Foundations of Coaching For Swimmers and Parents

Table of Contents (click on the Chapter Heading to be taken directly to the pdf file)
Chapter 1: Philosophy and Ethics
1. Personal Reasons for Coaching and Personal Philosophy

2. Qualities of an Effective Coach
3. The Role of the Coach
4. Developing an Athlete Centered Philosophy
5. Ethical Behavior and Leadership
6. Professional and Personal Development
Chapter 2: Teaching and Communication
1. Creating a Positive Learning Environment

2. Keys to Effective Communication
3. Teaching Methods
4. Motivation as a Key to Learning
5. Goal Setting as a Teaching Tool
6. Developing Mental Skills
Chapter 3: Organization and Administration
1. Governance Structures
2. Working with the Swim Club
3. Organizing the Wet Side
4. The Swim Meet
5. Risk Management
6. Legal Considerations
Chapter 4: Growth and Development
1. Understanding the Basics of Physical Growth and Development

2. Applying the Basics of Growth and Development
3. Social Development
4. Psychological Development
5. Gender and the Young Athlete
Chapter 5: Skills and Mechanics
1. Basic Biomechanics
2. Freestyle
3. Backstroke
4. Breaststroke
5. Butterfly
6. Starts
7. Turns
Table of Contents Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.

Chapter 6: Physical Conditioning
1. Basic Physiology
2. Season Planning
3. Energy Zones
4. Planning Novice and Age Group Practices
5. Planning Senior Level Practice Sessions
6. Fueling for Performance
7. Keys to Hydration
8. Disordered Eating
9. Advocating for Drug-free Sport
Chapter 7: Evaluation
1. Athlete Evaluation
2. Coach and Club Evaluation
Resources
Athlete Development Charts
1. Progressions for Athlete Development

o Charts that indicate what an athlete may need to accomplish in six critical areas of development.
2. Developmental Characteristics of Children Aged Five through Twelve
o The typical physical, social, emotional and intellectual characteristics of children during development.
Set and Season Planning
1. Interval Training and Set Design
o Chart showing the seven energy categories to guide set design.
2. Basic Season Planning: (Age Group and Senior versions)
o Sample spreadsheets to plan weekly and season training volumes and energy zone percentages.
Training Paces Charts
1. Obtaining Aerobic Training Paces
2. Table # 1: Number of Lengths Completed in a 30 Minute Swim
3. Table # 2: Timed Swim Pace Chart
4. Table # 3a: Pacing Chart for Determining Training Paces During a Distance Swim (Part a)
5. Table # 3b: Pacing Chart for Determining Training Paces During a Distance Swim (Part b)
6. Table # 4: EN-1 Training Paces with 10 Seconds Rest
Team Administration
1. Parents’ Meeting Agenda
o A sample agenda for a new parents’ orientation meeting.
3. Topics for Parent Education
o A list of pertinent topics to be addressed with parents.
4. Parent Code of Conduct

o Sample letter and Code of Conduct for team parents.
5. Monthly Coach’s Report
o A sample form for a coach’s monthly report.
6. Including Swimmers with a Disability
o A guide for working with swimmers with a disability.
7. Working with Officials
o A guide for working with officials at a swim meet.
Additional Resources and Bibliography
1. Bibliography
o A list of the resources used in the production of the Foundations of Coaching documents.
2. Coaches’ Resource List
o DVDs developed by some of the elite coaches who participated in Foundation of Coaching.
o Books and other resources

Chapter 1: Philosophy and Ethics
Table of Contents
Part 1: Personal Reasons of Coaching and Personal Philosophy.
o The diverse reasons for entering coaching.
o The importance of developing a personal philosophy
o How to develop a personal philosophy
o Club, coach and staff philosophies: open communication
Part 2: Qualities of an Effective Coach
o A coach must be knowledgeable, organized, sympathetic
o Personal qualities you possess
o Earning credibility, respect and trust
Part 3: The Role of the Coach
o Providing person and social development for lifetime skills
o Developing and improving technical skills
o Providing a fun and enjoyable environment
o The proper emphasis of competition
o Dominant values coaches can teach
Part 4: Developing an Athlete Centered Philosophy
o Physical and personal needs of swimmers
o The Triangle: parents, coaches, administrators with athletes in the middle
o Why kids swim and what the coach can do to enhance fun
o Managing behavior
o Striving for diversity in the swim program
 Racial, ethnic and socioeconomic diversity
 Swimmers with a disability
Part 5: Ethical Behavior and Leadership
o Enforcing rules and policies
o The Coach as a role model
Part 6: Professional and Personal Development
o Where to do to learn more
o Meshing professional and personal development
Chapter 1: Philosophy and Ethics Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
Part 1: Personal Reasons for Coaching and Personal Philosophy
Topic Questions:
1. Why choose to coach?
2. How is a personal coaching philosophy developed and communicated?
Each coach has his or her own reasons for coaching often depending on past experience. For example, one person who
swam competitively throughout high school and college decided coaching was a way to remain involved in swimming after
her competitive career ended. Another decided to coach because he had a great youth coach and he wanted to emulate
that person, while yet another thrives on helping young people reach their dreams and potential. Here is a list of reasons
why some people decide to coach. Are there other reasons not on the list?
• Coaching allows me to continue competing against others.
• I love swimming.
• I had a positive youth swimming experience and want to share this with young people.
• I had a negative youth sport experience and want to provide a better environment for young people.
• Coaching allows me to remain involved with swimming.
• I enjoy working with young people and helping them reach their goals and dreams.
• I enjoy teaching and coaching is a form of teaching.
• My kids are on the swim team, and I want to be involved with them.
• The swim club needed a coach and I needed a job.
Determining why to coach begins the process of developing a personal coaching philosophy. This philosophy will be a
reflection of beliefs, values, ideas and attitudes. As a coach develops a personal coaching philosophy, remember that it
should reflect both the needs of the swimmers and the needs of the coach. So, how might a coach develop personal
philosophy of coaching?
• Examine the needs of the swimmers.
• Examine personal needs.
• Read articles on coaching; listen to other coaches; discuss issues openly with co-coaches.
• Make a written list of personal coaching values.
• Write a statement of coaching philosophy and date it.
• Review and update the values and philosophy statement at least once a year.
A club should also develop a clear philosophy and mission. The coach has a better chance of stability and long term
involvement with the club if his or her philosophy is in line with the club’s philosophy and mission. For this reason, the
head coach, the assistant coaches, and the club leaders should work together to discuss and develop a philosophy and
mission statement for the club. An assistant should be sure that his or her personal philosophy is not in open conflict with
that of the head coach or governing body of the club. An assistant coach can openly discuss personal coaching
philosophy with the head coach to look for and resolve conflicts. In a healthy club the philosophies of the head coach, the
administrators, and the staff are in tune. If not, it may be time for one or more parties to seek a different environment.
Part 2: Qualities of an Effective Coach
Topic Questions:
1. What are the qualities of an effective coach?
2. What personal qualities may enhance the effectiveness of a coach?
3. How can a coach earn credibility, trust and respect?
All coaches have different skills and strong points. While some coaches are more effective teachers, others may be more
effective motivators, communicators or technicians. In general, three qualities determine the effectiveness of a coach. A
swimming coach is or should be:
• Knowledgeable
• Organized
• Sympathetic
Swimming coaches should be knowledgeable in three areas. First, they should be knowledgeable in a variety of academic
areas including physiology, principles of physical training, psychology, teaching methods and communication. Second,
they should be knowledgeable in the sport of swimming. This knowledge includes stroke mechanics, the strategies and
tactics of each swimming event, water safety and training methods for swimming. Third, a coach should have good
interpersonal skills in order to work effectively with parents, officials, and administrators.
Swimming coaches should be organized and well prepared. Swimming is a sport that depends upon developing a base
and following a purposeful progression throughout a season and career. A swimming coach should develop general
seasonal plans and specific practice plans for each practice. Swimming is also a sport in which many individuals
constitute a team. These individuals may have diverse skill levels and varying personal goals. Unless a coach is well
organized, the coach could easily lose the team concept by focusing on a few individuals or lose sight of the importance of
each team member by focusing exclusively on the team.
Swimming coaches should be sympathetic to their athletes. To be sympathetic means to understand and share what
others are feeling and to respond to them appropriately. For example, a sympathetic coach feels success with those who
swim personal best times and feels loss for those who run out of gas midway through a race. The sympathetic coach
understands that swimmers have various experiences during the day, at home, at school or with friends that will affect
their behavior and performance in practice.
Personal Qualities the Coach Possesses

The coach’s personal qualities help to determine coaching effectiveness. Coaches possess some qualities while others
develop over time. You personally possess many qualities that you may take for granted or may not recognize as positive
qualities. Here are a few:
• Knowledge. This includes knowledge of swimming skills, rules and strategies as well as knowledge of the sport
sciences.
• Physical abilities. The ability to swim or to demonstrate skills enhances effectiveness.
• Experience. Coaching swimmers requires both experience in swimming and experience in working with young
people.
• Patience. A coach needs patience in working with young people over the long term.
• Emotional control. Keep both accomplishments and frustrations in perspective. This quality includes the ability to
laugh at oneself and to remain pleasant through frustrating circumstances.
• Vocabulary of swimming terms and phrases. Command of this vocabulary is a quality that communicates
knowledge and experience.
• Speaking ability. This is the ability to speak clearly and hold the swimmers’ attention.
• Organization. A coach should have organization in daily and long term preparation and planning.
• Empathy. Athletes need to feel that they can communicate with their coach and be understood.
• A sense of humor. This quality goes a long way when working with young people and their parents.
A coach can learn, develop and enhance these qualities. Some of these skills may already be well developed; others may
need improvement.
Qualities Attributed to the Coach

Michael Josephson, a well known business ethics advisor, has said that we tend to think of ourselves in terms of our best
intentions, but others tend to look at us based on our last worst act.
The coach does not automatically possess personal qualities such as credibility, respect or trust in the same way he or
she possess knowledge, experience and physical abilities. These qualities are attributed to the coach by the swimmers,
other coaches, employers, parents and others, based upon coaching style, communication, teaching style and
motivational style. In other words, actions gain credibility, respect and trust for you. These personal qualities attributed to
the coach influence coaching and organizational effectiveness. The more the swimmers, other coaches, parents, and
employers respect and trust the coach, the more they will be willing to cooperate. These are qualities that are earned over
time through actions and good works. There are many keys to developing credibility, respect and trust, but there are three
keys that deserve special mention:
• Being accountable
• Using excellent listening skills
• Being professional
Being Accountable
Being accountable means several things. First, it means to be able to measure, in objective terms, the progress of the
team towards goals and then to report on this progress in a written monthly report to the employer. A coach can report
on team numbers (members) broken down by sex and age group; team improvements in terms of numbers of
swimmers making time standards; swim meet performance in terms of best time percentages. An assistant coach
should report these statistics to the head coach. Second, being accountable means being honest. If, for example
progress towards goals is going slower that hoped for, the coach should report honestly rather than trying to cover
things up. This honesty tends to generate trust and short term support. (However, constantly falling short on goals, no
matter how honestly reported, probably calls for a major reevaluation!) Third, being accountable means following
through on promises so that people see the coach as dependable. It means “doing what you say you are going to do
when you say you are going to do it.”
Using Excellent Listening Skills

Good listening means learning to understand the other person. It does not mean agreeing with the other person.
Others will be more likely to come to a coach with problems and solutions when the coach develops a reputation for
good listening skills. Good listening skills include the following:
• Making eye contact
• Facing the person with an open body posture
• Rephrasing from time to time to let the other person know there is understanding
• Lowering emotional levels by not interrupting and not raising the voice
• Asking “What if” questions and using “I” statements rather than “you” statements
Being Professional
Wear appropriate clothing, use good writing skills, speak clearly, be early, and pursue coaching education and
certification. These and other attributes mentioned throughout this manual will help the coach present him or herself
as a professional.
“Over Time”
How much time does it take to earn trust, credibility and respect? Certainly a coach cannot demand these attributes but
simply must be patient. The younger the coach is, the more difficult it is. With athletes, a good axiom to live by is this:
“They don’t care how much you know, until they know how much you care.” (Attributed to Don Swartz, a world class
coach in the 70’s.)
Part 3: The Role of the Coach
Topic Questions:
1. What is the coach’s role in character-building?
2. What is a “fun” environment?
3. What is the proper emphasis in competition?
4. What are the dominant values that coaches teach swimmers?
The objectives and goals the coach establishes should reflect the needs of the swimmers, the needs of the coach and the
needs of the program.
The coach will have many specific objectives, but each could probably be grouped into four major categories:
1. To provide personal and social development for lifetime skills.

2. To develop and improve the technical and physical skills of swimming.
3. To provide a fun and enjoyable environment.
4. To orient young people to competition.
Providing Personal and Social Development for Lifetime Skills

Acquiring life skills is often listed as a major benefit of participation in a swim program. These skills include such things as
championship behavior and accountability, work ethic and self-discipline, time management, commitment and loyalty.
These are the life skills that swimmers often mention years after their swimming careers have ended. After the parents, a
coach is often the most important and influential figure in the development of the athlete. A coach spends a great deal of
“quality time” with athletes. Coaches are role models whether they want to be or not. The key to the development of
lifetime skills is the quality of the leadership that is provided. We often hear people say that “sport builds character.” In
fact, in the sports area it is the coach, not the sport itself that is most influential in building and/or shaping a young
person’s character. Think about the desired traits. A coach should not be afraid to talk about these characteristics with the
athletes and be sure to reinforce and model these traits himself. Look for the “teachable moments” to point out or talk
about positive actions or stories to illustrate points. Open dialogue can reinforce the positive, aid in problem solving and
build unity and trust.
How influential is the coach upon the swimmers? Well, in most cases, the swimmers will follow the coach’s instructions
because he or she is the coach and they believe the coach knows what is best. A coach’s words need to be consistent
with the coach’s actions. For example, a coach must be supportive of team policies and have clear consequences for
violations of policies. The coach must respect team and facility policies as well as have the athletes follow the policies.
Be sensitive to issues of athlete encouragement and discipline. Some swimmers may not feel bad about losing and are
able to cope without any problems, while other swimmers may be devastated with a loss. Similarly, some young people
may be insecure and need frequent signs of approval, while others may be quite confident and need only occasional
comments. Be very aware of situations that could be perceived as bullying. What may seem funny, sarcastic or harmless
can be quite devastating to some athletes. If athletes are bullying a teammate, the best response may be to defend the
athlete being bullied. Most athletes do not want to go against what the coach is doing or saying.
Developing and Improving the Technical Skills of Swimming

Parents bring young, beginning swimmers to a swim program because they need to learn basic swimming skills such as
water safety, basic swimming strokes and how to breathe properly. As they progress, their skills need to be refined and
they can begin to learn and practice the basics of general conditioning and fitness. Later, the swimmers add additional
advanced skills and train more specifically for competition and particular events. The role of the coach is to teach age and
ability appropriate progressive skills to the swimmers.
Providing a Fun and Enjoyable Environment

Research conducted by USA Swimming indicates that fun is an essential component of competitive swimming. In fact,
young swimmers have indicated that fun is the number one reason that they participate in swimming. At times
spontaneous, frivolous, carefree fun is acceptable and desirable. At other times fun should come from the satisfaction of
meeting a challenge and improving through hard work. The joy of mastering a flip turn or being able to swim an entire
series of repeats without taking extra rest provides considerable satisfaction. Having a coach recognize improvement and
achievement increases the enjoyment. Plan to provide an enjoyable environment. It can be as easy as starting practices
with a smile and sincere “glad to see you today.” Ask the swimmers what they think is fun and then try to incorporate
some of their ideas into the practices. Remember, even seemingly frivolous activities need to be planned and organized
for safety. “Fun” is discussed more extensively in Section 4: Developing an Athlete Centered Philosophy.
Orienting Young People to Competition

The proper emphasis in competition should be the process of competition rather than the outcome or the winning or
losing. The outcome depends upon many factors. Outcome can be affected by the physical maturity, innate ability,
psychological preparation, skill level and conditioning of each swimmer. Additionally, individual race strategy and
uncontrollable physical conditions such as temperature or lane assignment can affect the result. The swimmers can only
be responsible for themselves and their abilities, not for all the other factors that affect the outcome. They certainly cannot
control what other swimmers do! Additionally, only one person can win each race. Does this mean that everyone else in
the race was a failure? Certainly not! In fact, the winner might not have achieved personal goals or shown improvement
while the losers may have done both. If swimmers are only responsible for themselves and their abilities, then each
person can be successful by meeting his or her personal goals. Goal setting is discussed later in this course. For now, it is
important to understand that emphasizing personal development rather than race outcome is the proper way to orient
young people to competition. Respect effort and improvement and always emphasize the long term process of
development. Remember, process first, outcome second.
Dominant Values that Coaches Teach to Swimmers

• Competition and striving to do one’s best is fun.
• Learning and improving swimming skills is a valuable activity.
• Swimming is an excellent lifetime sport and part of a healthy lifestyle.
• Setting and meeting personal and team goals is rewarding.
• Cooperation and support among teammates during practice and meets is important.
• Practices are essential steps in an athlete’s long term development.
• Swimming, training and competing are worthwhile and pleasurable activities.
• The courage to extend oneself and take risks to become better is worthwhile.
Part 4: Developing an Athlete Centered Philosophy
Topic Questions:
1. What does it mean to coach according to needs?
2. How can the coach increase the fun in swimming?
3. How can the coach manage behavior problems?
4. What is the value of diversity and inclusion?
Meeting Physical and Personal Needs of Swimmers

