Module I

OSt
seeurity architecture- Security attacks, Services, Mechanisms. Cryptography VS
Cryptanalysis. Classieal eneryption techniques-Symmetric cipher model. Substitution
ciphers- Monoalphabetic vs Polyalphabetic ciphers, Caesar
Playfair cipher, Affine cipher,
cipher, Vigenere cipher, Hill cipher. Transposition ciphers Keyless, Keyed,
Double transposition.

Definition Of Computer Security

The three concepts form the CIA triad

Confidentiality (covers both data

confidentiality and privacy): preserving authoriZed
restrictions on information and
access
disclosure, including means for protecting personal
privacy and proprietary information. Aloss of confidentiality is the
unauthorized disclosure
of information.
A ie
Integrity (covers both data and
system integrity): Guarding against improper informmation
modification or destruction, and includes
ensuring information non-repudiation and
authenticity. A loss of integrity is the unauthorized modification or
destruction of
information.
Availability: Ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information.
A loss of
availability is the disruption of access to or use of information or an
information system.

Additional concepts of security at

Authenticity: The property of being genuine and being able to be verified and
confidence in the trusted;
validity of a transmission, a message, or message originator.

Accountability: The security goal that

generates the requirement for actions of
be traced uniquely to that entity.
an
entity too

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 ata
ha

services

Levels of Impact

can define 3 levels of impact from a securib breach

Low

Moderate

High

Low Impact

The loss could be expected to

haveta limited adverse effect on
organizational
operations, organizational assets, or
individuals.
A limited adverse effect means that, for example, the loss of
or availability might confidentiality, integrity,
) cause a
degradation
in
mission 'capability to extent and duration that the
an

organization is able to
perform its primary functions, but the effectiveness of
the functions is
noticeably reduced
(i) result in minor damage to
organizational assets;
(1ti) result in minor
financial losst or
(iv) result in minor harm to
individuals.
Moderate Impact

The loss could be

expected to have a serious adverse effect
operations, assels, Or individuals.zu. on
organizational
A serious adverse eltect means that, e.8, the loss
might
miest:CH
y reitrT

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 ) cause a significant degradation in mission capability to an
extent and
duration that the organization is able to perform its primary functions, but the
effectiveness of the functions is significantly reduced,
(ii) result in significant damage to organizational assets
i i ) result in significant financial loss; or

(iv) result in significant harm to individuals that does not involve loss of life or
serious, life-threatening injuries

High Impact
The loss could be expected to have a severe or catastrophic adverse effect on
organizational operations, organizational assets, or individuals.

A severe or catastrophic adverse effect means that, for example, the loss might

) cause a severe degradation in or loss of mission capability to an extent and

duration that the organization is not able to perform one or more of its primary
functions;
(11) result in major damage to organizational assets;

( i i ) result in major financial loss; or

o(iv) result in severe or catastrophic harm to individuals involving loss of life or

serious life threatening injuries.

THE OSI SECURITY ARCHITECTURE

ITU-T X.800 "Security Architecture for

OSP
defines a systematic way of defining and providing
security requirements
The OSI security architecture focuses on
security attack, security mechanism, security
service

security attack: Any action that

compromises the security of information owned by an
organization.
Security mechanism: A process that iS
designed to detect, prevent, or recover from aa
security attack.
STHie
Security service: A
processing or communication service that enhances the
the data processing systems and
security of
the infomation transfers of an
organization.

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SECURITY ATTACKS

both in X.800 and RFC 2828, 1s in ternms

A useful means of classilying security attacks, used
attacks.
of passive attacks and active
or make uSe of information
A passive attack attempts to learn
trom the system but does not atlect system resourceS.

transmissions. T he
on, or monitoring of,
Passive attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping

goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted.

Two types of passive attacks are:

Interception-release of message contents

traffic analysis - monitor traffic flow to deteimine location and identity of communicating
hosts and could observe the frequency and length of messages being exchanged
These attacks are difficult to detect becausé they do not involve any alteration of the data.

