 resistance R Ω
speed u, v, w, c m s-1 resistivity ρ Ωm
velocity u, v, w, c m s-1 electric field strength E N C-1, V m-1
acceleration a m s-2 permittivity of free space εo F m-1
acceleration of free fall g m s-2 magnetic flux Φ Wb
force F N magnetic flux density B T
weight W N permeability of free space µo H m-1
momentum p Ns force constant k N m-1
work w, W J Celsius temperature θ °C
energy E,U,W J specific heat capacity c J K-1 kg-1
potential energy Ep J molar gas constant R J K-1 mol-1
kinetic energy Ek J Boltzmann constant k J K-1
heating Q J Avogadro constant NA mol-1
change of internal energy ∆U J number N, n, m
number density (number per
power P W unit volume) n m-3
pressure p Pa Planck constant h Js
torque T Nm work function energy Φ J
gravitational constant G N kg-2 m2 activity of radioactive source A Bq
gravitational field strength g N kg-1 decay constant λ s-1
gravitational potential φ J kg-1 half-life t1/2 s
angle θ °, rad relative atomic mass Ar
angular displacement θ °, rad relative molecular mass Mr
angular speed ω rad s-1 atomic mass ma kg, u
angular velocity ω rad s-1 electron mass me kg, u
period T s neutron mass mn kg, u
frequency f Hz proton mass mp kg, u
angular frequency ω rad s-1 molar mass M kg
wavelength λ m proton number Z
speed of electromagnetic waves c m s-1 nucleon number A
electric charge Q C neutron number N

APPENDIX B

Derivation of the rule: Z  A  B

33
Dunman High School 2013 Physics Topic 1

A For the case of Z = A + B,

Zmax = Amax + Bmax

Z + Z = (A + A) + (B + B)
= (A + B) + (A +B)

Therefore Z  A  B

B For the case of Z = A − B,

Zmax = Amax − Bmin

Z + Z = (A + A) − (B − B)
= (A − B) + (A +B)

Therefore Z  A  B

APPENDIX C
Z A B
Derivation of the rule:  
Z A B

A For the case of Z = A x B, B For the case of Z = A ÷ B,

Take the largest values for A and B, that is A  A

Maximum possible value of Z + Z =
B  B
Z + Z = (A + A)(B + B) A  A A BA  BA  AB  AB
= AB + A B + B A + A B Z = − = =
B  B B B(B  B )
BA  AB
As A << A and B << B,
the last term is much smaller than the other B 2  BB
terms and can be neglected.
BA  AB
Since B B << B2, Z 
Thus Z + Z = AB + (A B + B A) B2
Thus fractional uncertainty
Z = A B + B A Z (BA  AB ) A (BA  AB ) B
 2
  
Z B B B2 A
Z A B A B
the fractional uncertainty is   .  
Z A B A B

34