The specific needs of swimmers on the team can be grouped into two major categories:
Physical Needs
Personal Needs
Physical needs for swimmers include:

learning proper stroke mechanics and breathing patterns
developing endurance, strength, speed and power
combining the right amounts of work and rest throughout the season to reach a competitive peak performance.
Personal needs such as helping swimmers to develop life skills, and learning to compete were described in Section 3, The
Role of the Coach. Other personal needs include:
the need to feeling worthy, accepted and respected
the need to learn, grow and experience new challenges, successes and pleasures
the need to feel physically secure
the need for change and variation
How do these needs of the swimmers affect coaching behavior? Does the coach’s style positively reflect the dedication to
meet the needs of the swimmers? Here are some examples to think about. Allowing young swimmers to compete
exclusively in events in which they already excel will hinder their need to develop and grow. Boring practice routines that
never vary do not meet the need for change and variation, while constantly changing and slightly chaotic practices may
not provide the continuity and security the swimmers need to feel comfortable and secure.
People feel good about themselves when they are able to accomplish a task. Physical development and performance can
be self-rewarding and self-fueling. Conversely, people tend to not feel so good about themselves when they are unable to
accomplish tasks. A lack of development and success tends to be self-defeating and the swimmers may stop trying or
give up swimming altogether.
The coach also has needs, such as the need for personal satisfaction and recognition. However, the coach must not allow
personal needs to overshadow those of the swimmers. The coach’s role is to help the swimmers develop. You will be
most successful when you consider the needs of the swimmers as the most important and coach accordingly.
The Triangle
In an athlete-centered program the goal of the parents, coaches and club administrators should be to support the athletes
and focus attention on meeting the needs of the athletes. Visualize a triangle with the athletes in the middle. Strive to
make all decisions with this question in mind: “what is best for the athletes?”
Coaches
Athletes
Club Leaders Parents
Understanding and Identifying Why Kids Swim

We know from past research conducted by USA Swimming that kids stay in swimming because it is fun and quit because
it is not fun. This is a bit of an oversimplification, but it is important for coaches to know what it is that makes swimming fun
for athletes.
1. Recognize that fun can be incorporated into practice without detracting from the training
Often, fun and hard practices are viewed as being on separate ends of a spectrum. But, from research, USA
Swimming found that kids do not define fun as goofing around at practice. Instead, fun is found in things such as
being part of a team, accepting and meeting challenges, experiencing success and having an encouraging coach.
2. Promote a team concept

Although swimming is usually thought of as an individual sport, kids report enjoying the team aspect of swimming
such as relays and cheering for each other. There are an unlimited number of things coaches can do to help
foster a 'team spirit’. Examples include:
create a team identity
organize social functions
help the athletes identify team goals for practice and competition
reward/reinforce behaviors that demonstrate a team emphasis
3. Be aware of the need to provide external fun for younger athletes

For most young athletes, participation is not fun in itself. These athletes need other 'things' from coaches, parents
and teammates to provide and enhance their fun in swimming. As mentioned in the previous section, sometimes
spontaneous, frivolous, carefree fun is acceptable and desirable. At other times fun should come from the
satisfaction of meeting a challenge and improving through hard work. Even for young swimmers, accepting and
meeting a tough challenge can be fun. Recognition from the coach and teammates enhances the experience
even more. In addition, kids identified such things as relays in practice, racing, earning 'game time' on Fridays and
practice competitions as 'fun'. Some of these, and other, sources of fun should be a consistent part of swimming.
When in doubt, ask the athletes what they enjoy most about swimming.
4. Be aware of what is discouraging for swimmers

Being aware of what is discouraging for athletes and taking steps to avoid these things (if possible) will enhance
the athletes' overall enjoyment of swimming and desire to continue in the sport. Teaching swimmers to overcome
obstacles and meet challenges will encourage rather than discourage. For example, helping the athlete set
realistic time goals will, with hard work, increase his or her chance of achieving the goal. Note that 'getting slower
times than my goal' was rated as the #1 reason swimming is not fun.
5. Ensure the social aspect is present for females; Talk with males about self-referenced success
Two suggestions for coaches arise from the finding regarding gender differences in athlete perception of sources
of fun: 1) Take extra steps to ensure that the social aspect of swimming is part of the swimming environment for
females. 2) Discuss with males the need to measure success in swimming based on themselves as opposed to
referencing it to others or to final outcome as males have a tendency to focus more on winning and outcome.
6. Work to enhance each athlete's perception of ability

Kids who perceive themselves as having a relatively high ability level rated a variety of 'fun items' significantly
higher than those with a low perception of ability. It is beneficial, therefore, for coaches to make a conscious effort
to enhance each athlete's perception of ability and competence. A few suggestions on how to accomplish this:
Provide positive reinforcement and feedback regarding skill improvement, demonstration of appropriate
behaviors and effort exhibited by the athlete.
Structure the environment so the athlete has an opportunity to experience success (i.e., individual goals,
focus on performance not outcome).
Attribute poor performances to effort (which the athlete has control over) as opposed to ability (which they
may view as relatively stable).
Attribute poor performances to improper technique or failed racing strategy.
Identify areas that need improvement and strategies for the athlete to improve so he or she knows how to
enhance ability. Provide time for the athlete to practice the skills.
Managing Athlete Behavior

In spite of the coach’s best efforts to provide an organized, fun, challenging and supportive environment the coach may
still be confronted with disciplinary or behavioral issues. These issues may be rooted in causes well outside of the coach’s
control, such as in the athlete’s family, school or peer relationships, but the problems can still manifest themselves in and
around the pool. In spite of a coach’s resolve to stay positive and maintain self-control, the coach may find himself getting
angry or frustrated with a child who acts out, refuses to cooperate or engages in a power struggle. Children who act out
are often seeking attention from the coach or from their peers.
Try to catch these kids doing something right rather than constantly reprimanding them for doing wrong.
Use time-out by having the child sit out an activity until he or she feels able to rejoin the group. Be sure to remain
calm and explain why the child is being placed in time-out.
Make use of consequences that make sense to swimmers. If a child is hitting other kids with a kickboard, remove
the kickboard.
Try to avoid using punishment laps or physical demands such as push-ups that have no relationship to the
behavior to be changed.
Above all, try very hard to be even handed and fair.
Form a partnership with the parents. Approach parents openly and humbly asking for assistance in working with a
difficult child. The parents probably know their child’s difficulties.
A coach will not like all of the swimmers equally. Some are more “coachable” than others. They may be more even
tempered or respond more openly. They give more effort or they may be more competitive. Beware of giving undue
attention to the star swimmers, especially when they are very young. (More on this in Chapter 4, Growth and
Development.) Remember that the coach’s role is to provide opportunities for all of the swimmers to grow and develop
their skills.
Striving for Diversity in Your Program

The whole program benefits when the team is more diverse. There are many ways to strive for diversity including
recruiting and welcoming swimmers from various socio-economic, ethnic or racial backgrounds and bringing swimmers
with mental or physical disabilities into the program.
Racial, Ethnic and Socioeconomic Diversity

The sport of swimming is concerned with those who don’t have access to swimming and is making a commitment
to impacting people of all backgrounds. Swimming is not a visible sport among the economically disadvantaged
within the inner cities, the same segment that provides a rich talent pool for sports such as basketball and football.
Imagine the potential and possibilities. As a coach reaches out to minority swimmers, remember that very few
kids want to be the “only”: the only boy, the only girl, the only African-American, the only Asian or the only
Caucasian. If a coach has an “only” on the team, the coach must make a special effort to support and include the
athlete. Engage the team leaders in accepting the athlete, knowing that their leadership will set the tone. Also,
involve the parents and make sure the parents of the “only” are welcomed and included. The whole team benefits
from inclusion and diversity. New friendships and experiences enrich everyone as they come to understand their
commonalities.
Swimmers with a Disability
The same can be said of including swimmers with disabilities. Athletes with disabilities who join USA Swimming
clubs benefit from better sport-specific coaching, more rigorous training, more competition in practice and higher
expectations than they are likely to receive in other settings. Other benefits include socialization opportunities,
greater independence in activities of daily living and improved ability to cope with limitations imposed by
disabilities. The opportunity to be part of a team is especially important to athletes whose educational experiences
may have been routinely individualized. The opportunity to demonstrate ability and educate others can be a very
satisfying experience for persons who are frequently judged on the basis of what they cannot do.
“Able-bodied” swimmers learn to appreciate the concept of focusing on ability rather than limitations by observing
the similarities between themselves and their teammates who have disabilities. These include common motives
for swimming, shared performance goals and similar responses to training regimens. Some coaches report that
including athletes with disabilities increases motivation and decreases whining by other swimmers during practice.
Have the Same Expectations

Coaches should have the same general expectations for swimmers regardless of background or disability. All
swimmers should be expected to comply with team rules and policies, demonstrate a good work ethic and exhibit
good sportsmanship. All swimmers should contribute to the team by supporting their teammates and helping with
team activities. Conversely, all swimmers should enjoy the same opportunities as other swimmers, such as
promotion to a more advanced practice group, participation in meets and participation in team social events.
For more on working with Swimmers with a Disability, see “Resources/Team Administration”
Part 5: Ethical Behavior and Leadership
Topic Questions:
1. What is the role of the coach in teaching team and sport rules?
2. How can the coach be an effective role model?
Know and Enforce the Rules and Policies of the Team and the Sport
Coaches should establish team rules and customs that promote desired behaviors with clear guidelines regarding the
consequences for misbehavior. Team rules and traditions help foster a sense of team unity and feelings of pride in being
part of the team. Athletes should learn to view themselves as one member of a large team that functions best when all
abide by team guidelines. It goes without saying that the coach should respect and abide by the rules and policies so that
the athletes learn by example. Take advantage of “teachable moments” (i.e. teaching a value within the context of a real-
life situation) to demonstrate appropriate and inappropriate behaviors.
The coach is educating the whole person, not just the swimmer in the pool. By establishing clear standards and clear
values, the coach establishes expectations. The coach should be consistent in holding athletes accountable to these
standards. It is alright and even appropriate to acknowledge that there are issues where the coach and swimmers may
have differences of opinion or even different values. Recognize that young people are greatly influenced by television, the
music they listen to and their peers. Recognizing these sources of influence does not mean accepting or condoning
inappropriate behavior and values. Within the context of team rules and policies, athletes can be encouraged, as they
mature, to question and learn to use their own judgment and decision-making skills. However, it is still up to the coach to
structure the team as an opportunity for athletes to learn and practice positive behaviors.
The coach must know and be current with the rules of the sport. Remember that there can be annual rule changes
following the USA Swimming House of Delegates meeting held every September. These rule changes normally go into
effect on January 1 of the following year. The rule changes are posted on the USA Swimming website
(www.usaswimming.org) and listed in the rule book which all registered coaches receive after January 1. Each Local
Swimming Committee (LSC) also has its own rules and policies that govern such things as swim meet formats and entry
procedures. If the coach travels with swimmers to compete in a different LSC, the coach needs to be aware of the rules
and policies governing the competition. Swimmers and parents look to the coach to be knowledgeable and to educate
them on the rules and any rule changes. Teaching the rules to the athletes and the parents is one of the coach’s prime
responsibilities.
The Coach as a Leader and Role Model

The coach is a role model: a guide, a leader and a teacher. The coach’s behavior, attitude and actions toward other
coaches, swimmers, parents and officials will be scrutinized. The coach is not automatically accorded respect and trust
just because he or she is the coach. Respect and trust must be earned over time. Positive actions and appropriate
language and attire set the tone. As a coach, monitor your behavior and comments and try to see yourself through other’s
eyes. A coach doesn’t have to “get dressed up” to coach, but neat, clean team attire goes a long way toward presenting a
professional appearance.
Sometimes it may be difficult to separate roles, especially if the coach is also a parent of swimmers or if the coach is close
in age to the swimmers. In these situations, monitor social choices and be aware that you are the coach both on and off
the pool deck. Most experienced coaches advise a coach not to socialize with the swimmers and limit socialization with
the parents of the swimmers. Be open and approachable and cultivate a culture of trust and respect, but develop and
maintain a professional rather than personal relationship with swimmers and parents. Just as athletes should be held
accountable to high standards of behavior, the coach must hold him or herself similarly accountable.
Part 6: Professional and Personal Development
Topic Questions:
1. What is professional development and how does one go about it?
2. What is meant by personal development?
3. What tools does the coach have for personal development?
Professional Development
Professional development is the pursuit of developing oneself into the best coach one can be. There are two basic
components to professional development: experience and education. Set goals to improve both the knowledge base and
the experience base.
Dr. James Counsilman asked this poignant question: “Are you a coach with 10 years of experience, or are you a coach
with one year of experience ten times?” Do you repeat each season like the last or do you seek different methods? Are
you continually learning and evaluating? (Incidentally, if you don’t know who Dr. James “Doc” Counsilman was, take the
first step in your professional development to learn who he was, what he did and what he taught.)
A professional coach constantly seeks new information. Information is widely available through printed resources,
websites, other coaches and clinics. USA Swimming’s website (www.usaswimming.org) and the American Swimming
Coaches Association’s (ASCA) website (www.swimmingcoach.org) offer quality educational materials for free and for
purchase. ASCA offers home study courses, dozens of dvd’s and books, over 1000 audio files and a certification program.
Clinics are also offered by both organizations and there are numerous privately run clinics. See ASCA’s clinics section for
a list of current clinics being offered.
Personal Development
Personal development is the pursuit of goals outside the realm of coaching. Here is a simple question that may be hard to
answer: Are you a coach, or are you a person who coaches? Here is another question: Does coaching define you, or do
you define you? Coaches have a passion for coaching and hopefully those who are interested in making coaching a
career will have the motivation, the tools, the finances and the support to keep coaching for as long as they enjoy it.
Coaches already have one of the most important tools necessary. Coaches are among the finest goal-setting facilitators
on the planet! The trick is to take what you teach to your athletes and apply it to yourself.
First, think about where your personal values and goals come from. Do some thinking, reading and talking with friends
and family. Then, take the following steps:
1. Decide what you value. Make a list. Visit it often and evaluate it.
2. Ask yourself, “What goals can I set to manifest what I value?”
3. Write your goals down and put them where you will see them often. Make sure there is a target date for
completion of each goal. Make sure your goal is attainable and measurable.
4. List the objectives or steps you need to take to meet each goal and set a timeline for completing each step. If
your goal is big and distant, give yourself some reasonable short term goals to move you toward your big
goal.
5. Set aside time to work on your personal goals.
A Note about Finances

Any discussion of personal development would be incomplete without a mention of personal finances. As a young coach,
finances may not be a primary issue. However, this is the best time to begin financial planning habits for the future.
Developing investment accounts for home ownership, a child’s education, reserves for emergencies and retirement is best
done sooner than later even if you start very modestly. Seek the advice of a trusted financial planner and set financial
goals.
Chapter 2: Teaching and Communication
Table of Contents
Part 1: Creating a Positive Learning Environment

o Thorndike’s Three Laws of Learning
o Managing environmental factors
o Learning styles: visual, kinesthetic and verbal
o Vocabulary and delivery
o Effective demonstration and explanation (chart)
Part 2: Keys to Effective Communication
o Verbal and nonverbal communication
o Coaching styles: passive to authoritarian
o Providing feedback
o Communication guidelines
Part 3: Teaching Methods
o Common teaching language
o Demonstration ideas
o Explanation ideas
o Repetition of skills
o Feedback ideas
o Organizing groups for effective teaching
Part 4: Motivation as a Key to Learning
o Achievement motive
o Reinforcement and reward
o Extrinsic versus intrinsic
Part 5: Goal Setting as a Teaching Tool
o The value of goal setting
o Process versus outcome goals
o Principles of goal setting
o Facilitating individual goal setting
o Facilitating team goal setting
Part 6: Developing Mental Skills
o Rationale for teaching mental skills
o Imagery and visualization
o Self-talk
o Arousal control
o Concentration and focus
o Self-image
Chapter 2: Teaching and Communication Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
Part 1: Creating a Positive Learning Environment
Topic Questions:
1. What are Thorndike’s Three Laws of Learning and how can they be applied to the practice environment?
2. How does the environment at the pool affect learning?
3. What is the importance of explanation, demonstration, appropriate vocabulary and a common teaching language?
4. Does practice make perfect?
A coach’s effectiveness in teaching the swimmers is dependent upon whether the coach presents the information in a
meaningful and appealing way. Effectiveness is also influenced by whether or not the coach provides an environment in
which swimmers can concentrate and learn.
Thorndike’s Three Laws of Learning

• The Law of Readiness
The Law of Readiness says that athletes will learn best when the environmental and personal factors are
conducive to learning. Environmental factors include the physical environment which is discussed below.
Personal factors include the coach and the athletes. Coaches should present skills positively and enthusiastically
while athletes must be able to both understand the terminology and focus on the coach.
• The Law of Exercise

The Law of Exercise says that learning occurs by repeating the skills over and over again. It is important to note
that learning occurs at both the conscience and sub-conscience level. The good coach promotes both methods of
learning. At the conscious level the athlete repeats the skill by thinking through the motions. The coach teaches
key words or short two to three word phrases to the athlete. For example, the coach says, “After you push of the
wall you ‘streamline, kick, swim. Now, say the words… OK, ready go.” And then, with the words in mind, the
athlete performs the skill. The goal is to move from the conscious level to automatic level. This only happens
after many repeats at the conscious level.
Learning at the sub-conscience level is also valuable but has limitations. This is also called trial and error learning
and is promoted by the coach giving the athlete time to explore a new skill without excessive instruction. This
works best with experienced swimmers who have a good feeling for what their bodies are doing in the water.
Young swimmers, when left to learn on their own, often develop bad habits which are difficult to fix later on.
• The Law of Effect

The Law of Effect simply says that if the athletes have positive experiences they will be eager to come back for
more. This applies to correcting an individual as well as how the coach ends the workout. In teaching swimmers,
remember that if they are having difficulty learning a specific skill they may feel inadequate and “not normal.”
Therefore, the next time the coach wants to teach that skill they may be hesitant and negative. With developing
swimmers always end on a positive note so that they look forward to returning.
Environmental Factors
The coach has control over some, but certainly not all, of the environmental factors that affect the education process.
Environmental factors include:
• Time of day
• Length of practice session
• Grouping/arrangement of swimmers
• Water and air temperature
• Spectators
• Noise
• Lighting
• Visual distractions
• Equipment available
The keys are:
• Manipulate and use those factors that are controllable
• Take advantage of those factors that cannot be controlled
• Minimize the effect of those factors that hinder education
The coach may not be able to control when the team has practice, for example, but can control the amount of time during
each practice that skills are taught. Also, the coach may have only partial control over other people at the pool such as
spectators and other swimmers who create distractions. However, the coach does have control over how the swimmers
are arranged so they can see and hear clearly and therefore minimize the effect of other distractions.
Learning Styles and the Learning Environment