Active attack involves some modification of thedata stream or the creation of a false stream
andcan be subdivided into four categoriès

Masquerade-takes place when one entity pretends to be a different entity

Replay-involves the passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent retransmission
to produce an unauthorized enecs
Modification of messages- some portion of a legitimate message is altered or that
messages are delayed or reordered to produce an unauthorized effect.
Denial of service-prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of
communications facilities. This
attack.may
have specific target for eg, an entity may
a

suppress all messages directed, to 2partichlar destination. Another form of service

denial is the disruption of an entire network either by
disabling the network or by
overloading it with messages so as to degrade performance.
Handling Attacks
Passive attacks-focus
on Prevention
Easy to stop

Hard to detect
Active attacks- focus on
Detection and Recovery
Hard to stop 0 ing
Easy to detect

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Security service
A.SO0 defines a security service as a
servicehat is proyided by a
protocol 1ayer or

communicating open systems and that ensures adequate security of the systems or
of data transfers.

X.800 divides these services into five

categories and fourteen specific services

-|+ 100%
AUIHENIICATION
The assurance that the communicatingE cntity is tha
aDATAINEEGRITY
Tho asvurancc that data rcccivcd ard cxacty as
A
ODe that it clains to be sent by an authorized cntity ce, contain DO mods
catuon, serion, delcugn, 9E21Cpi)
Peer Batity Authentiation
Used in associalion wilh a logIcal connccuon
to
provide confdence tn tho idcntity of tbe cntitics Conncclion lafegrily with Recorery
Providcs for the integity
COnnectod on and detects any of all ascr data on acon
modire conpcc-
within ccon,
o
orr
replay of
repluy of any
any data
data withn an couro d eOenc
Data-Otiein Authentication
lna connectionless transler, provides assiurance lha with rocovcyaltcmptcc
the souroc of roccivcd data is ar claimed.,
Conncction Integiiy wilhout Recoverg
Asabovc, Butprovdes only detection withoot
ACCESS CONTROL S2 recovc
The provcntion ol unauthorUcd usc oar
e t a s Service contros who can have coess Scective-Ficld Conncction Inteprity
o u r , under whbat conditioS access i n occu Povidesfor the integrily of seclccicd ficlds within thc
and what thosc acocssing theresour allowth
fo do) tionatoadata bockoftransfered over a connec
and takes the form
delcrmination ol
tho sclected helks havc becn
whether
modified,inscricd,
DATA CONFIDENTIALITY deleted, or replaycd.
1bc protcclion of data Irom unauthortized
Connectionless Intezrity
Provides for the
inteernly ol a single connectionles
data block and may take
Connection Confidentiality the form of detection ol
The protction of all uscr diata on u connccion data modhication. Additionaly, a iited form of
replay deteclion may be provided.
Connectionless Conndentiality
h e protection of all user data ina sioglodt bla Sckctive-Ficld Conncetionless Integity
rovides or tha nlCgrily of sclected ficlds withina
Singlo connectionless
Sekctiveield Confidentiality data block; takes tho formol
determination ol wbether tho selected belds hav
ho conlsdentiality
of sclected sclds wilhin the
us
dala on a cOnpoction or in a single data block. been modificd

Tralie-plow Confidentialiy NONREPUDLATION

on o tbonlormation that mipht be Provides protcction against
C y a o m obserValion of tralfic flow dcnial by thepar
chitics tnvolved tn a communication olhavint
ono of
acipated n al o r part of
the communieation
Nonrepudiation, Ocigin
root that tho
mesgo was cat by the
spccificd

Nonrepudiation, Destination
Prool that the messago wax
received by the specificd
Dury

Security mechanismn
feature designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a security attack
no single mechanism that will
support all services required

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 however one particular element underlies many of the security mechanisms in use:

cryptographic techniques
specific security mechanisms:

encipherment, digital signatures, access controls, data integrity, authentication

exchange, traffic padding, routing control, notarization
pervasive security mechanisms:
trusted functionality, security läbels, event detection, security audit trails,
security recovery