The coach should be sure to teach to all learning styles, including visual learners, kinesthetic learners and verbal learners.
Consider the environmental factors outlined above and then explain (for the verbal learners,) demonstrate (for the visual
learners) and have swimmers try the skill or do an activity (for the kinesthetic learners).
A coach may want to use verbal or visual teaching methods with children who are uncomfortable being touched. Take
care to never put yourself in a position where questions of appropriateness can be asked.
It’s also worth noting that there can be gender differences associated with learning. Young boys may appear not to pay
attention, but when they swim in a meet, it shows that they have listened very well. They may not have the same attention
cues as girls in that they may not stand still and listen or focus their attention directly on the coach. Be alert to this and
don't jump to the conclusion that the boys are not paying attention.
Communicating on the Appropriate Level: Vocabulary and Delivery

As a teacher, speak clearly and at a pace the swimmers can follow. The swimmers will have difficulty understanding if the
coach is tongue- tied, mumbles, and speaks too loudly, too slowly or too fast. Additionally, maintain eye contact with the
swimmers, use words they can understand and sometimes introduce them to new terms. The coach’s ability to
demonstrate can be useful. However, if the coach chooses to demonstrate in the pool, the coach must also consider how
to maintain control of the group during the demonstration.
When choosing an athlete to demonstrate a skill, choose one able to perform the skill well, even if it means borrowing an
athlete from a more advanced group. When using an athlete to demonstrate a skill it is critically important to draw the
attention of the students to one aspect of the demonstration because the swimmers will not be able to process everything
at once. For example, “Let’s watch Scott’s entry. Can you tell me where his hands go in the water?”
Principles for Effective Demonstrations and Explanations

Proper explanations introduce the topic to be taught, explain how to perform and provide reasons why the topic is
important. Proper demonstrations show how to perform. In reality, explanations must complement demonstrations and
demonstrations must complement explanations. Learning will be less than optimal if the coach fails to explain while
demonstrating or fails to demonstrate adequately what is being explained.
To present positively means to first present what to do rather than what not to do. This applies when teaching skills for the
first time and when providing feedback to correct skills later. Swimmers need to be told what to do and how to correct their
skills rather than be presented with what not to do. Also, over time, repetition of negative statements could lead swimmers
to think only about what not to do rather than what to do. Presenting why not to do something may be helpful after
swimmers understand and have developed a feel for skills, but it is not an effective method for initial teaching.
Principles for Effective Demonstrations
1. Present in a safe, non-threatening environment
2. Present in and out of the water
3. Present clearly for all to see
4. Present from many angles: front, rear, side, top and bottom
5. Include active participation
6. Present positively
7. Accompany with effective explanations
Principles for Effective Explanations
1. Focus on one topic at a time
2. Present at a level appropriate to the swimmers
3. Be concise
4. Direct attention to key cues: arms, legs, body and feet
5. Be specific and clear
6. Present positively
7. Accompany with effective demonstrations
The swimmers should be both motivated to learn and paying attention. If they are not interested and not paying attention,
they will not learn. Understand that young, less mature swimmers usually have shorter attention spans than older athletes.
Adjust the amount of time and level of presentation for different groups depending on age and level. For example, a ten
minute technical explanation of a skill will probably not be effective for 10 and unders. Be enthusiastic and provide
examples to which swimmers can relate. The examples provided and the vocabulary used should match the knowledge
base, experience and vocabulary of the swimmers. Additionally, the physical skills of the swimmers to practice what is
demonstrated will affect how well they reinforce what is presented. Quite simply, present information at a level appropriate
for the swimmers. Young people with learning disabilities such as hearing and vision impairments may need special
attention.
Practice Makes Perfect?

The idea that practice makes perfect is one aspect of skill acquisition that has been misunderstood. A more accurate
statement is that practice makes habit. Skills that have been learned very well can be thought of as habits that are
performed naturally, at will, almost without thinking. Perfect skills are the result of practicing as perfectly as possible. If the
skill is proving too difficult for the swimmer to master, move on to something else and come back to this step later. If skills
are practiced incorrectly, then practice has only developed incorrect habits. Thus, only perfect practice leads to perfect
skills. This is why it is crucial to emphasize and teach proper stroke technique swimmers at an early age.
Part 2: Keys to Effective Communication
Topic Questions:
1. How do words, mannerisms and emotions convey a message?
2. What are the characteristics of authoritarian and passive coaching styles?
3. How and when should the coach provide feedback to the swimmers?
4. What are some of the keys to effective communication?
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Verbal and nonverbal communication includes words, gestures and body language. People learn the meanings of
gestures and expressions as symbols of communication, just as they learn the meanings of words. The swimmers will
learn the meanings of the gestures the coach uses and react accordingly. Therefore, the coach should be deliberate in
deciding the words and gestures to be used. A coach can improve verbal and nonverbal communication by carefully
choosing and monitoring words and gestures. Remember that words and actions also reflect our underlying values or
orientation. Derogatory nicknames and sarcastic expressions can be humorous, but they have an underlying negative
orientation. Remember that a certain amount of truth is conveyed with every joke. Communicating with a negative
orientation can be detrimental to the development of the swimmers’ self-image and to earning trust and credibility from the
swimmers. Communicating positively with statements such as, “I would prefer you not do that because...” provides
information the swimmers need and enhances the coach’s rapport with them.
Content and Emotion

Every message conveys both content and emotion. Think of both what is said and how it is said. Consider emotion as a
continuum from highly excited to very subdued. On the surface, the highly excited person would seem to be the most
expressive. After all, he is jumping, screaming and waving. No matter how hard he tries, he cannot hide his feelings. But a
subdued, stoic, rock of a person also expresses emotion. By being quiet and unchanging, such people may appear cold,
distant, aloof or tough. Be aware that emotions and actions are part of the learning environment created. Athletes are very
astute at detecting and reacting to their coach’s emotional states. Coaches are often less astute at detecting athletes’
emotional states. Self-evaluation and paying attention to the mannerisms of others are important communication skills.
Coaching and Communication Styles

Not everyone can or should coach using the same style because each one of us is unique. Additionally, the specific
setting or environment can affect the coach’s style from practice to practice and from season to season. Consider
coaching behavior along a continuum from very authoritarian to very passive. Coaching style should be a dynamic
process along a continuum, always striving to be interactive, but shifting toward authoritarian or passive as needed.
In some situations the coach may need to be more of an authoritarian, telling the swimmers exactly what to do with little
input from them. This does not mean being negative, yelling at swimmers and barking orders like a drill sergeant, it simply
means being the authority in control of the situation. Such an authoritarian style is particularly useful when teaching new
skills, following safety procedures and leading practices that are beyond the knowledge of the swimmers. As a general
rule, a coach should be more of an authoritarian with younger swimmers, showing and explaining to them how to do
things. As the swimmers mature and become more competent, the coach can give them responsibility for those things
they have demonstrated they can do without help. Never let swimmers take responsibility for something they have not
previously done with supervision.
Some situations are best handled with a more passive coaching style. Being passive means letting the athletes take
control or have more freedom, while the coach observes and guides them loosely. Coaching behavior that is more
passive works well for experienced, highly competitive swimmers who know what they need to do, but need a coach to
provide the right amount of guidance.
Coaches tend to use a particular coaching style depending upon both their personalities and their perceived competence.
Generally, the more knowledgeable and skilled coaches are, the more they feel comfortable being interactive. Coaches
who are less knowledgeable and skilled tend to be either more authoritarian or more passive. They may avoid interacting
with others and hide weaknesses by taking absolute control or, conversely, taking no control.
Communication is a reflection of coaching style. The more the coach tends to be authoritarian, by directing athletes
without their input, the more the coach limits communication. Be willing to listen when they have questions or question
them to elicit input. Similarly, a coach also limits communication with extreme passivity. However, this style can work with
older, more experienced swimmers. Communication will simply need to be highly specific and highly relevant.
Providing Feedback
Because skills are reinforced when practiced, the sooner an error is corrected the sooner the swimmers will progress in
their skills. When correcting errors, follow these principles:
• Correct the error as soon as possible.
• Demonstrate and explain how to correct the error positively. (Explain what “to do,” not “what not to do.”)
• Have the swimmer demonstrate the corrected skill.
• Shape the athlete’s behavior by verbally rewarding the athlete for “close approximations” of the final desired
outcome.
Be judicious about correcting the error as soon as possible. Shouting at swimmers during a start from the blocks will only
disrupt their concentration. However, waiting until an entire practice phase is complete or until the practice is over may be
too late to provide meaningful feedback. The swimmers may not remember the error and the coach may forget to
comment. Be sure to reinforce by watching the swimmer carefully a few times to be sure he or she indeed performs
correctly. It may be necessary to provide more feedback in several different ways before the problem is corrected.
Finally, don’t fall into the practice of the “silent scream.” This occurs when the coach watches the swimmers continually do
something incorrectly. On the outside, the coach appears calm and composed, but on the inside the coach is screaming
silently, “why do they do that when I have told them 1,000 times what I expect?” Stop the group or the swimmer and make
the correction, even if it has been made multiple times previously.
Effective Communication Guidelines

Here are five guidelines that will help the coach communicate more effectively:
1. Communicate according to the emotional state and intellectual level of the person. Communicate at a level each
person can understand.
2. Provide clear and precise instructions. Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases. Adding many “uh’s,” “uhm’s,”
and “OK’s can be distracting.
3. Provide information appropriate for the situation. Handle situations immediately, and then get on with the activity.
4. Control emotions. Monitor, choose words and mannerisms carefully and show emotions purposefully.
5. Comment on actions and situations without demeaning the person. Young people can interpret positive or
negative comments about a situation as positive or negative comments about themselves. Swimmers need to
know that their behavior is or is not appropriate; teach them without making personal judgments about them.
Part 3: Teaching Methods
Topic Questions:
1. What is the value of a common teaching language across all groups within a team?
2. What are the effective aspects of demonstration, explanation, repetition and feedback that coaches should
employ when teaching skills?
3. How can a coach organize the swimmers to teach skills?
Teaching the skills of swimming involves implementation of a common teaching language and employment of
demonstration, explanation, repetition and feedback. Coaches need a big “toolbox” of ideas for teaching and each coach
must find his/her own methods to best teach, organize and communicate with the swimmers.
Teaching Language
It is crucial that the coach use age and skill appropriate vocabulary and concepts. Very young swimmers do not need long
explanations of the mechanics behind the skills. Older swimmers may be more receptive to understanding the reasons
why they need to make technical adjustments. Progressively advanced explanation compliments progressive skill
development. Teach one skill at a time and allow swimmers to master the skill before adding additional elements.
A common teaching language of drills and key words should be employed across all levels. Developing and implementing
the common teaching language is a responsibility of the head coach. Teach vocabulary, teach the initial core concepts
and teach the basics. Use the same vocabulary for swimmers of all ages and stages of development. Swimmers in one
group should use the same language as the swimmers in the next group. This eliminates the confusion of changing from
one group to another; the swimmer does not have to learn a whole new language. Use the same terms whether
instructing a novice or national swimmer.
Demonstration
Showing the swimmers how to do something is vitally important. Many young people are visual learners and seeing a
demonstration or picture of what to do is their best method of learning.
• Use a live demonstration when possible.
o Use an older athlete or more accomplished athlete on your team.
o Demonstration by the coach, but only if the coach does the skill well.
o Use one of the swimmers in the group who has already mastered the skill
• Use videotape or DVD
o Purchase video tapes or DVDs from ASCA or USA Swimming
o DVDs can be shown on a laptop computer or TV on the pool deck
o Homemade videos of accomplished swimmers
• Use still photos
o Pictures from magazines such as Swimming World or Splash Magazine
o Photos compiled into a scrapbook
No matter what methods are used for demonstration, try to emphasize the correct way of accomplishing the skill. Show
“what to do” rather than “what not to do.”
Explanation
People need word pictures to give them something to plant in their minds to replay when they need to remind themselves.
• Keep instruction short and to the point.
• Be consistent in your instructions and the vocabulary used.
• Use appropriate language for the audience.
• Similes and metaphors may be useful. (“Put your pinky fingers in at 11 o’clock and 1 o’clock.”)
Give athletes key words (example: “fingers down, elbow up”) or questions and answers to remember for each activity.
Repeat the questions and answers while teaching the skill and be consistent in always using the same key words.
Example: Coach says: “Your head is…”
Swimmers respond, in unison: “…in line with the spine.”
Repetition
Presentation of skills through explanation and demonstration is only the beginning of skill acquisition. Learning continues
as swimmers practice and refine their skills. Athletes learn by doing. It is important that they do the skills correctly.
Otherwise they are just practicing and repeating mistakes. Repetition is simply the repeating/practicing of correct actions.
This can be done in a variety of methods:
• Part method: Break down each skill into its component parts and practice each repetitively and independently.
(Example: Breaststroke kick or pull by itself.)
• Part-whole-part method: After repeating part of the skill, incorporate it into the whole skill; repeat some more, and
isolate it again. (Example: Breaststroke kick-then breaststroke swim-then breaststroke kick again.)
• Whole-part-whole method: Start with the whole skill; isolate a part to concentrate on, and then go back to the
whole. (Example: Whole breaststroke, then work on the pull, then whole stroke again.)
• Practice the whole skill at race speed
Feedback
Just doing a lot of repetition is not enough. The coach must give meaningful feedback to the athletes. Feedback can be
positive (“You got your hands out nice and wide! Good!”) or negative (“You didn’t get your hands wide enough!”). You can
deliver a negative message in a positive manner (“You’re trying hard, but you still need to pull wider!”) or a positive
message in a negative manner. (“Well, you finally got your hands out where they belong!”). Positive feedback is not
intrinsically more effective than a negative feedback, but most people prefer to hear things phrased in a positive manner.
To come across as a positive, supportive coach, phrase most comments positively. Feedback should also be specific.
Instead of “good swim” say “I liked the way you kept your hands out wide for the whole 100. That is just the way I’ve
asked you to do it in practice. Nice job.” If there are negative comments that need to be made, sandwich the negative
between two positive comments or give three or four positives followed by the negative. Don’t avoid the constructive
criticism; just be sure to include multiple positive comments.
Organization
• One-on-one method: With a group of no more than 12, explain and demonstrate the skill. Use only a small area of
the pool, perhaps 10 yards or less. Have each swimmer try the skill, one at a time for a short distance. Give
feedback, then have the swimmer try the skill again. Repeat the process for each swimmer.
• Group method: Explain and demonstrate the skill. Be very specific. For example, don’t work on “breaststroke.”
Instead, work on “head position during the stretch.” Divide the group into heats, give instruction and send off the
heat. Give feedback to individuals or to the entire heat. Use no more than 4 heats and very short swims.
When working with a larger group using the group method described above there is sometimes a tendency to try to see
every stroke fault and make every correction. By trying to see everything, the coach may not be seeing some things
clearly enough to be effective. Focus on just two or three swimmers in each heat and give constructive feedback and
correction. Then the next time that heat swims, focus on two or three different swimmers.
Part 4: Motivation as a Key to Learning
Topic Questions:
1. How can a coach encourage achievement motivation?
2. What is the value of positive reinforcers?
3. Why are extrinsic motivators such as trophies of less long term value than intrinsic motivators?
The intensity of a person’s actions generally indicates the intensity or degree of arousal the person feels. Arousal is the
intensity of motivation. Consider arousal along a continuum from deep sleep to extreme excitation. The more motivated a
person is, the more the person becomes aroused both psychologically and physically. The relationship between
motivational level and performance is affected by:
• A person’s achievement motive
• The relative importance of reinforcers (i.e. rewards and punishments)
The young people on a swim team will be motivated primarily by the desire to have fun, succeed, excel, feel competent,
be accepted by others and feel worthy or important.
Achievement Motive
Psychologically, the arousal leads to increased nervousness, narrowing of attention and anxiety. Motivation then falls into
two categories:
• Motive to achieve or succeed
• Motive to avoid failure
The coach must demonstrate respect and appreciation for both effort and positive results. If the coach shows respect and
appreciation for effort only, then the ‘winner” may feel less appreciated than the person who “tried hard.” If the coach only
shows appreciation for results, the less talented or skilled athlete is similarly devalued.
Also associated with motivation is anxiety or fear of an impending situation. Fear can be generated through not feeling
safe, not feeling accepted or not feeling worthy. Remember, the motivation of swimmers is directly related to fulfilling their
needs. For example, if a swimmer feels physically ready to swim a 200 meter butterfly, the motive to achieve will be
greater than the motive to avoid failure. However, if the swimmer feels unprepared to successfully swim the event or fears
the potentially negative evaluation of parents, coach or peers, the motive to avoid failure will be greater than the motive to
succeed. The result will be less than optimal performance. The swimmer will not perform his or her best because he or
she will be afraid to risk all-out performance and will settle instead for mediocre performance.
Reinforcement and Reward

Motivation is affected by how a person is reinforced. Positive reinforcers serve to increase motivation and performance of
a targeted behavior. Praise works better than punishment, acceptance works better than rejection. However, rewards
such as trophies and praise do not automatically create increased motivation. The ultimate increase or decrease in
behavior determines whether a reinforcer has been positive. Did the reinforcer garner the desired result? For example,
receiving medals and trophies for winning races may initially motivate a young swimmer to train harder and improve.
However, at some point, these awards lose their appeal. Consequently, the swimmer may not train as hard, nor perform
as well just to win a trophy.
Extrinsic versus Intrinsic

Extrinsic rewards are those that come from the outside such as medal and trophies. They should perhaps be viewed as
recognition of the effort involved in achievement, and as a step in the road to developing intrinsic motivation and
appreciation of personal effort and achievements. Intrinsic motivation refers to basic, essential motivation not tied to
consequences or outside influences.
Swimming performance is not always directly related to the amount of reinforcement provided. One reason for this is that
each person is unique and responds to reinforcement differently. A reinforcer that greatly motivates one person may have
minimal effect on another person. A second reason is that the quality of performance cannot be duplicated at will even if
sufficiently motivated. A swimmer will not swim a personal best in each race. However, swimmers can attempt to do their
best if properly motivated and reinforced. The best reinforcers are those that increase the swimmer’s intrinsic motivation.
The desire to work hard, perform well and cooperate meets his or her personal need for enjoyment and satisfaction. As
swimmers mature, the role of the coach is to guide the swimmer toward becoming intrinsically motivated. Help set the
swimmer’s personal goals and provide encouragement and praise to recognize achievement. Trophies and milkshakes
should be secondary rewards, rather than primary rewards. Similarly, punishments, such as extra sets or extra exercise
may positively motivate (i.e. bring the desired results) for a while. But fear of punishment is the same kind of motivator as
fear of failure. The result is typically less than optimal performance.
Part 5: Goal Setting as a Teaching Tool
Topic Questions:
1. Why is it important for swimmers to set goals?
2. Why should swimmers be encouraged to set both process and performance goals?
3. What are some of the important principles of goal setting?
4. What is the connection between individual and team goals?
5. How can the coach facilitate individual goal setting?
6. How can the coach facilitate team goal setting?
The Value of Goal Setting

Systematic goal setting provides the athlete with many benefits. An awareness of the numerous benefits of goal setting is
likely to increase the chances that the athlete will set goals consistently. Goal setting accomplishes the following:
• Provides direction. Well-developed goals remind athletes where they want to go and how they are going to get there.
• Enhances motivation. Two-a-day practices can be physically and mentally draining; reminding themselves of their
goals reinforces for athletes why they are there and what they are trying to accomplish in each training session. This
promotes motivation and training intensity.
• Builds confidence. Reaching short-term goals can build athletes’ confidence not only in their abilities, but also in the
path they have chosen to reach their long-term goal.
• Provides feedback. Short-term goals that are evaluated regularly provide athletes with feedback on how they are doing
in progressing toward their long-term goals and help in determining if goals need to be modified.
Process versus Outcome Goals

Because athletes tend to focus exclusively on physical factors and performance outcome when setting goals, coaches
should make a conscious effort to help swimmers set goals that address the variety of factors that relate to athletic
performance (physical, technical, psychological, nutrition, lifestyle, etc.) These goals should focus on the process of
performance as opposed to solely on performance outcome. One of a coach’s objectives should be to provide a positive
environment in which the athletes are training, competing and working towards their goals; emphasize to athletes the
importance of enjoying the process of swimming and placing the process above winning.
Principles of Goal Setting

For goal setting to be effective, athletes need to be aware of and adhere to the following principles:
• Set short-term and long-term goals. Most athletes have long-term or dream goals but often fail to establish short-term
goals that serve as stepping stones to long-term goals. Long-term goals alone provide no feedback or specific direction.
• Set outcome and process goals. Most athletes set outcome goals (e.g., win the race, qualify for the state meet), but
process goals that focus on what the athletes need to do to perform well (e.g., maintain consistent stroke rate, streamline
out of turns) are equally crucial. Unlike outcome goals, process goals are in the swimmer’s control and allow the
swimmer to experience success regardless of the overall outcome.
• Be specific when setting goals. Because broad goals do not offer much guidance, focus on making goals as specific
as possible (e.g., “put in a minimum of 8,000 meters in two-a-day practices six days a week” versus “train everyday”).
• Goals are most beneficial when they are realistic and challenging. Coaches can play a big role in helping athletes
identify realistic and challenging goals. Goals that are too easy or too difficult will not provide many benefits to the
athlete.
• Goals, especially training goals, must be evaluated regularly. Evaluating goals provides feedback and confidence
because progress can be noted. Weekly goals should be evaluated weekly, while seasonal goals should be evaluated
at the conclusion of the season.
Individual and Team Goals

Because of individual differences, athletes will probably develop different goal-setting strategies. What is important is that
they develop and use a system that works for them; it needs to be a system to which they will adhere that also
incorporates the basic principles of effective goal setting. Through adherence to systematic goal setting, athletes can
tolerate setbacks or barriers because they have a clear focus on long-term goals and confidence in their ability to reach
these goals. Obviously athlete goals will be individualized, but they should also fit within established team goals. Setting
goals implies that the swimmers should progress from their present state or ability to a targeted state or ability. The goals
the coach and swimmers set should correspond to the seasonal plan the coach develops for the team or training group.
Facilitating Individual Goal Setting

Here is a brief and simple process for facilitating goal setting for swimmers who have the cognitive ability to set goals,
usually starting at about age 12 or 13. Younger swimmers generally do not have the cognitive ability to do meaningful goal
setting.
1. Meet with the swimmer individually to listen to his or her hopes and dreams
2. Ask the swimmer to identify one to three events to set specific goals
3. Review current best times
4. Negotiate a specific goal time and target date for each chosen event
5. Write down these times
6. Figure out and write the specific splits needed to meet each goal time
7. List several process goals needed to achieve each goal time. These might be times to hold on practice sets or
skills that must be maintained during practice.
8. Ask the swimmer to list what he or she needs from the coach to accomplish the goals
9. Ask the swimmer to write his or her process and outcome goals and post them where the swimmer will see them
often
10. Look for and recognize workout performances that can be related to process and outcome goals
11. Review process goals regularly with the swimmer
Facilitating Team Goal Setting

Team goals are vitally important to the growth of a program. Goals can be set for competition, team size, workout
performance and even social activities. In setting competition team goals it is best to involve the team thereby making the
goals “team goals” and not just the coach’s goals for the team. Here is a brief process for setting team goals for a high
school aged team.
1. The coach:
a. Reviews past results
b. Looks at current roster
c. Looks at strengths and weaknesses
d. Predicts improvements
e. Sets a goal, for example: Top 3 at Sectionals.
2. The coach then considers what it will take to achieve that goal. For example: What does it take to be top 3?
a. How many points?
b. How many scoring relays?
c. How many finalists?
d. What events are strongest for the team?
e. What events need the most work to improve? (This is also a great basis for creating a season training
plan.)
3. Next, the coach holds a team meeting and asks, “What should our team goal for this season be?”
a. By asking the right questions and giving enough information, the coach can get the team to come up with
team goals that very closely match his or her goals except that now they are TEAM goals.
b. The coach can then put some swimmers in charge of recording both the process (workout) goals and the
outcome goals, making copies, and distributing to the entire team.
Part 6: Developing Mental Skills
Topic Questions:
1. Why should a coach teach mental skills to athletes?
2. How can imagery and self-talk improve athlete performance?
3. When can arousal be a benefit and when is it detrimental to performance?
4. What skills does an athlete need in order to effectively concentrate?
5. What is the connection between self-talk and self-image?
Mental Preparation for Competition

Just as athletes need to prepare themselves to compete physically, they also need to prepare themselves mentally for
competition. Lack of mental preparation can have a negative impact on performance. Skills such as imagery and
visualization, self-talk, concentration and arousal control help the athlete to optimally prepare his or her mind to train and
compete. Teaching mental skills to athletes can be just as important as the physical skills the coach teaches.
Imagery and Visualization

Imagery involves creating or recreating an event or a scene in one’s mind. For example, an athlete can use imagery to
create a perfect swim performance, or he or she can call to mind a past successful performance. Imagery involves all the
senses. When athletes are using imagery they should try to not only see but also to hear, feel and smell all that is going
on in the imagined situation. For maximal benefits, the image needs to be as close to reality as possible. Research shows
that imagery, if used purposefully, is a skill that enhances performance. But if the imagery becomes negative it can be a
detriment to performance.
Make athletes aware of the numerous ways that imagery can be used to help performance. Having this understanding will
enable them to obtain the maximal benefits from imagery and will also enhance their motivation to practice and use
imagery. Specifically, athletes can use imagery to do the following:
• To see and feel success. Athletes can use imagery to see and feel themselves achieving goals and performing as they
are capable of doing. Imagery also helps enhance self-confidence.
• To motivate. Images of past and future competitions can be called upon to maintain persistence and intensity level while
training and competing. This type of imaging provides an incentive for continued hard work.
• To manage arousal. Athletes can use imagery to increase or decrease arousal. For example, athletes can visualize a
peaceful, relaxing scene to decrease arousal whereas motivating images can be used to increase arousal as needed.
• To learn skills and techniques. Athletes can use imagery as an additional form of practice to help them master a skill. For
example, athletes can visualize themselves doing a perfect flip turn prior to actual execution.
• To refocus. During practice and competition, many distractions and situations arise that prevent an optimal focus.
Athletes can refocus themselves by using specific images to achieve the focus needed for optimal performance.
• To prepare for competition. Athletes can use imagery to familiarize themselves with the competitive environment and to
rehearse their performance or key elements of their performance. In addition, they can use imagery to prepare for
various situations that may arise so they can develop strategies to cope with these stressors. If the situation does arise
they will have rehearsed it in their minds and will know how to deal with it.
Imagery is best learned and practiced in a quiet environment when the athlete is relaxed. It may be beneficial, therefore,
to first discuss simple relaxation skills so that athletes learn how to relax their minds and bodies prior to learning how to
use imagery. It is helpful to develop imagery skills by initially using non-threatening, non-stressful images. For example,
direct athletes to imagine being on a beach: encourage them to see, smell, hear and feel the scene. The athlete can then
progress to visualizing swimming skills and, finally, to imaging competitive situations. With a little forethought, imagery
training can be easily incorporated into physical training instead of making it a separate component of preparation. For
example, coaches can direct athletes to visualize the technique they are working on prior to executing the drills, to
imagine hard repeats to help prepare them for the challenge, or to visualize upcoming competitions to enhance practice
motivation.
Athletes need to work on the following two components of imagery: control and vividness. Teach athletes to control their
imagery (for example, seeing and feeling a perfect start as opposed to visualizing the slow start that has plagued them in
past races) and to make their images clear, vivid, and as close to reality as possible (for example, smell the chlorine, hear
their parents in the stands, and feel the muscle fatigue in the last 50 meters). With continued practice athletes can
manipulate images to see and feel the perfect race and see and feel themselves responding to any adverse situations.
They should be able to incorporate performance cues into their visualization to create a vivid image of how they want to
perform.
Self-Talk
Self-talk includes all the purposeful and random thoughts that run through the athlete’s mind, the continual chatter of
things said silently and out loud. Self-talk can be positive. Athletes can direct their self-talk toward what they want to do
and where they want to focus. Self-talk can motivate, and, if developed purposefully, it can serve numerous other
beneficial functions. Unfortunately, self-talk can also be negative and damaging to performance (GIGO, or “garbage in,
garbage out”). In fact, when left untrained, self-talk often becomes negative and critical. Therefore, the athlete must learn
to manage his or her internal dialogue to keep it beneficial to performance.
As with other mental skills, the first step is awareness. Athletes need to become aware of their inner voices—what they
tend to say to themselves silently and out loud and how this affects performance. Keep in mind that what may be negative
and damaging to one athlete may be motivational and beneficial to another athlete.
Once aware of their self-talk and its affect on performance, athletes need to develop strategies to manage negative self-
talk. One common technique used by athletes is “thought stopping,” which entails the following:
• Identify negative thoughts and the situations in which they typically occur.
• Practice stopping the thoughts or “parking” the thoughts.
Replace the negative thoughts with positive thoughts, cue words, or images. Identify positive replacement thoughts in
advance. The keys to thought stopping are being aware of common negative talk; stopping the thought; and filling the void
with positive, productive thoughts.
Another technique for managing negative self-talk is for athletes to identify, in advance, what they want to say or reinforce
to themselves at critical points in practice and competition. Then, instead of waiting anxiously for negative thoughts to
occur, the athlete automatically uses the preplanned positive self-talk. For example, an athlete who typically has defeating
thoughts in the middle segment of the 1,500-meter race can develop a plan to automatically say to him- or herself, “relax,
take it easy” or “smooth stroke,” during this part of the race, regardless of how he or she is feeling.
Although it may appear that positive self-talk is most important during competition, it is equally important during practice
and, therefore, must be monitored and practiced during training. Concentrating on positive self-talk in practice allows for
quality training and provides an opportunity to practice this important skill. Athletes must accept that they will experience
doubts and fears. They can overcome these doubts by continually reinforcing positive, productive thoughts not just prior to
competition but also on a daily basis so that positive self-talk becomes habitual. In preparation for competitions, the
athlete can mentally rehearse the cue words or self-talk he or she will use throughout the race. When needed during the
race, athletes can trust their training by quieting their negative self-talk and letting their bodies perform.
Arousal Control
Arousal can be best understood as having both a somatic (physical) and a cognitive (mental) component. This means that
arousal has a physical effect on the athlete such as increased heart rate, increased muscle activation, increased
sweating, high adrenaline, and so on. Arousal also has an effect on the athlete’s cognitive functioning (self-talk,
concentration, images). Although these two components are often discussed separately, it should be noted that they are
inextricably linked such that change in one typically affects the other.
Arousal
Physical Symptoms Cognitive (Mental) Symptoms
Increased heart rate Worry

Rapid short breaths Doubt
Sweating Narrow/broad concentration
Jitteriness “What ifs”
Frequent “pit stops” Images of failure
Butterflies in the stomach Decreased confidence
Tight Muscles Mental Acuity
What can athletes do to manage arousal?
Deep ‘belly” breathing

Progressive muscle relaxation Positive self-talk
Various relaxation exercises Visualization of upcoming race, past successes,
Light stretching, loosen muscles relaxing scenes
Relaxing imagery Cue words
Manage environment Focus on performance process
Listen to music Distract self from stress
Physical preparation routine Mental preparation routine
An emphasis on fun and enjoyment (both in practice and competition) goes a long way towards preventing over-arousal.
Keeping the emphasis on fun can help alleviate the pressure the athlete feels to perform well and the expectations he or
she perceives from others.
It has been found that prior to competition athletes have a specific level of arousal at which they tend to perform their best
(called the individual zone of optimal functioning or IZOF). The level of arousal related to best performances is highly
individualized; meaning the athletes on the swim team will vary greatly in terms of their optimal arousal.
Here are the steps athletes need to take to manage arousal:
• Be aware of the optimal arousal level and the factors that increase and decrease arousal.
• Be prepared by developing strategies to increase and decrease arousal as needed.
• Practice using arousal management skills in a variety of situations.
Zone of
Optimal
Performance
The Inverted “U” Theory of Arousal
Athletes need to develop an awareness of the arousal level at which they tend to perform best. They should be aware of
how they need to feel physically and mentally to practice and perform well. This awareness can be achieved by evaluating
past races to identify trends in how they tend to think and feel prior to good performances versus poor performances.
Athletes do not necessarily want to rid themselves of increases in physical and mental functioning. Instead, they need to
know the level of arousal that is best for them and specific strategies to enable them to attain the appropriate level.
To appropriately manage arousal, it is important to differentiate between things athletes can control and things they
cannot control. Athlete must learn to control and manage their reaction to a situation or event that is out of their control (an
uncontrollable, or UC.) As shown on the previous page, athletes can employ a variety of strategies to manage their
arousal and attain the appropriate arousal level.
Athletes should prepare themselves with an arsenal of strategies to both increase and decrease their physical and mental
arousal to attain a level that will be beneficial to performance. Having such an arsenal can provide athletes with a sense of
control over their preparation and performance.
Concentration
Concentration can be understood as the ability to focus attention on relevant cues and to disregard irrelevant cues.
Certainly, this is not an easy task prior to competition as the athlete is typically bombarded with potentially distracting
stimuli, both internally and externally. Many skills are involved in effective concentration, but the primary skills involve
knowing the following:
• Where to Focus
It is not enough for a coach to simply tell the athlete to concentrate; the athlete may have no idea what to do.
Athletes need to understand where they should focus their attention. A review of workouts and meet
performances can help identify beneficial concentration. It is helpful for athletes to think in terms of what their
eyes and ears are doing. All athletes need to manage what they are seeing (internally and externally) and what
they are hearing (internally and externally). Remind the athletes to focus on the “controllables” of performance
(technique, stroke rate) as opposed to the “uncontrollables” (competitors’ performance, loud fans).
• How to Attain the Appropriate Focus

Once athletes are aware of where they should focus, they can use cue words, images and focal points to bring
about the desired focus. Cue words and images can be technique reminders, positive affirmations, motivating
slogans and so forth. What matters most is that the cue or image is meaningful to the athlete (For example,
putting on a cap is the cue to rehearse the upcoming performance; the image of a leopard connotes an
aggressive, fast start).
• How to Shift Focus

Athletes should be aware of when it is appropriate and beneficial to shift focus. They should develop cue words,
images, and focal points to help them make the shift. For example, coming out of a turn, the athlete may need to
assess the field then return to a focus on stroke and pace. Incorporating these focusing cues into pre-race
routines is extremely beneficial. Athletes should rehearse how they will focus during various segments of the race.
• How to Refocus When Distracted

The first step in learning to refocus is being aware of a faulty or inappropriate focus. Next, just as when trying to
focus appropriately, the athlete can use triggers, cues and focal points to re-attain the desired focus. Distractions
will occur so it is crucial to regard these as part of competition; swimmers need to let it go, and get back to the
desired focus.
In preparation for competition it is helpful for the athlete to develop a pre-race routine to attain the appropriate focus. Part
of this preparation should be to develop and rehearse race focus points. With practice, the athlete should be able to
manage his or her concentration (control eyes and ears) and attain a focus appropriate for the demands of the situation.
Self-Image
The nature of athletics and competition dictates that athletes will not always succeed. Failure is a part of the competitive
experience. Athletes need to understand that failure offers learning experiences from which they can grow and that help
them go on to achieve greater things. Athletes not only learn through mistakes and failures but also through coach
feedback. Present this feedback as a critique of the athlete’s skills and not as a critique of the athlete as a person.
Athletes need to accept this criticism and learn from it. Effective, sensitive communication is crucial to ensure the
message is properly sent and properly received.
Athletes should become their own best friends. Instead of relying on others to boost their self-confidence and self-esteem,
they must take on that responsibility for themselves. This is accomplished, in part, by monitoring self-talk and keeping it
positive and productive. Have the athletes ask themselves, “Would I allow my friends to talk to me the way I talk to
myself?” It is important for athletes to have an understanding that the influence of self-talk extends beyond performance.
Self-talk also has an impact on how athletes perceive and feel about themselves. It is crucial, therefore, for athletes to be
supportive, encouraging, and positive in their daily internal dialogue and images.
As noted earlier, success and failure are a part of the competitive experience (and a part of life). With the help of others,
athletes must separate performance outcome from how they feel about themselves. Whether the athlete has a good day
or a bad day in training or competition should have no impact on the athlete’s self-perception. Athletes should feel they
are worthy regardless of their performance. How others (coach, teammates, and parents) interact with athletes after good
and poor performances will have an impact on how athletes feel about themselves. Coaches and athletes should
communicate this influence to all individuals involved with the athlete. The process of striving for personal success helps
instill in athletes a sense of competence and confidence in themselves as athletes and as human beings. The skills
athletes developed in their athletic development will serve in other endeavors as well.
Mental Preparation for Competition