SPECIEIC SECURITY MECIHANISIS PERVASIVE SECURITY MECHANISMS

May be incorporated into the
layerin order to provide someappropriate protoco
of the OsI se Mcchanisms.that are not Specific to any particular
Serces. 0SI security service Or protocol1ayer:
Endipherment Trusted Functiomlity
The usc of mathematical algorithnis to hat which is perceived to be correct with respect
dala inlo a lorm lhat is not transtor tGsome citeria (c.g, as establishied
readlily intelligible. The by a securis
translormaion and subsequent recovery ol the data
depend on an algorithm and 7ero or more
Keys. encryplR Segrity Label
he marking bound toa resource (which may be a
Digifal Signature itaunit) that names or designates the secunty attrn
Dala appended to, ora cryplographic transtormation butes of that resource.
ol, a data unit that allows
to prove the source
a
recipient of the data unit
Event Detection
and integnty.ot the dala uni and
prolect against 1orgery(c.g, by lhe eeclion of securily-relevant events
recipien)
Access Control Sccurity Audit Trail
AVarielyofmechanisms that enlorce access Dath collected and potentially uscd to
resources
ngh
Stosccnity audit, Which is an lacilitate a
independent review and
u o n ol system records and activities
Data Integrity
A varictyof mechanisms used to assure the Security Recovery
of a dala unit or stream of dala integriy Deals with requests Irom mechanisms, such as
units. event
ancthng and management tunctions, nd
recovery ctions. takes

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 SPECIEICc SECURITY MECHANISMS
Authentication Exchange
Anechanism intended to ensure tho identity of an
enny by means of intormation Oxchange,

n l e Padding
Ihe insertion ol bits into gaps in a data strcam to

nstate tralie analysis attempts.

Ronting Control
Enables selection ol particular physicaly sccure
coutes for certain data and allows routing changes
especialy when a breach ol securily is suspected.

Notarization
The use of a trusted third party to assurc certain
properties of a data cxchange.

Relationship Between Security Services and Mechanisms

MECHANISM

NotarZauo
IDD n eXCho

rity
conu
R o u t i n g
c o

SERVICE a

|Pcer entity authentication

Data origin authentication
ACCess control

Conlidentiality
Traflic low confidentiality

Data integrity
Nonrepudiation
Availability

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Model for Network Security
Trusted third party
eg,arbiter, distributer
of secret information)

Sender Recipient
Information
ecurity-related
transformation Channel
Security-related
transformation

ceret
intormation information

Opponent
using this model requires us to:

1. design a suitable algorithm for the security transformation

2. generate the secret information (keys) used by the
algorithm
3. develop methods to distribute and share the secret information
4. specify a protocol enabling the principals the
to use transformation and secret
information for a
security service
Model for Network Access Security
Information System
Computihg rsources
Opponent Processor, memory, /o)
-human (e-E, hacker)
Dala
-software
(e-g, virus, worm)
Processes
Access Cliannel Gatekeeper Software
unction
lnternal sccurity controls

using this model requires us to:

1. select appropriate gatekeeperfunctions to identify users

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 2. implement security controls to ensure only authorised users access designated
information or resources

note that model does not include:

1.monitoring of system for successtil penetration

2. monitoring of authorized users for misuse
3. audit logging for forensic uses, etc

Svmmetric CipherModels
A plaintext message after encryption is known as cipher and which follows symmetric
encryption is also known as symmetriccipher.

Same key is used for both encryption and decryption.

Secret key n a r h a r e d by
pe

ransmitted
PhCtex

Plaintext aintext

Encrypton
ngoritn Deersption algorithm
pu (reserse of ener plion output
ngoritlim)

Figure 1.1:Symmetrio cipher model

Detail the five ingredients of the symmetric ciphéer model shown in Figure 1.l:

plaintext - original message

eneryption algorithm - performs substitntions/transformations on plaintext

seeret key control exact substitutionsransformations used in eneryption algorithm

-

input to cncryption algorithm-value independent of the plain text

ciphertext- SCrambled message produced as output-depends on the plaintext and the

sccret key

decryption algorithm - inverse of eneryption algorithm -takes the cipher text and

the plain text and produces the original plaim text.