Athletes must recognize the importance of developing a pre-competition routine to get their bodies and minds ready to
race. A first step is for athletes to be aware of their individual zone of optimal functioning—how they need to think and feel
to perform at their best. Next, athletes must develop a mental routine to help attain this optimal pre-competition state.
Skills such as imagery, self-talk, concentration, and arousal control (discussed in the preceding sections) help the athlete
to optimally prepare his or her mind to race. A solid mental preparation routine also enables the athlete to manage
potential distractions and unexpected events. With mental preparation athletes are able when necessary to “stay in their
own lanes” and let their bodies do the jobs they are trained to do.
Chapter 3: Organization and Administration
Table of Contents
Part 1: Governance Structures

o USA Swimming at the national level
o USA Swimming at the local level
o Swim club organizational models
o Other swimming organizations
Part 2: Working with the Swim Club
o The role of the head coach
 Chart of “wet side” and “dry side” responsibilities
o The role of the assistant coach
o Working with parents
o Working with officials
o Working with aquatic facility administrators
o Hosting a meet
Part 3: Organizing the Wet Side
o Training group structure and organization
 Chart of precompetitive groups
 Chart of competitive groups
o The need to plan
o Swim practice organization
o Coaching do’s and don’ts during practice
Part 4: The Swim Meet
o The purpose of swim meets
o How many meets, how many events
o The role of the coach at a swim meet
Part 5: Risk Management
o USA Swimming coach requirements
o Report of Occurrence forms
o Participating in risk management
o USA Swimming insurance coverage
Part 6: Legal Considerations
o Legal duties and responsibilities of a coach
o Sexual misconduct
o Reporting sexual abuse
Chapter 3: Organization and Administration Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
Part 1: Governance Structures
Topic Questions:
1. How is USA Swimming organized and governed at the national and local level?
2. What are the three most common swim team organizational models?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each model?
USA Swimming at the National Level

USA Swimming was created in 1978 with the passage of the Amateur Sports Act which specified that all Olympic sports
must be administered independently. The national headquarters of USA Swimming is at the Olympic Training Center in
Colorado Springs, CO.
As the National Governing Body (NGB) for the sport, USA Swimming is responsible for the conduct and administration of
swimming in the United States. In this capacity, USA Swimming formulates the rules, implements the policies and
procedures, conducts the national championships, disseminates safety information and selects athletes to represent the
United States in international competition.
How USA Swimming Operates

USA Swimming is a non-profit organization made up of volunteers and support staff. The House of Delegates meets
annually to determine any changes in the rules and regulations for the following year and to elect the USA Swimming
Board of Directors which is charged with the responsibility of making policy decisions for USA Swimming. A support staff
at Headquarters in Colorado Springs implements the policies and provides service to members. Coaches are strongly
encouraged to get involved in the leadership and governance of swimming, first at the local level and then at the zone or
national level.
How to Find Information

The USA Swimming web site, www.usaswimming.org is the main source of information. A coach should visit the site
frequently and create a personal account on the web site to track vital information about his or her team and swimmers.
Use the information on the web site for information, education and to find valuable resources for athletes, parents and the
club.
USA Swimming at the Local Level
Zones. USA Swimming is divided into four zones: Central, Eastern, Southern and Western. Each zone elects two
representatives, one coach and one non-coach to the national Board of Directors. Each zone is responsible for
administration of Zone Championship Meets and Speedo Championship Series Meets.
LSC’s. Within the United States, there are fifty-nine Local Swimming Committees (LSC’s). Each LSC is
responsible for administering USA Swimming in a defined geographical area. Responsibilities of the LSC’s
include scheduling and sanctioning swim meets and the registration of clubs, coaches, athletes and officials. Each
LSC has its own set of bylaws under which it operates. A House of Delegates with representation of athletes,
coaches, clubs and members of the LSC Board of Directors is responsible for managing the business affairs of
the LSC. Each LSC has its own website with local information. Map of the LSCs. Coaches should attend LSC
House of Delegates meetings and volunteer to serve on LSC committees.
Club Governance: Swim Club Organizational Models

Swim teams in the United States are organized and structured in a variety of ways. From programs sponsored by YMCAs
or universities, to parent-owned non-profit corporations, to private businesses owned by coaches or partnerships, there
are many different models of successful swimming organizations.
Coach-Owned or Private Business

Many successful competitive swimming programs in the United States are coach or privately owned. Most coach-
owned swim teams are legally structured as proprietorships or partnerships. The limited liability corporation (LLC)
is rapidly becoming a very popular business form. An LLC combines selected corporate and partnership
characteristics while still maintaining status as a legal entity distinct from its owners.
A coach owner has the ability to build a program based on his or her vision while enjoying the advantages of self-
employment. However, the coach owner must assume considerable financial risk and may have difficulty securing
needed volunteer support.
Nonprofit Organization/Corporation
The most common organizational model for swim teams in the United States is the parent-owned, non-profit
corporation. Also known as not-for-profit corporations, the main reason that teams select this legal structure is to
obtain tax-exempt status. Most swim teams organized as non-profit corporations are governed by a board of
directors that primarily consists of swim team parents. This board hires the head coach. Ideally, the head coach
serves as the chief executive with prime responsibility for managing day-to-day “dry-side” operations and total
responsibility for developing and leading the swimming or “wet-side” of the program. Volunteers also assume
many responsibilities in the non-profit organization.
Tax-exempt status with limited legal and financial liability for the directors and staff is the main advantage of the
non-profit. However a turnover in board leadership combined with the potential for micromanagement by the
parent board can be problematic.
There are educational programs and personalized assistance available through USA Swimming and the American
Swimming Coaches Association for parent owned non-profit swim clubs.
Institutionally Owned
Institutions that own or operate swimming facilities often offer swim teams. These institutions typically include
universities or colleges, YMCAs or YWCAs, park and recreation departments and private schools or school
districts. In most cases, the institution collects revenue, in the form of team dues, program fees or membership
fees. Team coaches serve as employees of the institution that owns or operates the pool. A booster club often
assists this type of swim team. The booster organization is composed of parents of swimmers who provide
volunteer services and additional financial support for the team.
Institutional ownership can provide stability, low cost access to facilities and frequently full-time employment for
coaches. However, very often, the swim team cannot function independently and is tied to the institution both
financially and philosophically.
Relationship with Other Swimming Organizations

Other swimming organizations include the American Swimming Coaches Association, the National Interscholastic
Coaches Association (NISCA) the College Swimming Coaches Association of America (CSCAA) and the YMCA Coaches
Association. As the national governing body (NGB) of swimming in the United States, USA Swimming works closely with
these other organizations for the betterment of swimming at all levels. This course, Foundations of Coaching, is a
cooperative effort between USA Swimming and the ASCA. Coaches are encouraged to become members of all of the
relevant coaching organizations and to do all that they can to take advantage of opportunities to continue their education.
Part 2: Working with the Swim Club
Topic Questions:
1. What is the distinction between dry side and wet side responsibilities?
2. What is the purpose of a preseason staff meeting?
3. Why is it necessary to establish effective communication with parents?
4. How can a coach successfully work with officials?
5. Why does the coach need to establish a relationship with the facility administrator?
The Role of the Head Coach

The role of the Head Coach may vary depending on the organizational model of the club. For example, a coach owner will
take on different financial responsibilities than a coach employed by an institution or a parent board. However, regardless
of structure, certain basic responsibilities fall to the Head Coach. These can be divided into “dry side” and “wet side”
responsibilities. Dry side responsibilities refer to responsibilities away from the pool deck while wet side responsibilities
refer to those responsibilities directly related to coaching the athletes in the pool. Here is a sample list of responsibilities.
Dry Side Responsibilities Wet Side Responsibilities

1. Prepares a monthly report 1. Oversees all levels of swimming:
designs and plans for all groups
2. Plans or help develop budget 2. Directly coaches at least one group
3. Member of nominating committee for 3. Educates and supervises all coaches
team officers
4. Assists in fundraising 4. Sets practice schedule
5. Maintains office hours 5. Sets practice groups
6. Attends pertinent meetings (team, 6. Attends highest level of competition
LSC, etc.) and sees that all swim meets are
attended by a team coach
7. Oversees communication: web site, 7. Determines meet schedule for team
newsletters, meet information,
publicity, team records
8. Oversees purchase of equipment 8. Oversees individual and team entries
9. Runs parent education programs 9. Supervises athletes at meets
10. Writes checks as authorized 10. Sets attendance and discipline policies
for swimmers
The Role of the Assistant Coach

Each coach on a team contributes in unique ways. A preseason staff planning meeting should include the entire staff
discussing preferences, strengths and weaknesses. Staff meetings should also be held at regular intervals during the
season. While all coaches should know how to communicate, educate and motivate effectively, many duties can be
directed to the strengths of each coach. One coach may prefer teaching 8 and unders while another communicates best
with adolescents. One coach may have computer and internet experience and could handle the team website while
another could be in charge of the team newsletter.
Establishing responsibilities for each coach should also be part of the preseason planning meeting. Each coach should
know his or her role on the team and have the opportunity to request or decline duties. All coaches must share some
basic responsibilities such as general discipline and enforcing team rules. Other responsibilities such as setting the
training schedule and team philosophy are ultimately the responsibility of the head coach. While the head coach is the
final authority on all matters of the swim team, assistant coaches can have input into those decisions. The head coach is
charged with overseeing the entire swim program and making group and coaching assignments. The experience and
knowledge level of the assistant should be the determining factor in how much independence each assistant is given. The
head coach has ultimate responsibility to mentor and supervise the assistants. A cohesive staff respects each other’s
talents, shares responsibility and ultimately speaks with one voice to the swimmers and parents.
Working with Parents
Swimming is a family affair! The coach must recognize that swimming is one extension of each family’s home life.
Parents, brothers, sisters, grandparents and possibly even aunts and uncles will all be involved to some degree because
the swimmer is a part of their family. Just as the coach understands that sport is a family affair, parents should understand
the role of the coach and their roles as parents on the swim team. Be careful that not to step into the role of parent just as
the parents must not step into the role of coach. Effective communication is essential in establishing a working
relationship with parents.
The coach determines many of the rules for the swim team while parents decide the values in their family. The coach may
not always agree with the parents. For example, a parent may decide that a swimmer will miss practice once a week for
piano lessons. The coach can express an opinion about this decision and how it will affect swimming, but in the end, it is
the decision of the parents. On the other hand, the coach decides how to teach swimming strokes. Parents may ask for an
explanation of the skills and teaching progressions which the coach should be able to give. In the end, however the
parents need to trust the coach’s knowledge and experience on the technical side.
Educating the parents is the key to communication and support. Broadly stated, here are some of the topics to include in
parent education:
Coaching philosophy and expectations
Goals and plans for the season
Practice policies, especially any changes over the previous season
Volunteerism
Communication: how to get in touch with a coach
Staff responsibilities: who does what
Please refer to the “Successful Sport Parenting” CD jointly produced by USA Swimming and US Ski and Snowboard.
Check the “Club Administrator” section for tips on educating parents, securing volunteers and communicating with club
members. Look in the “Coach” section for materials to educate team parents. Remember, educated parents tend to be
supportive parents!!
Working with Officials

The roles of coach and official have the potential to cause conflict on the pool deck. There are instances where a
difference of opinion, particularly with respect to judgment calls, comes into play. However, the opportunity exists for many
more positive relationships in the interactions of coaches and officials. Promoting positive communication is an absolute
key to generating a healthy environment, avoiding problems and reinforcing coaching observations.
Most officials are volunteers who find officiating a rewarding and valuable way to contribute to young people and the sport
of swimming. Their approach is to be professional in executing the job of an official. Officiating is necessary in the sport to
provide the consistency for fairness in competition. Training programs for officials are provided by the Local Swim
Committee’s (LSC).
Here are some tips for coaches when working with officials:
Coaches should:
Be timely in bringing issues to the referee.
Stay as calm and objective as possible; firmness and assertiveness are expected behaviors.
Question the rule violated and understand the application.
Ask the referee if he or she observed the violation.
Use the rulebook to address the specific issue.
Make the case based on specific interpretation.
If the issue is meet specific, raise the question based on the content of the meet information.
If there was an extenuating circumstance or event, bring it to the referee’s attention for investigation.
Ask questions in the general meeting.
Coaches should not:
Protest a judgment call based solely on disagreement with the official’s judgment.
Display unsportsmanlike conduct; it only hinders the case.
Spend a lot of time questioning judgment calls requiring independent confirmation once it is confirmed that two
independent people participated in the decision (e.g. false starts, relay take-off).
Attempt to delay competition once a decision has been made.
For more information about the roles of the officials, see Resources/Team Administration.
Working with Aquatic Facility Administrators

The administrator of the aquatic facility will be responsible for many functions that affect the swim team. Two keys to
working with administrators are to remember that:
The administrator is there to help serve clients and the swim team is a client
Many other organizations use the aquatic facility in addition to the swim team
Consequently, request help and service from the administrator for the needs of the swim team, but do not expect the
administrator to work miracles. Work with an administrator regarding each of the following:
Pool conditions. This includes water quality and temperature.
Sharing the facility with other groups. Scheduling practices and meets around the activities of other groups using
the pool.
Equipment. Find out what equipment the team can use and what equipment team members will need to provide
for themselves.
Pool cleanup and maintenance. The team will be responsible for cleanup of equipment and general care of the
aquatic facility.
Rules and regulations. Consult with the administrator about the rules and regulations for the aquatic facility and
inform the administrator of the rules for the team.
Conducting meets. Swimming meets involve much cooperation between the team and the aquatic facility
administrator. Frequent communication is a necessity prior to the meet.
Hosting a Meet
Many teams host swim meets. The coaches will have roles in the hosting of meets, but their main role during the meet
should be to coach the swimmers. Coaches should be clear about roles and responsibilities and should not take on meet
direction responsibility in addition to coaching swimmers. A coach should be part of the pre-meet planning process and
the post-meet evaluation process and be willing to step in if there is an emergency, such as when the lane line breaks!
Otherwise, entrust the actual running of the meet to the volunteer corps.
Part 3: Organizing the Wet Side
Topic Questions:
1. Who are novice, age group, and senior swimmers?
2. What is are some of the aspects of planning?
3. What are the keys to a successful practice?
4. What are some things the coach should not do during practice?
Basic Training Groups

There is no formal and unanimously accepted definition of what is a senior, an age group and a novice swimmer. It is
helpful, however, in describing wet side organization to be specific as to what group we are referring to. Much depends on
club size and structure. In general, senior swimmers are high school aged with the addition of talented, experienced 13
and 14 year olds. Age group swimmers are generally aged 9 through 12 although they may be up to age 14 and still be
considered “age group”. They have the skills to swim in USA Swimming or similar competition. Novice swimmers are
generally aged 12 and under and are still developing stroke and turn skills as well as learning how to complete a workout.
(Swimmers aged 8 and under are yet another group and where staff and pool space allow these young swimmers should
have the opportunity to practice together as a separate group regardless of their ability or experience.) Novice swimmers
aged 13 and over should not be practicing in the same group as much younger novices because the differences in
cognitive, conceptual and social abilities are too great. Where possible they should have their own group or be integrated
into a group of swimmers of similar age.
Organizing Training Groups

Most programs organize swimmers based on both age and developmental level. Swimmers are expected to progress
from one training group to the next once they have mastered the skills and developmental parameters at each level.
Training group assignment is a coaching decision and may, at times, be subjective in nature. However, having clearly
stated guidelines for advancement and group placement alleviates some of the tension associated with this topic.
Following is a basic training group design that can be altered to fit different team situations. Note the progressive skill
development, training emphasis and commitment requirement at each level.
Precompetitive Groups
Category Skill Objective Training Objective Main Focus

Reflexive Awareness • Kinesthetic • Stimulation of the • Enjoyment and
(0-2 yrs) awareness body physical activity
Motor Memory • Kinesthetic • Motor pattern • Fun
Development awareness development • Physical and social
(3-6 yrs) • Use of appropriate development
stroke patterns
Competitive Groups
Level Category Skill Objective Training Objective Commitment

1 Sport • Stroke Technique • Aerobic development • 2-3 sessions per week
Preparation • All four strokes • Joy of participation • 30-60 minutes
(6-9 yrs)
2 Basic Skill • Teaching fundamentals • Continued progressive • 2-4 sessions per week
Development • Technique aerobic development • 30-60 minutes
(8-11 yrs) • Balance and • Emphasis on kicking • Encourage other
coordination in the • Swim practice skills activities/sports
water • Self-management and • Intra-squad competition or
• All strokes, all events independence low pressure competition
• Develop athleticism
3 Basic Training • Strong foundation in all • Aerobic endurance • 4-6 sessions per week
Development four strokes • Maintain good technique • 60-90 minutes
(11-14 yrs) • No specialization on low intensity interval • Year round participation
• Stretching, calisthenics, work • Encourage other
own body weight • Focus preparation on activities/sports while
exercise 200 IM and 200/500 free understanding need to
• Develop athleticism • Kicking emphasis meet attendance
• Learn to compete expectations
4 Progressive • Maintain and refine • Focus switches to • 6-10 sessions per week
Training technique training rather than • 90-120 minutes
(13-18 yrs) • Core body conditioning fundamentals • Year round including LC
• Additional dryland such • Aerobic/Increased competition
as medicine balls, free yardage • Commit to swimming
weights • Introduction to anaerobic • Shorter breaks to
threshold work and minimize deterioration of
speed development aerobic base
• Focus on 400 IM and
mid-distance freestyle
5 Advanced • Attention to detail • Distance based • 8-10 sessions per week
Training • Efficiency physiological training • 90-120 minutes
(14 and over) • Technical precision • All energy systems with • Year round
• Strength training heavy aerobic emphasis • High commitment level
• Specificity of training for • Short breaks to minimize
stroke and distance deterioration of aerobic
• Still train for and base
compete in wide variety
of events
Plan, Plan, Plan
Organizing the wet side can be summed up in one word: PLAN! Planning involves organizing the season, organizing the
month, organizing the week and finally, organizing the practice session. All planning should be done in writing. Working
out the plans on a large calendar can be helpful. All of the planning should include goals and objectives. What do the
coach and the swimmers want to accomplish? Determine how the goals will be accomplished and develop a timeline to
meet the goals. Finally, consider how to measure success and achievement of the goals. Develop individual and team
goals and objectives and have personal goals and objectives for professional development. Goals and objectives should
not be limited to times and rankings. The long term development of athletes is more important than short term
performance at meets.
In planning the overall season, coaches should focus on development of the athlete rather than meet performance.
Consider developing new events and training capacities. In planning each month, pick a focus or goal for the month such
as a skill development or a particular meet. Moving down to the weekly plan, again have an overall goal for the week.
Then consider what type of work or teaching will be the focus each day and be sure to balance or cycle through different
types of work, recovery and skill development. Finally, plan each day, having a goal or purpose for each practice. Balance
the different activities during each practice to achieve the practice goal or objective. Be flexible and don’t try to accomplish
too many different activities within one practice because the swimmers may be confused rather than challenged.
All of the following should be included in the planning:

• Team Development
• Stroke Training
• Training Improvement
• Mental Skills Improvement
• Strength and Flexibility
• Skill Development
• Race Technique
• Times and Rankings
Season planning and practice design will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 6, Physical Conditioning.
Organizing the Practice

Structure, planning and adequate supervision are the keys to successful practices. In most cases, swimmers are broken
into groups either by ability, age, skill, sex or a combination of categories, such as 9-12 year old boys or 10/unders who
can swim all four strokes. Ideally, there are enough coaches to assign a coach to each group. If not, one coach will need
to supervise multiple groups and give set or training assignments to the groups to complete on their own. Use of a
blackboard, whiteboard or posted written workouts can facilitate multiple group practice sessions. If the environment is
noisy, written practices or sets posted on each lane can be helpful. Gauge the level of understanding, skill and
independence of the athletes before assigning independent work to a group.
Safety is a primary consideration when planning a practice. It is important to have clearly stated rules that are uniformly
enforced. For example, do not allow some swimmers to fool around and push each other into the pool and then discipline
others for doing the same thing. Along with the rules, swimmers should know the consequences of breaking the rules. A
“timeout” from practice is one of the most effective punishments. Discipline problems during a practice are often directly
related to lack of structure and planning. Active, involved swimmers have a harder time getting into trouble. It is important
to keep swimmers busy and challenged. Gauge the attention span of the athletes when teaching or instructing. For very
young swimmers limit instruction time to 10-15 minutes and then keep them active.
Also, teach the athletes at a very young age to use and read a pace clock. Even 8 and unders can do some elementary
work with a pace clock. Swimmers who understand the use of a pace clock are able to complete a set independently while
the coach is instructing another group. (See Chapter 6 for additional information)
Do’s and Don’ts
The coach should:
• Be early
• Have a written plan
• Start practice on time rather than waiting for the stragglers
• Catch them doing something right
• Challenge them
• Make time for games, relays and supervised play
• Talk to each swimmer several times per practice
• Know every swimmer’s name ASAP
• End practice with something exciting
The coach should not:
• Talk on a cell phone during practice unless it is an emergency
• Talk to parents right before practice or during practice
• Socialize on the pool deck
• Sit down
Part 4: The Swim Meet
Topic Questions:
1. What is the proper emphasis at a swim meet?
2. What are some of the determining factors in deciding what events a swimmer should enter?
3. What are some of the major responsibilities of the coach at a swim meet?
The Purpose of Swim Meets

Swim meets provide the opportunity to measure the development of the athletes. They are a chance for swimmers to
perform and show what they have learned or how much they have improved. Swim meets are also social opportunities for
the team and they should be enjoyable and fun for the swimmers.
If meets are very stressful for the coach or the athletes, perhaps the coach, parents or the athletes themselves are putting
too much emphasis on performance and outcomes. Outside of competing for attention at home or school, swimming may
be the first competitive experience for many swimmers. Although swimming is a team sport, during races each swimmer
swims alone. There is no ball to pass to teammates. This openness of evaluation can have a profound effect upon young
people who are developing their identities and self-concept.
As stated in Chapter 1, the proper emphasis in competition should be the process of competition rather than the outcome,
the winning or losing. The outcome of competition depends upon many factors. Swimmers can only be responsible for
themselves and their abilities, not for all the other factors that affect the outcome. Emphasize personal development (or
the process) rather than race outcome. Is this an opportunity to try new events or to work on new technique or race
strategy? If the coach has clearly stated goals for each meet the swimmers will have a better understanding of
expectations.
How Many Meets, How Many Events?

How many meets should a swimmer compete in? This is a very hard question to answer because much depends on the
level and age of the athlete as well as the nature of the swim meet. Is the meet a trials and finals meet lasting three days
with the swimmer competing in multiple events each day? Or is the meet a dual meet that is over in two hours with the
swimmer competing in only two or three events? Different physical and mental stress levels are involved depending on
the type of meet.
As a general rule of thumb, swimmers might compete in meets one or two times per month with one or two months during
the year completely free of meets. Competing one or two times per month may not be realistic if swimmers are on high
school or YMCA teams that swim dual meet schedules. In these cases it is important that the coach allow plenty of
recovery time following the intense competitive season, allowing considerable time with no competition at all.
Being in charge of the wet side means that it is the coach who sets the meet schedule for the team and for each swimmer.
Additionally, it is the coach’s job to select the events for each swimmer. This may be done in consultation with the
swimmer, or, in the case of very young swimmers, in consultation with the parent, but ultimately the choice of events is up
to the coach. In most cases the coach is also responsible for submission of the team entries.
The next question that arises concerns how many events a swimmer should enter in each meet. Generally, the more a
swimmer races, the more relaxed the swimmer becomes in race situations. Most young swimmers enter the maximum
number of races allowed by the meet rules. The event selection is more important than how many events a swimmer
enters. Allowing young swimmer to experience personal success by competing exclusively in events in which they already
excel will hinder their need to develop skills that will be beneficial in the future. Parents often want their swimmers to enter
only their “best events.” The coach’s job is to broaden the horizons of both the swimmers and the parents. As swimmers
become ready for new challenges, choose the 500 free instead of the 100 free or the 200 backstroke instead of the 50
backstroke. Swimmers gain confidence and can often see great and rewarding improvement in new, more challenging
events.
The Coach at the Swim Meet
When it comes to the meet itself, the coach has many jobs. Even when the team is hosting a meet, the coach’s primary
responsibility is to coach, not to direct the meet management. Regardless of whether the team is hosting or not, here is a
list of suggested activities for coaches at swim meets:
• Arrive early. In fact, be the first one there. Claim the team’s “territory” with the swimmers.
• Be prepared. At a minimum bring a stop watch, split book, extra pens, a copy of the team entry and a copy of the
meet information. Other items to bring include a small notebook or practice notebook, swimmers’ goal sheets,
best time charts and a practice attendance list.
• Complete any required check-in procedure. Greet other coaches, officials and workers.
• Stand at the end of the lane where the swimmers can find you for warm-up. Alternately, meet the swimmers at a
prearranged location prior to warm-up.
• Greet the swimmers enthusiastically. If swimmers are late, talk to their parents later. Age groupers do not drive
themselves to meets, so it is probably not the swimmer’s fault that he or she arrived late.
• Warm-up as a group. The swimmers should have practiced or discussed warm-up with the coach prior to the
meet.
• Hold a team meeting after warm-up to go over procedures, goals and responsibilities.
• Remind swimmers to talk to the coach before and immediately after each race. Do not allow parents to attend
these conversations and remind the swimmer to come to the coach after the race before talking to the parent.
• Pre Race: Give the swimmer one, two or three major things to remember or think about.
• During the race: Take splits, watch the race, record notes about the swim. Have another swimmer act as “the
secretary” during the races.
• Post Race: Ask the swimmer how he or she swam before giving input. Comment on the race technique, technical
aspects and the time. Keep it brief and find something good to say. Give one specific thing to work on for the
future. Prepare the swimmer for the next event.
• Maintain a professional demeanor: Hydrate and eat right, dress professionally, monitor personal emotions, be a
role model.
• Talk to other coaches. When they are free, ask questions with a sincere interest in learning something.
• At the end of the meet, police the team area with the swimmers. Be the last one to leave. Pick up any awards the
swimmers have not collected. Thank the officials and meet workers.
• After the meet, tabulate best times, goal times, and other results and be ready to discuss and evaluate the meet
with the swimmers at the next practice.
Part 5: Risk Management
Topic Questions:
1. What are the requirements for USA Swimming coach membership?
2. When should a Report of Occurrence form be completed?
3. How can the coach participate in risk management?
4. What conditions must be met for USA Swimming insurance coverage to be in effect?
The topics of risk management and safety are covered extensively in the Safety Training for Swim Coaches course. This
document is meant as a brief review of major points.
Coach Safety, Background Check and Education Requirements

To become a USA Swimming coach member, the coach is required to have current certifications in CPR, First Aid, and
Safety Training for Swim Coaches as well as a current background check completed via the USA Swimming website. In
addition, all coaches must complete USA Swimming’s Athlete Protection Education every three years and must pass The
Foundations of Coaching test before the second year of registration as a coach. The coach is responsible for keeping
certifications current. The club, as an employer, should also keep track of the certifications. If certifications are not current,
coach membership status is invalid. Therefore, the USA Swimming insurance provided for coaching activities would be
denied. To see more information about the safety and educational requirements, click here.
Report of Occurrence Forms

The Report of Occurrence form is used to notify USA Swimming and Risk Management Services, Inc. when an accident
occurs. Reporting all incidents, no matter how minor, is important to put both USA Swimming and its insurer on notice of
accidents and potential claims.
A Report of Occurrence form should be completed any time an injury occurs at a USA Swimming function, whether or not
it involves a USA Swimming member. Injuries involving spectators should also be reported. The form should be filled out
by a meet director or by any club personnel responsible at the time of the incident. The form should not be completed by
the injured individual or his or her parents.
The Report of Occurrence forms keep Risk Management Services, Inc. informed of potential claims or liability situations. If
the accident is of a serious nature, USA Swimming National Headquarters confers with Risk Management Services and
an investigation of the incident is initiated.
Risk Management
According to the National Safety Council, 85 percent of all accidents are preventable; accidents that might have occurred
are prevented or reduced when risk management plans and loss control programs are developed and implemented.
With a plan to minimize risk and ongoing loss control activities, a coach takes a proactive approach. A coach’s
involvement in developing a plan to minimize risk projects an attitude that says—
 I am a knowledgeable professional.
 I am concerned about safety.
 I will do what is necessary to provide a safe environment.
In addition to preventing accidents, plan to minimize risk is also extremely important in the event of legal action. A
proactive program shows intent and acts as evidence of responsible care. A plan to minimize risk and a loss control
program should contain procedures in prevention, safety inspections, safety meetings and emergency action. Common
types of emergencies that could occur should be considered when planning for emergencies. A detailed plan should be
put in writing and thoroughly reviewed and practiced. In developing a plan to minimize risk, the following points should be
considered:
 Safety Rules and Regulations. Assist in the safe operation of the program by establishing and adhering to rules
and regulations that are designed to minimize the risk of injury. Assemble all of the safety rules and regulations
pertaining to the facility, USA Swimming and/or any other governing body that may be involved. Review all rules
and regulations and the procedures used to enforce them. Post and/or publish appropriate rules and procedures,
such as warm-up procedures.
 Supervision. Coaches and meet officials should be active in enforcing rules and regulations, such as the warm-
up procedures. A club safety coordinator acts as liaison between the club and facility.
 Training and Certification. As stated above, all coaches must have the necessary certifications. Follow facility
guidelines for required supervision of aquatic activities by certified personnel. Some facilities require certified
lifeguards on duty.
 Safety Inspections. The first step toward actively preventing injuries is to recognize potential hazards. This
requires a systematic and routine method of inspecting the swimming facility. A series of checklists and a method
of documenting and reporting faulty equipment or facility dangers should be established.
Insurance Coverage
A club’s USA Swimming insurance coverage is in effect when all three of the following conditions are met:
1. The club is a member in good standing of USA Swimming
2. All swimmers at practice and at meets are athlete members of USA Swimming
3. All coaches are coach members of USA Swimming with current required certifications.
Activities such as dryland training, team tryouts, fundraising and social activities are also covered by USA Swimming
insurance provided the above conditions are met. It is always wise to check the insurance coverage before planning any
activity.
Part 6: Legal Considerations
Topic Questions:
1. What is negligence and when might a coach be considered negligent?
2. What legal duties have been imposed on coaches?
3. How does the USA Swimming code of conduct apply to coaches and sexually inappropriate behavior?
Coaching is an honorable profession and many beginning coaches view coaching as a possible career choice. The desire
to be treated as a professional carries the responsibility to act professionally at all times.
Legal Duties and Responsibilities

There is a growing trend toward formalized duties for coaches through written job descriptions and contracts. Once
formalized, these duties may be treated as legal responsibilities. Briefly stated, courts have determined that coaches are
held to a standard of conduct expected of an ordinary reasonable person under like circumstances. Failure to meet that
standard is considered negligence. Negligence is the failure to do what a reasonable and prudent person would do in the
same or similar circumstances or doing something that a reasonable and prudent person would not have done. It is the
coach’s responsibility to always act reasonably under the circumstances.
Legal duties for coaches have been established, on specific facts, through various court cases. Though not applicable in
every situation, coaches should know that if an accident happens, someone might argue that the coach had a duty that he
or she failed to carry out. In specific circumstances, courts have held these duties to include:
 Duty to properly instruct an athlete
 Duty to properly supervise an activity
 Duty to warm of inherent dangers in a sport
 Duty to provide a safe environment and equipment
 Duty to properly condition an athlete
 Duty to provide care in an emergency
 Duty to enforce rules and regulations
 Duty to fairly classify and group participants for competition according to skill level, age, experience, etc.
This list is not all-inclusive, and it might not apply to a particular situation. The bottom line is that there can be significant
legal and financial consequences for not behaving reasonably.
In addition, there are best practices that can help prevent injury. These include:
 Reasonable planning to anticipate potentially dangerous circumstances and situations. As a professional, a coach
should reasonably plan for all foreseeable hazards.
 Safety through organization and planning. Well organized, planned activities and workouts are more likely to be
safe than chaotic, disorganized situations.
 Recordkeeping. All injuries and accidents should be reported as determined by the national governing body. For
example, accidents should be documented on USA Swimming Report of Occurrence forms. Coaches should also
keep records of safety hazards that have been documented and reported.
Sexual Misconduct
In working with each child, it is essential that we are mindful of their physical, emotional, and developmental needs. We
must also be particularly diligent in recognizing the unique vulnerabilities that are an inherent part of childhood. It is the
responsibility of all adults to not only recognize these vulnerabilities, but to develop the knowledge and skills needed to
create and maintain a safe and child-centered sports environment.
Sadly, sexual abuse is a serious issue in our society today, and one that all youth-serving organizations must be aware of
and guard against. As a coach, it is your job to provide a safe environment for your athletes, and, on the subject of sexual
misconduct, that means knowing and adhering to USA Swimming’s Athlete Protection Policies and Best Practice
Guidelines. These policies and guidelines are in place to foster a safe and healthy environment for all our members –
including coaches.
The coach should never put him or herself in a situation where there is even a hint of impropriety. Coaches must conduct
themselves professionally at all times. If you have questions about the policies and guidelines, please contact our Athlete
Protection Officer.
The code of conduct in the USA Swimming Rule Book states that “any sexual contact or advance or other inappropriate
sexually oriented behavior or action directed towards an athlete by a coach, official, trainer, or other person, who, in the
context of swimming, is in a position of authority over that athlete” is a violation of the code of conduct. In cases of sexual
misconduct, USA Swimming always seeks, through its National Board of Review, to ban the offending individual for life
from the organization.
Reporting Suspected Abuse

State laws mandate that certain persons engaged in a professional capacity or activity who learn of facts that give reason
to suspect that a child has suffered an incident of child abuse are legally obligated to report the suspicion. Coaches may
be included among the professionals required to report any suspected abuse. The failure of a coach to make a timely
report of suspected abuse may result in criminal charges being brought against the coach. Coaches should educate
themselves regarding the specific state laws applicable to them.
Additionally, at the 2010 Aquatic Sports Convention, USA Swimming’s membership adopted legislation to make it
mandatory that any member report “firsthand knowledge” or “specific and credible information” regarding sexual
misconduct. Failure to report such information is now a violation of the USA Swimming Code of Conduct. To report such
information, you can call the Athlete Protection Officer at 719-866-3589, email athleteprotection@usaswimming.org, or
use the anonymous form located here.
It is every member’s responsibility to promptly report any incident regarding sexual misconduct by a member as described in Article
304.3.5 to USA Swimming’s Athlete Protection Officer. Reporting must occur when an individual has firsthand knowledge of
misconduct or where specific and credible information has been received from a victim or knowledgeable third party. Various
state laws may also require reporting to law enforcement or to a designated child protection agency.
There is a lot more to coaching than developing workouts and going to swim meets. Coaches should always keep the
guidelines and legal considerations discussed in this chapter foremost in their minds to avoid jeopardizing their athletes
and themselves.
Chapter 4: Growth and Development
Table of Contents
Part 1: Understanding the Basics of Physical Growth and Development

o The maturational process
o Identifying early versus late maturers
o Potential consequences of early versus late maturation
Part 2: Applying the Basics of Growth and Development
o Strategies to deal with early and late maturation of athletes
o Fostering long term development
o Physical readiness for competition
Part 3: Social Development
o Social development of children at various ages
o Recommended strategies
Part 4: Psychological Development
o Perceived competence
o Perspective taking
o Motivation
o Recommended strategies
o Psychological readiness for competition
Part 5: Gender and the Young Athletes
o Puberty
o Sensitive periods of development in males and females
o Psycho-social development of males and females
o Social/affiliation needs of males and females
Chapter 4: Growth and Development Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
Part 1: Understanding the Basics of Physical Growth and Development
Topic Questions:
1. Why does a coach need to understand growth and development?
2. What are the average maturational parameters?
3. What are the identifying characteristics of early versus late maturers?
4. What are the potential negative outcomes for both early and late maturers?
Why Study Growth and Development?

Growth and development is a topic that often is not well understood by new coaches. This chapter identifies critical
elements of athlete development in a variety of sport science disciplines (i.e., physiology, psychology, growth and
development, sociology) in order to arm the coach with knowledge to work more effectively with young people.
First, here are two basic assumptions that serve as the underlying rationale for addressing growth and development:
1. No two individuals are exactly alike.