Vzinai/
Two requirements lor secure use ol symmetric eneryption:

-a strong ctncryplion algorithm

utio
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 -a secret key known only to sender/ receiver

with the message X [X1,X2,X3,. and the encryption key K as input, the

eneryption algorithm forms the ciphertext Y-[Y1,Y2,Y3,...Y],we can

wrile
Y=Ex(X) and X= Dx(Y)

Cryptography
Cryptographic systems are characterized along three independent dimensions:

1. The type of operations used for transforming plaintext to ciphertext.

Substitution- each element in the plaintekt (bit, letter, group of bits or letters) is
mapped intoanother element
Transposition- elements in the pläintext are rearranged.

2. The number of keys used.

Symmetric, single-key, secret-keys or conventional encryption- Both sender and

receiver use the same key.
Asymmetric, two-key, or public-key encryption- The sender and receiver use
different keys.

3. The way in which the plaintext is processed.

A block cipher processes the input one block of elements at a time, producing an
output block for each input block

A stream cipher processes the inpüt efements continuously, producing output one
element at a time, as it goes along.

Cryptanalysis and Brute-Force Attaclg

There are two general approaches to attacking a conventional encryption scheme

Cryptanalysis: Cryptanalytic attacks rely on the nature of the algorithm plus some
knowledge of the general characteristics of the plaintext or even some sample plaintext-
ciphertext pairs.

Brute-force attack: The attacker tries every possible key on a piece of ciphertext until an
intelligible translation into plaintext is obtaihed on'average, half of all possible keys must be
tried to achieve success.

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 Anown fo Coptanalb
9pe ofAttack
pbertext Oay EOcOioh algotithir

Koown Pizintext
Encypooa aleoril
Gpberie
n e or more plaiales ophertcat pain fomed with thbe sccret key
hoca Paintext

mesase choscn by cry ptanalst toscther with its cocresponding apbenie

the sicel key
Chosen pherie Encoption apcerthg
Gpbertext
Gphertet chosen by coptanalyst, together with its cOresponiDg oets Ed
PLintext eneratid aith tbe secret key

ainteat mestoge chosn by cryplanalyst, toge ther wilh is corresponding

paceeencratcd ththe sccret key
pbericztChokea by coplanalysL Logetherh js coresponcune OEpc
3the secret keyf

Table 1.1: Types of attack on encrypted messages

Substitution Techniques
Where letters of plaintext are
replaced by other letters or by numbers orsymbols or if
plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution involves
bit patterns with cipher text bit patterns.
replacing plaintext
(a) Caesar Cipher:
-Earliest known substitution cipher.
By Julius Caesar.
First use in military affairs.
Each letter is replaced with the letter
standing three places further down the alphabet.
Example:
plain: meet me after the togaparty
cipher: PHHW PH DIWHU WKH
WRJD SDUWB
can define transformation as:

plain: a bcdefghij kF mno

cipher: D EFGHIJKLMNOP pqrstu W x yz
QRSTUVWXYZABC
ab

1920

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 then Caesar
cipher is represented as:

eEp)-(p+)mod (26): Caesar's eneryption algorithm.

p Dc)(C-k) mod (26):
Caesar's deeryplion algorithi
Cptanalvsis of Caesar Cipher:
1.The encryption and decryption algorithms are known.
2. There are only 25 keys to
try.
3. The language of the plaintext is known
and easily recognizable.
(b) Playfair cipher
The best known multiple letter encryption cipher is the playfair, which treats digrams
in the plaintext as single units and translates these units into cipher text digrams.

The Playfair algorithm is based on the use of 5x5 matrix of letters constructed using a
keyword.
Let
the keyword be monarchy
The matrix is constructed by filling in the letters of the keyword (minus duplicates)
from left to right and from top to kottom, and then filling in the remainder of the
matrix with the remaining letters in alphabetical order.

The letter i and 'j' count as one letter.

Plaintext is encrypted two letters at atime according to the following rules:

Repeating plaintext letters iat would fall in the same pair are
separated with a Filler létter such as".
Plaintext letters that fall in, the samerowof the matrix are each replaced by the
to the right, with the first of the row following the last.
letter element
Plaintext letters that fall in the same column are replaced by the letter beneath,
with the top element of the column following the last.
Olherwise, each plaintext letter is rcplaced by the letter that lies in
its own and the
row
columif oceupied by the other plaintextletter
al toe
M ONA
B

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 meet me at the school house
bg: Plaintext

me et me at th es ch OX ol ho us ex

XL TU-CIPHERTEXT
CL KL CL RS PD IL HY AV MP HF

Strength of playfair cipher

alphabetic ciphers
great advance ovèr simple
mono
Playtair cipher is a
so identification
Since there are 26 letters, 26x26 676 digrams
are possible,
of individual digram is more dificult.

() Monoalphabetic Ciphers
rather than just shifting the alphabet
could shufile (permute) the letters arbitrarily
random ciphertext letter
each plaintext letter maps to a
different
hence key is 26 letters long

Plain: abcdefghijklmnopgrstuvwxyZ
cipher: DKVOFTBJWPE SCXHTMYAUOLRGZN
Plaintext: ifwewishtorepla celetters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFS FUUFYA

Monoalphabetic Cipher Security

key size is now 25 characters.
now have a total of 26!4x 1026 keys
w i t h so many keys, might think is secure
b u t not very secure
problem is language characteristics

Frequeney Analysis
letters are not equally commonlyused
i n English 'e' is by far the most common letter then T,R,N,I,O,A,S
have tables of single, double &triplé letter frequencies

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 Figure 1.2: English letter frequencies

(a) Polyalphabetic ciphers

All the techniques have the following features in common.

rules are used

A set of related monoalphabetic substitution

A key determines which particular rule is chosen for a given transformation.

Simplest algorithm is Vigenere cipher

substitution
O In this scheme, the set of related monoalphabetic
rules consisting of 26 caesar ciphers with shifts of 0 through 25.
Each cipher 1s.denoted by a key letter. e.g., Caesar cipher with
the value d (Since a=0, b=1, c=2
a shift of 3 is denoted by key
and so on).
o To aid in understanding the scheme, a matrix known as
vigenere tableau is constructed.
O Each of the 26 ciphers is laid out horizontally, vith the key
letter for each ciphet to its left. A normal alphabet for the
plaintext runs across the top.

10 her

isdet

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 9
T UY

WX

A C D
N O po

STU VW
TUV W

M
v G

L.
EM O PQ
L M NO Q R
G NOPQ QRS
S TU W

Table 1.2: The modern Vigenere Cipher Table

Given akey letter x and a plaintext letter y, the
labeled x and the column labeled y; in this cipher text is at the intersection of the row
case, the ciphertext is V.

To encrypt a message, a key is

the key is
needed that is as
long as the message. Usually,
a
repeating keyword:
e.g., key
PT
=deceptivedecepti vedeceptive
CT
=wearediscoveredsaveyourself
Decryption is ZICVTWONGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
equally simple he key letter again identifies the row. The
position of the cipher text letter in that row determines the
plaintext letter is at the top of that column.
column, and the

Strength of Polyalphabetic cipher

There are
multiple cipher text letters for each
Letter plaintext letter.
frequency information is obscured.
(e) Hill Cipher
This encryption
algorithm takes m successive plaintext letters and
for them m
ciphertext letters. substitutes
The substitution is
determined by m
is assigned a numerical linear cquations in which each character
be described as follows:
value (a 1,.Z 25). For m =3,the system can

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 e (knP kip2 tku)mod 26
+

2(aP1 + kap k ) mod 26

C3(auP+ kiP + k ) mod 26

This can be expressed in terms of column vectors and matrices

k1 k2
(C1C2C3) P P2 Pa)ka1 k2 kmod 26

Or
C-KP mod 26,

the plaintext and

Where C and P are column vectors oflength 3, representing
ciphertext and K is a 3x 3 matrix, representing the encryption key. Operations are

pertormed mod 26.

In general the Hill system can be expYessed as followsS:

C-Ex(P)=KP mod26 colti er
P-Dx(C)-K'C mod 26-K KP=P

() OneTlime Pad Cipher

Itis an unbreakable cryptosystem.

It represents the message as a sequence of Os and Is.
This can be accomplished by writing all numbers in binary, for example, or by
using ASC
The key is a random sequence of 0's and 1's of same length as the message.
Once a key is used, it is discarded and never used again.