2. Individuals change in relatively predictable ways as they get older.
Specifically, while no two young swimmers are identical, their physical, psychological, social and physiological
development follows a similar pattern. Using this knowledge of the predictable aspects of the developmental process will
aid in understanding and training young swimmers and will help to place their behaviors, needs, thoughts and capabilities
in context.
Complete textbooks are written on development in each area. We asked experts to identify and explain a few critical
elements of athlete development deemed to be crucial information for coaches. On the following pages are the discipline
specific summaries of athlete development along with recommendations for applying the information.
What is the Maturational Process?

It is important to remember that a child is not just a miniature adult. Children develop in sequential and predictable ways
from young children into fully grown adults.
During the childhood phase prior to puberty, children, on average, grow about 2.5 inches per year and gain about
5 pounds per year.
Peak height velocity of growth (the “adolescent growth spurt”) occurs during puberty/adolescence.
Girls reach peak growth spurts between ages 11-13 and boys between ages 13-15.
Adolescent awkwardness due to rapid physical growth affects performance.
Tracking of “outstanding” kids in elementary school found that only 25% were still rated as “outstanding” in later
years, suggesting that early success does not predict later success.
Gender differences in physical growth and in the timing of the growth spurt contribute to the overall difference in
the height and body shapes of females and males. These changes are out of the athletes’ control but may impact
performance.
The rate of growth is similar for males and females. At some points of maturation, girls grow even faster than
boys. However, boys have more growth at the end of maturation.
While individuals develop in similar ways, the timing of this maturation process can vary greatly. In fact, at any one
chronological age, individuals can vary by as much as five years biologically. This means that with two swimmers who are
chronologically 12 years old, one may be biologically 10 years old and the other 15 years old. In spite of this huge
difference in physical maturity, these differences are often not recognized in training and competition expectations.
Identifying early maturers and late maturers

One way of trying to identify the kids who are going to be early maturers and late maturers is just by eyeballing them. In
childhood, early maturers tend to be taller, heavier, and have more muscle mass than their peers. Alternately, late
maturers are generally shorter and very light and lean in childhood. Late maturers may also be fairly tall but lean and
without muscle mass. Very often, the late maturers end up being taller as adults because they are in the childhood growth
phase longer. In the end, final height depends on individual genes. A good starting point is to look at the biological parents
to predict athletes’ heights.
Another way to identify early maturers and late maturers is to track the athlete's growth. On average, children grow 2.5
inches a year and gain about 5 lbs. a year until they hit their growth spurt. For girls, this growth spurt occurs roughly
around age 12-13 and around age 14-15 for boys. If the growth spurt occurs earlier than this average, you have an early
maturer, if it occurs later, you have a late maturer. It is important that young athletes have regular physical check-ups to
ensure that growth is on track. Excessive weight gain or loss should be addressed by a physician.
Potential Negative Outcomes

In and of itself, being an early maturer or a late maturer is not a concern. However, the potential short term and long term
ramifications if one ignores maturational differences are of concern.
Early maturers, who hit their growth spurt prior to their same aged peers, tend to have an advantage in sports, especially
sports requiring speed, power and endurance where body mass is helpful. For biological reasons, not because of greater
talent or ability, they are often able to outperform their peers. In childhood, they have much early success for which they
receive reinforcement and recognition and, therefore, tend to initially stay with the sport.
Into high school there may be problems as the early maturers, who are used to experiencing success, get frustrated
because now peers are catching up with them. Others may ridicule and tease them because they are not experiencing the
same outcome success and assume it is because they are not training hard or not putting forth the effort. Part of the
dropout from sport we see around age 14 is due to early maturers leaving the sport out of frustration when they are not
experiencing the same success as they did when they were younger. In reality, it’s the physical changes that are
occurring in their peers that are allowing others to catch up with them.
With late maturers, there is a different set of issues. The late maturing kids often experience early failure because they are
at a biological disadvantage that affects performance outcomes. They are not as physically strong or developed as their
peers. In training, even though they may be working as hard, they often can't keep up which is a huge source of
frustration. This may lead to ridicule or embarrassment. These late maturers, who are not demonstrating success relative
to their peers, may not get the coaches' attention, encouragement or recognition that the more successful early maturers
are getting.
Unfortunately, in developmental sport programs, late maturers often are not given the time to allow their physical maturity
to catch up and their skills to develop. Instead, these children may leave the sport early because of lack of success and
extreme frustration. This seems to hit late maturing boys the hardest because they are at an extreme disadvantage.
Ironically, they may have the potential to be better athletes but they must be kept involved at the younger ages to make
sure they continue with their skill development.
Part 2: Applying the Basics of Growth and Development
Topic Questions:
1. What are some strategies to keep both early and later maturers involved in swimming?
2. How are aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity and muscular strength affected by the growth and development of
the athlete?
3. What are some strategies to deal with female athletes who are negatively affected by physical changes to their
bodies?
4. How can competition be tailored to make it developmentally appropriate?
Strategies to Deal with Early vs Late Maturers

Keep in mind that early success does not predict later success. This is illustrated in a study looking at growth and
development in boys (Medford Boys Growth Study) and its relation to sport abilities. Specifically, coaches were asked to
rate boys in terms of their abilities in elementary school and again in junior high. They found that only 25% of the boys
who were rated outstanding in elementary school were also rated outstanding in junior high. This suggests that early
talent/ability is a poor predictor of future abilities since only one fourth of the boys that demonstrated ability in elementary
school also demonstrated ability in junior high.
Given this, be cautious about focusing attention and energies onto only the young athletes who are showing initial talent.
The success demonstrated by early maturers is due to a biological advantage and biological maturation is genetic. Late
maturers, who are at an initial physical disadvantage, don't have control over biology.
Parents and athletes must be aware of some of the factors involved in why some are experiencing much success (as is
the case with early maturers) or limited success (late maturers). An awareness of the situation will aid in keeping both
success and failure in perspective while maintaining an eye towards individual skill development. Help athletes focus on
long-term development rather than performance today.
With early maturers, who have trouble keeping early success in perspective, think about moving them "up" in
competitions, when possible, so they are competing on a more level playing ground and experiencing some defeat along
with their successes. They can still practice with their peers (so social development is not affected) but compete against
others of a similar maturational age.
Search for strategies to keep late maturers involved in skill development programs since they are the ones getting left
behind. Be creative in structuring situations so they can experience success and see improvement. Some examples that
have been used include: post and reward personal improvement in training that focuses the athletes on themselves rather
than peer comparison; design team competitions that emphasize skill development; find a way to get the athletes to
compare themselves to others of the same maturational age.
Gender plays a role in the influence of the maturation process on performance, dropout and self-esteem. Specifically, pay
special attention to early maturing females and late maturing males. An early maturing female develops a woman's body
at a young age and may become very self-conscious. Conversely, the late maturing male is ridiculed for being small and
also becomes very self-conscious. Parents and coaches need to help these athletes with self-confidence, self-image and
self-worth.
Educate athletes regarding growth cycles so they understand what is happening to their bodies. Help manage
parental expectations. Explain that rapid growth can lead to awkwardness and that performance may plateau or
even temporarily decline.
Encourage the early maturer to develop good technique and take on new events. Take active steps to keep late
maturers involved by encouraging and recognizing individual improvement.
Understand gender differences and allow time for young athletes to get comfortable (physically and emotionally)
with their changed bodies. Adaptation to the growth changes lags behind the actual change.
Fostering Long Term Development Through Structured Training and Skill Development
There are three primary physiological performance components that undergo quantitative changes (increased size or
capacity) and qualitative changes (increased efficiency) with growth and development. The components include aerobic
capacity, anaerobic capacity, and muscular strength, power and endurance.
Aerobic Capacity
V02max, the ability to take in, transport, and utilize oxygen, is the common parameter used to measure aerobic
capacity. V02max shows significant growth from 11-13 years for females and 12-14 for males. This time frame,
when significant growth can occur is also called a sensitive period. It should be maximized in the training program
to develop the athlete's long term potential. The athlete is able to rapidly increase workload during this sensitive
period. Pre-pubescent athletes show significant improvements in long duration, low intensity events and are able
to enhance the utilization of their aerobic capacity.
Recommendation: Coaches should optimize aerobic training during this sensitive period (11-13 years for
females/12-14 years for males) to maximize athletes’ aerobic development. It is suggested that pre-pubescent
athletes (ages 9-12/14) focus on longer distances (i.e., longer repeats and longer competitive events) for reasons
related to both skill development and aerobic capacity development. This does not mean that swimmers do not
need to train the aerobic system after age 14! Athletes should continue to increase training volumes and train the
aerobic system throughout their careers.
Anaerobic Capacity
Anaerobic training involves high intensity, brief activities such as short repeats on long rest or 25 yard or shorter
sprints. It has been found that high volume pre-pubescent anaerobic work results in insignificant long-term
anaerobic improvement for young athletes (10-13 years). It may result in short-term time drops. However, higher
aerobic work during this time results in increased performance across all distances not just longer distances.
Early increased anaerobic load leads to potential mal-adaptation in young athletes…it is said to "tax their tank"
and their ability to adapt. A gradual increase in the proportion of anaerobic work beginning at ages 12-14 for girls
and 13-15 for boys maximizes development and enhances performance, but only if preceded by ample aerobic
work.
Recommendation: Coaches must first develop the athlete's aerobic capacity and then gradually increase
anaerobic load for maximum development of anaerobic capacity.
Muscular strength, power and endurance

A frequently asked question is whether young athletes should strength train. It is suggested that there can be
muscular gains and adaptations but only if strength training is done under the right scenario: with close
supervision to ensure proper technique. Prior to puberty, the gains come from neuromuscular changes not
changes in muscle size. With increases in steroid hormones (puberty), we see gains due to changes in muscle
size, predominantly in males. As muscle size increases, so does strength. But, typically there is a year lag time
between size/mass increases and maximum effects of strength gains in young athletes. Additionally, the
translation of land-based strength, power and endurance to pool performance can take up to six months. The age
of 14-15 is when peak gains occur; quantitative muscular changes can occur with proper training. However, it is
not until half a year to two years later that this will be translated into an increase in strength.
Recommendation: First, keep in mind that young athletes are not miniature adults. Because of hormonal and
biological differences between children and adults, children will not increase muscle size through strength
training. However, neuromuscular adaptations can occur. It is only after puberty that muscle growth occurs. The
ability to translate muscular work to swimming velocity is the key, as the concern is helping children swim faster.
Therefore, ensure that strength training is implemented or modified to meet this objective.
Physical Readiness for Competition

"Can a child be too young for competition?" The answer is "yes" if we are strictly referring to the adult model of
competition such as the organized swim meet. Young athletes often do not have the psychological, social and physical
skills necessary for the competitive environment. However, if competition is structured to make it developmentally
appropriate for young athletes, they can benefit from the experience and develop the necessary skills.
At the developmental level, the important element is skill. In addition, evaluating performance based strictly on time is an
injustice to our late maturing athletes who are at a biological disadvantage relative to their early maturing peers. Be
creative in using different evaluation criteria or rewards that recognize areas we want to emphasize i.e., stroke, technique,
individual improvement. Following are varied examples of appropriate competitions for developmental athletes:
Technique meets
Alter events based on physical abilities, i.e., allow 5 butterfly strokes then 5 butterfly kicks
Race strategy competitions
IMX meets
Intra-squad and inter-squad meets
Single age events
Set up a sound and appropriate program for entry level swimmers to develop a firm foundation; a foundation that includes
proper skill development and the development of self-esteem. This will help to instill in children a love of swimming. Rely
on best judgment and knowledge of the swimmer to determine physical readiness for appropriate levels of competition.
Part 3: Social Development
Topic Questions:
1. What are the primary social characteristics of each developmental age group?
2. What can the coach do to guide and encourage positive sociological development?
Sociological Development
Young athletes do not participate in sports in a vacuum. They are greatly affected and influenced by the social and
cultural environment in which they live and by the social development challenges they face during childhood and
adolescence. To enhance effectiveness in working with young athletes, it is important to take into account this social
development as it impacts areas such as the athletes' goals, behaviors, needs and self-concept. Be aware of how the
social relationships associated with sport participation are involved in the completion of developmental tasks.
7-10 Years Old

This age group faces the challenge of learning how to get along with peers and how to deal with authority figures apart
from their parents. During these years it is important for children to learn how to stand up for themselves among their
peers while at the same time understanding that their peers are different than they are. They must learn how to
compromise for the sake of getting along, and how to cooperate and compete with their equals. If these social interaction
skills are not learned, children may face difficulties when addressing developmental challenges during preadolescence
and adolescence.
Recommendation: Recognize that seven-ten year olds are expressive, spontaneous and egocentric. Give them room to
express themselves while at the same time establishing clear-cut norms about honesty and playing by the rules. As they
seek to get their way, understand that children during this stage are only beginning to develop the ability to see the world
from the perspective of others. Because these children are in the process of learning acceptable means of achieving
goals, take care to make clearly explained distinctions between what is acceptable and what is not. Teach team loyalty,
sportsmanship and self-responsibility.
10-13 Years Old

Pre-adolescents face the challenge of developing "best friend" relationships and gaining acceptance from peers. A
development task is figuring out how they are similar to and different from others. In attempting to understand themselves
as unique individuals, they go through a stage during which close relations with same-sex "best friends" is very important.
During this stage, they are very loyal to friends and greatly influenced by what friends think. Unfortunately, young
adolescents can also be very exclusive in their peer groups such that those who are different are shunned or mocked.
While this may, at times, be hard to deal with, keep in mind that it is a necessary part of social development and not an
expression of disrespect on the part of the young athletes.
Recommendation: Offer young individuals the opportunity to interact socially with same-sex peers on a regular basis.
When moving one athlete "up" to the next level it may be necessary that a peer also be moved up. Attempt to create an
environment of inclusion and acceptance of differences. Teach conflict resolution strategies such as peer group
discussion and emphasize team loyalty over peer group loyalty. Encourage self-responsibility for practice and competition
performance.
14-17 Years Old

Adolescents face the challenge of exploring who they are and how they fit into the world in which they live. During this
stage, young people try to answer the question "who am I?" They go through processes of identity testing and identity
formation. This can be difficult and frustrating for adults, but adolescence is a time during which young people "try on" a
variety of different identities in an attempt to discover and clarify values while exploring all the possibilities of who they
might become as adults. What may seem like rebellion or acting out, often is a struggle by the athletes to find identities
that fit with their emerging sense of how they are connected to the world. We see this search for identity in the clothes
they wear, the music they listen to, the activities they are involved in, the language they speak and in the inconsistencies
in their lifestyles.
Recommendation: Be tolerant and accepting of the various identities the athlete "tries on." Allow athletes to explore and
test new and different identities as long as they do not put themselves in danger and as long as their actions are not in
conflict with team goals or team philosophy. It will help if the team goals and philosophy are both clearly stated and openly
discussed. Encourage a balanced lifestyle with participation in outside activities but stress the increased commitment
required for competitive success. Offer leadership opportunities and encourage peer group discussion and conflict
resolution through discussion.
16-19 Years Old