The system can be expressed as follows:

C P;K
Ci-ith binary digit of cipher text
Pi ith binary digit of
plaihtext
-

Ki- ith binary digit of key

Thus the cipher text is generated by performing the bitwise XOR of the
plaintext and the
key. Decryption uses tie sams key. Because of the properties of XOR,
decryplion simply
involves the same bitwise operation
GOK;

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 e.g plaintext =00.101001
Key 10.101100

ciphertext =10000101
Advantage
Encryption method is completely
unbreakable for ciphertext only attack.
a

Disadvantages
It
requires a very long key
transmit. which is expensive to
produce and expensive to

Once key is used, it is dangerous

a
to reuse it for
knowledge on the first message a second
message, any
wWould give knowledge of the second.
Transposition Techniques
I t is the kind of
mapping techniques- achieved by
permutations on plaintext. perfoming some sort oft
Transposition ciphers encrypt plaintext by
The various moving all small pieces messages around.
transposition techniques are: RAIL
ALGORITHM(Keyed), and FENCE(Keyless), COLUMNAR
DOUBLE
ALGORITHM(Keyed).
) RAIL FENCE:
The simplest transposition cipher used is
Plaintext is written down as a
RAIL FENCE.
rows. sequence of diagonals and read oft as a
sequence of
For example, to
enCipher the
messagemeet me after the toga party with
of depth 2: a rail fence
eg. write message out as:

memat rhtgpry
etefeteo a a t
giving ciphertext MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
i) COLUMNAR ALGORITHM (Row
It is also known columnar transposition
as
transposition).
It is more
technique.
a
complex scheme n which messages are written in
row.
a
rectangle row b

The messages are read oft

as columny column, but permute the order of
This method column.
uses a key within these, and order of the
column.
This method uses a key within theseand
become key to the
order of the column in the algorithm will
algorithm.
Example:

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 Key: 4 3 1 2
56
Plaintext a t t a c kp
ostP
dunti 16
wO am
x y2
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ

In this example, the key is 4312567.To encrypt, start with the column that is labeled 1, in
this case column 3. Write down all the letters in that column. Proceed to column 4, which
is labeled 2, then column 2, then column 1, then columns 5, 6, and 7.

(ii) Double Algorithm.

I t is same as that of columnar algorithm
I t will do two transposition instead of one in columnar.
.This is much less permutation and is so much more difficult to cryptanalyze.

Key: 43 1 2 5 67
Input: ttna a p t
WCo 1 xk

n i ypetz
Output:
NSCYAUOPTTVLTDNROIEPAXTTOKZ

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 FRl cishes Pae-Ble)

Nuliletter enption Ciphey

malke maticvan lesli Hill in 1929
a qeneral lirms The t l eipheu ysem Com be
expesed ous C
ECk, P) Pk mec t

P DCk,c) Ck m od 6 PkK- P
o , sysltro Can be des caibedas
C P t+ki2P +kiaPa )mod
CRCbRI Ph + k22 Pe + Kas Pmedt
C3 Ca P1+ k32 Pz tka3 P od.

R's CAm be eppherse D lerms Aerus

veelors md
motii eS
u t2 ki3
Cr Cz C) = C P P K21 2 23

ka ka2 kas
A C PR mod .

Hel s SefuP Caill tte ce Mata

Rues to on eip ui
t text ATTAck Skeuw
lh
Calulations or he CenAnspo nali ng de enyptios
tke Deugi'nal
nt 6aek.
Becove
wphertert
Or'mce Tke dp matkio, plaimlont
skeuld e Conveled o matux o tgti x.

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Fost veeti, [4)
mumeadca egcui vale nt
b C
k noP
2 3 lo 1 I2 13 14 LS 16

V w X 2
2.0 2) 22 22 3 2 4 2S

C kP oo ob

rod
a
3
ot 3
L9 ae d2 tmsd ab
Ot bx
19 "
Secord veeti

C
P od ab
Rivd veebr

C- eP
o ed 26

34
E wnod

lential
Ceplas luol- s Fk MF]o

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 modu la tnle
Bnd lhi JnVeue o keg oa forik k
Ty
P c moc a6

dolirmmtinomt d ax b-3x 8/3

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