Older adolescents deal with the challenge of seeking independence and autonomy. A primary developmental task of older
adolescents is to move closer to being independent, autonomous beings; connected to but separate from others, in
control of one's life but aware of limitations and boundaries. While complete independence and autonomy are not possible
(nor is the individual ready for it), it is important that the athlete be allowed to make strides. Some autonomy must be
allowed and encouraged in order for the athlete to develop toward adulthood. Feelings of independence and autonomy
are derived, in part, from the sense that one has control over his or her life.
Recommendation: Allow athletes a voice in their development. This voice in some decisions regarding training helps to
develop independence and autonomy while at the same time making the athlete more accountable for his/her training.
Encourage leadership opportunities and reasonable input into team policy-making. Continue to be clear about team
policies, goals and philosophies. Encourage peer group discussion and conflict resolution and stress the fact that the
older swimmers are role models for the younger swimmers.
Part 4: Psychological Development
Topic Questions:
1. What is the role of the coach in developing the athlete’s perceived competence?
2. How does the ability to take another’s perspective influence a child’s behavior in the sport environment?
3. How does the role of extrinsic rewards change during an athlete’s career?
4. What are some of the psychological indicators of readiness for competition?
Psychological development includes the development of perceived competence, perspective-taking abilities and
motivation.
Perceived Competence
Athletes' perceptions of their athletic competence and sources they use to judge self-competence go through predictable
developmental changes:
At an early age (7-9 years), there is a focus on outcome and effort in judging one's competence. "I won, therefore
I am a good swimmer." “I try hard, I’m a good swimmer.” Winning and losing serve as an important source of
competence information for very young athletes but so does effort, especially for those who are unable to make
social comparisons. (See readiness for competition at the end of this topic.)
At the next stage (8-12 years), there is a gradual decline in the importance of feedback from parents, an increase
in coach technical knowledge as a source of competence information and a gradual increase in the importance of
peer comparison in making competence judgments. "I beat Joe which means I'm a good swimmer". “My coach
said my race was good, therefore it was.”
The young adolescent athlete (12-14 years) recognizes that both ability and effort impact performance. Prior to
this, the athlete cannot distinguish between the two concepts. “I realize Joe has more talent than I do.”
The older adolescent (15-18 years) progresses from focusing on peer comparison to focusing on self-comparison
as a source of competence information. “My times are improving and I have achieved one of my goals.”
Process goal orientation increases with age while outcome goal orientation decreases with age.
Recommendation: Understand what sources children rely on to provide competence information. Because outcome is so
important at a young age, our late maturing athletes are at risk of low competence as they are not experiencing much
success. Additionally, coach feedback becomes an increasingly important source of competence information for athletes.
Recognize the coach’s role in enhancing or tearing down the athlete's sense of self-competence. For example, as
opposed to just providing critical feedback ("you missed your last turn"), also reinforce what she did correctly ("you held
your streamline and kick out"). It is important to recognize effort (“I appreciate the fact that you tried hard to hold your
breathing pattern”) as well as outcome (“congratulations, you did a good job on that race”).
Perspective-taking
The ability to take another's perspective progresses in a predictable sequence and impacts both how an individual relates
to others and overall behavior in the sport environment.
At a young age (under 8 years), children are not able to take the perspective of others. They have an egocentric
perspective. The young athlete's thoughts, feelings, ideas and needs are correct as far as they are concerned. In
their view everyone else thinks and feels this same way.
Gradually, children develop the ability to take others' perspective but still view their perspective as the correct
view.
The latter stage of development occurs when the individual can take and appreciate another's perspective.
Recommendation: Young athletes will often display behavior that is selfish and doesn't take others into account.
Remember that they may not yet have developed the ability to understand others’ feelings or points of view. As they
develop, enhance their perspective-taking abilities by pointing out how their action affects others. This can help them
progress along the developmental spectrum.
Motivation
Motivation is defined as the direction and intensity of effort. Ideally, we want to see young athletes motivated to approach
success in swimming with great intensity. (Note: extrinsic motivation refers to motivation from the outside; intrinsic
motivation refers to motivation that comes from within rather than because of material reward or consequences.) What is it
that motivates young athletes?
Younger swimmers (7-9 years) seem more extrinsically motivated while older swimmers are often more
intrinsically motivated.
Around age 9 years and older, young children begin seeing rewards as bribes. Under some conditions, bribery
can negatively affect motivation.
With age, material rewards (ribbons, medals, gold stars) lose their effect on motivation. If rewards are being
perceived as controlling ('you have to swim fast to get a ribbon') it decreases intrinsic motivation.
Recommendation: Although developmentally it may seem that extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation, this is
not necessarily the case. The key is not the reward itself but the message behind the reward. In order to enhance intrinsic
motivation the reward must be seen as providing positive competence information rather than as controlling behavior.
What is the message behind the award? Does the award signify great improvement or achievement? Tie the material
award to the message it conveys to the swimmer.
Psychological Readiness for Competition
For the competition to be meaningful, the young athlete must be able to conceptualize the competition from an
opponent's perspective and engage in social comparison. This ability develops at about the age of 12.
Prior to approximately age 12, children are not able to distinguish between effort and ability in explaining
successes and failures.
In trying to determine a young athlete's readiness for competition, assess if the athlete has the coping skills to
deal with the demands and challenges inherent in the competitive environment. Some of these demands and
challenges may include dealing with success and failure, managing time and energy at the competition, getting
disqualified and performing in front of others. A young athlete who is found in tears after a race may not have the
coping skills to deal with competition and is therefore not "ready" for competition. Coaches need to monitor how
the young athlete copes with various situations in practice to determine if he/she has the coping skills to deal with
the increased demands and challenges of competition.
Part 5: Gender and the Young Athlete
Topic Questions:
1. What are some strategies to deal with the possible negative affects of physical changes on female athletes?
2. What are sensitive training periods and how can the coach take advantage of them?
3. What are the general differences between young male and female athletes in terms of perceived competence,
goal orientation and social affilation needs?
There are some gender-related differences that coaches should be aware of. Ideally, strike a balance between being
sensitive to gender-related differences without forming incorrect stereotypes.
Puberty
Boys reap the benefits of testosterone during puberty. There is an increase in muscle development due to increased
testosterone. Concurrent with this increase in muscle mass is a decrease in percent body fat. All these changes are
seemingly advantageous to the male swimmer.
For females, puberty brings about an increase in the hormone estrogen. This increased estrogen will aid in laying down
more fat and breaking down protein. Unlike males, development during puberty for females may initially have a negative
effect on swim performance.
Recommendation: Make sure that the training programs for girls help to maintain their muscle and offset the natural
physiological changes that are occurring in their bodies. Additionally, remember that the increased fat deposits are
nature's way of preparing a woman’s body for childbirth. It is not necessarily a change in her diet, changes in her training
or lack of willpower. The changes in her body are, to a large degree, out of her control. Following are a few practical
strategies for dealing with this common challenge:
Be proactive by educating the athletes early on about why their performances may falter or plateau; prepare them
for the growth and development and natural changes that will occur.
Teach coping skills to deal with adversity.
Be careful in not letting the highs get too high or the lows too low; keep it in perspective. It is crucial to not make a
big deal out of success or failure.
A female coach may help relate to the female athletes.
Don't give up on the females as they are struggling with development.
A strong aerobic base is beneficial when dealing with maturational changes.
Focus on training and consider decreasing the number of competitions until the athlete adjusts to her body. It
doesn't make sense to have the athlete “beat her head against the wall,” struggle with confidence and experience
failure and frustration.
Make necessary changes to stroke technique and emphasize skill development.
Find a role model or older athlete who had similar struggles and can talk to the younger athletes about how she
coped.
Sensitive Periods
Sensitive periods are windows of opportunity for athlete development. From a physiological and growth perspective, boys
and girls are different in terms of the timing of their 'sensitive periods' with girls maturing physiologically about two years
ahead of boys. Remember, this sensitive period is a time when significant growth (aerobic development) can occur. The
growth spurt is really what should determine when to increase the aerobic phase. However, it is easier to understand and
use this information when one knows that females tend to hit this growth phase at age 11-13 and males around age 13-
15.
Recommendation: Take advantage of these sensitive periods when training young athletes in order to maximize
development. When entering this growth phase, which tends to happen earlier for females, coaches need to think about
increasing aerobic training to maximize their capacities.
Psycho-social Development
There are numerous psycho-social developmental differences between young males and females that may impact
interaction with the athletes or the training environment the coach establishes.
Perceived Competence: In general, males tend to have higher perceptions of athletic competence than females.
This means that they view themselves as more competent or able as athletes. One’s perception of competence
influences such things as participation, enjoyment, and motivation.
Extra steps may need to be taken to develop, bolster and reinforce young females' perceptions of
competence; help them recognize and appreciate their abilities as swimmers.
Goal Orientation: Findings are fairly consistent in showing that females are more task-oriented and males are more
outcome-oriented. An outcome orientation suggests focus on comparing performance with and beating others. With a
task orientation one is focused on comparing one's performance to personal standards and personal improvement.
Task orientation has been tied to positive achievement related behaviors in young athletes.
Given that only one athlete can "win" encourage males to also compare performance relative to themselves
as it greatly increases their chances of experiencing success and is much more within their control.
Females tend to value the training process more highly since it is highly task oriented. Males tend to value the
opportunity to race and compete. Build such opportunities into your training environment.
Social/Affiliation Needs. Females seem to have greater needs for affiliation (identification with the group) and are
more motivated to participate for social reasons whereas males tend to be more motivated by individual and
competitive factors. As an oversimplified generalization, the girls will appear to be team focused, while the boys
appear to be focused on themselves!
Make sure this need for social affiliation among females is being met. Incorporate time for social interaction
for the girls in the training environment.
Also recognize that young males generally want to be with other young males, while young females prefer to
be with other females. Single sex training groups for swimmers aged approximately 9-13 seems to meet this
social affiliation need. Alternately, single sex training lanes can accomplish the same objective.
Chapter 5: Skills and Mechanics
Table of Contents
Part 1: Basic Biomechanics

o Three types of resistance
o Decreasing resistance
o Propulsion
o Monitoring biomechanical improvement
 Stroke count and distance per stroke
 How to take stroke rate
o Biomechanical terminology
Part 2: Freestyle
o Essential skills
o Teaching progressions
o Teaching questions and answers
Part 3: Backstroke
o Essential skills
Part 4: Breaststroke
o Essential skills
Part 5: Butterfly
o Essential skills
Part 6: Starts
o The forward start for freestyle, backstroke and breaststroke
 Descriptions, teaching progressions and safety considerations
o The backstroke start
o Relay starts
Part 7: Turns
o The push-off
o Freestyle turns
o Backstroke turns
o Breaststroke and butterfly turns
Chapter 5: Skills and Mechanics Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
Part 1: Basic Biomechanics
Topic Questions:
1. What are three forms of resistance that affect swim performance?
2. How can resistance be decreased?
3. How can propulsion be increased?
4. Why should a swimmer learn to monitor stroke count and stroke rate?
5. What are some basic biomechanical terms that all coaches can use?
In order to correct and build swimming strokes with young athletes, the coach must first understand some of the crucial
principles of speed and stroke development. The continued success of a swimmer depends on stroke technique basics
learned by the swimmer and reinforced by the coach. Two basic principles are:
1. Decrease Resistance. For most swimmers, the fastest way for a swimmer to improve is to decrease resistance as
the body moves through the water.
2. Increase Propulsion. After reducing resistance, the swimmer must then increase propulsion.
Resistance
Water resistance affects a swimmer in different ways. One way is through the impact of water with a swimmer and the
subsequent flow of water around the body. This is called “form resistance.” Another way is through water turbulence and
waves that are created by moving water. This is called “wave resistance”. A third way is through water sticking to a
swimmer's suit or skin and creating “friction resistance”. These three resistance components all have a negative effect on
swimming performance and should be reduced whenever possible.
Form resistance is the most significant type of resistance and a swimmer’s technique influences it tremendously.
Form resistance is the resistance from the water that is dependent upon body position. The more horizontal the
body position becomes in the water, the more form resistance decreases. Swimmers should try to stay up near
the water surface (especially with the hips) during all strokes. A slanted body position will enlarge the frontal
surface area in the vertical direction and increase the resistance. Extreme lateral swaying in the water is another
example of increasing the resistance due to greater frontal surface area. Simply put, try to make swimmers look
more like racing boats than barges.
Wave resistance is caused by turbulence at the water surface created by the moving swimmer. Again, the canoe
shape is critical so that water flows easily and smoothly around the shape. Resistance rebounds off the sides and
bottom of a pool, which is why deeper pools are generally considered "faster" pools. What can the swimmer do
about wave resistance? First, push off underwater, not on top. Research shows that a push-off that is .6 meters
deep is 20% more efficient that a push-off that is .2 meters deep. Second, when swimming in the end lane in
competition, stay away from the side walls.
Friction resistance originates from the contact of the skin and hair with the water. Well fitting suits and swim
caps are elementary ways to reduce friction resistance. Swimmers shave body hair before important meets to
minimize the effects of friction resistance. Note that friction resistance is probably the least significant resistance a
swimmer faces. When dealing with young swimmers there are philosophical questions involved in encouraging or
discouraging shaving body hair and purchasing expensive racing suits. A coach should review his or her position
on the use of these suits and on shaving because it will become an issue with parents at some point.
Decreasing Resistance
Streamlining and adjustments to body position and body balance are two ways to significantly reduce resistance.
Streamlining. The first “stroke” that the coach should teach is underwater swimming with streamlining. The
hydrodynamic principle of streamlining applies to all four strokes. The streamline position should be used during
starts and turns when the body is completely submerged underwater. The head placement is most critical to
minimizing the water resistance. The most streamlined position is with the ears just slightly above the arms and
the arms squeezed as tightly as possible. Just the slight motion of lifting the head doubles the resistance from the
water. Often the head will lift before breaking the water surface after starting or turning, even at the elite level.
This doubling of the resistance can add up to precious tenths of seconds, especially during races of long duration.
The resistance is not dramatically affected if the head is placed forward toward the chest.
Body Position and Balance. The human body tends to float upright in the water. This position is created by a
center of gravity located somewhere near the hips and the center of buoyancy located in the lungs. Thus, the
upper body tries to lift and the lower body tends to sink. A swimmer must “balance” his or her upper and lower
body in the water so that both are perfectly horizontal in the water – the optimal position for fast swimming. This
can occur in several ways:
o Put the arms and hands above the head, out in front of the body in the water. This shifts weight forward
and thus moves the center of gravity closer to the center of buoyancy.
o “Lower the head” by placing the chin closer to the chest. Lowering the head helps raise the hips and legs
by shifting the center of gravity forward, closer to the center of buoyancy.
o Push the “buoy” or lungs downward. This brings the center of gravity closer to the surface.
Decreasing resistance is a major key to improvement. If the swimmer does not decrease resistance, the natural tendency
to get the body into position is to kick harder. Kicking hard is extremely important to fast swimming, but it should not be
emphasized to compensate for poor body position. Decrease resistance and kick hard… don’t kick hard because of high
resistance.
Propulsion
The next step is to increase propulsion. Propulsion is primarily achieved by a direct application of force on the water in a
backwards direction. In other words, in order to most effectively move the body forwards, swimmers should generally
focus on pressing on the water with their palms and forearms facing toward their feet as much and as long as possible.
There are several forces at work that create propulsion. Lift forces are created by the sculling motion of the hands and
forearms (and the feet in breaststroke) while drag forces are the result of pressing the water “backwards” toward the feet.
These concepts are more fully explored in the ASCA Level 2 Stroke School.
Sculling. The phrase, "feel for the water," is used by coaches to describe a swimmer who has natural ability with
strong skill potential. It seems difficult to teach a "feel for the water," but it is fairly easy to recognize. The best way
to develop this kind of sensitivity is through sculling drills. Sculling drills emphasize the initial motions that set up
all of the strokes and help to develop "feel for the water."
Monitoring Biomechanical Improvement

Helping athletes to improve strokes and stroke efficiency is one of the most important jobs of a coach. It is even better to
be able to objectively show the athletes how much they are improving. This can be done by monitoring stroke count (ie.
distance per stroke) and stroke rate. All that is needed are a stopwatch and the ability to count.
Stroke Count and Distance Per Stroke. One of the easiest ways to monitor stroke technique improvements is to
measure distance per stroke. To monitor an athlete, simply count (or have the athlete count) the number of
strokes taken per length of the pool. Stroke technique improvement would be achieved when the athlete is
swimming faster for the same number of strokes or swimming the same pace with fewer strokes. Stroke count is a
good indicator of the development of muscular endurance.
Stroke Rate. Many young swimmers cannot consistently maintain successful stroke rates. While we don’t want
them to “spin their wheels” they must attain – and more importantly – maintain a stroke rate that generates some
speed. Measure stroke rate by timing five complete stroke cycles. As the swimmer’s left index finger enters the
water in freestyle, start the watch. (Consider the first entry “zero.”) Watch and count the left index finger entries
th
and stop the watch after the 5 complete cycle. Multiply by 2 and then shift the decimal to get a measurement of
seconds per cycle.
o For example: 5 cycles = 11.03 seconds

Multiply by 2 = 22.06
Shift the decimal = 2.20 seconds per cycle.
Teach the swimmers to be aware of their stroke rates and check it from time to time during sets. Then do sets as “stroke
rate sets” or “stroke count sets” to monitor biomechanical improvement. Maintaining sufficient stroke rate (while
decreasing stroke count and therefore increasing distance per stroke) is the most important evidence of biomechanical
improvement.
Muscular Strength and Power

A coach can also work to improve the muscular strength of the athletes so they can increase the power they bring to exert
on the water. Physical activity in and out of the water can improve athleticism and muscular strength. Of course, all
dryland work should be age appropriate. (See earlier Chapter 4 on growth and development.)
Biomechanics Terminology
With coaches using a variety of terms or descriptions to describe biomechanical movement, there is a need to standardize
terminology and utilize descriptions that can be used by coaches all across the country. Although many terms have
survived the ages and have been used for decades, there are a number of new terms that more clearly describe aspects
of stroke technique.
Body line. Also called posture, or just line; an imaginary line from the head to feet through the center of the body.
Body line has a direct influence on resistance forces opposing the swimmer’s forward motion through the water.
Typical symptoms of poor body line are low hips, an arched back, low legs and a high head position. Most body
line issues are related to head position and/or breathing mechanics.
Spine line. An extension of the body line in that a straight spine line (tail bone to the base of the skull) is essential
in all strokes.
Connectivity. The ability of the upper and lower body to work together instead of independently. A swimmer who
is well-connected (to the core) is able to use the arms and legs in concert with the torso/hips to generate
propulsion. A swimmer who is not connected is not using power efficiently.
Balance. An action/reaction relationship in swimming. Like a see-saw, when one side goes up, the other side
goes down. Loss of balance can be used to describe what happens when a swimmer lifts the head to breathe and
an arm presses down on the water to counteract that action. Or, if a swimmer over-rotates the shoulders versus
the hips to breathe, there may be a wide scissor-like kick to balance the twisting of the upper body. Typically, if
swimmers hold their lines, they won’t have balance issues.
Tone. Also referred to as tension or stiffness and related to body line and connectivity. If there is minimal
tone/tension/stiffness in the body the swimmer will probably not have a good body line or be well-connected.
Having good tone is about having a tight core (locked together upper and lower body) and applying full body-
based force to the water during propulsive phases.
Anchor. The establishment of a solid/stable catch position as the swimmer applies leverage through the core to
propel the body towards and then past the anchor position. (The arm can never be completely anchored in the
water and won’t stay completely in one place, but the term is a great visual and descriptive term that negates the
use of the term pull.)
Part 2: Freestyle
Topic Questions:
1. What are the essential freestyle skills?
2. What is the freestyle skill teaching progression?
3. What are some effective freestyle drills?
Freestyle is the primary training stroke used by swimmers. It is the first stroke a coach should teach and emphasize with
novice swimmers. Strong quality kicking is essential in the ability to swim freestyle and perfect the arm stroke mechanics.
The Essential Skills

The essential skills in freestyle include:
Kicking
Body position and alignment
Ability to hold the head steady
Roll to breathe, keep head low
Controlled and relaxed recovery, high elbows
No splash entry
Anchoring the hand and forearm in the water, fingers down
Distance per stroke
Acceleration
Skill Teaching Progression

Good freestyle technique begins with strong kicking and an emphasis on both the streamlined position and the side glide
position. Emphasize that freestylers swim by switching from side to side rather than by lying on the front.
Kicking: with a board, without a board, head down streamlined
Side glide
Side glide with switching sides
Three strokes to side glide
Perfect stroke without breathing; with breathing
Drills
Sculling
Side glide and side glide with switching
Zipper drill or fingertip drag drill
Catch-up
Key Phrases
Fast feet
Splash equals slow
Extend, rotate, breathe - together
Extend arm forward
Fingers down
Elbow up
Thumb your thigh
Freestyle Teaching Questions and Answers

The back of your head is……. in line with the spine
Eyes look…….down
Splash equals…..slow
Swim freestyle on your…….side
How much rotation?...About 40 degrees to each side Shoulder should never go directly below the face.
What part of your hand goes in the water first?.......index and middle fingers
Where does your hand go in the water?........In front of your shoulder with the elbow high
What is putting your arm in the water like?......putting it through a hole
What is the first thing your hand does?......reach / extend forward
What is the first part of the pull?.....fingers down, elbows up, palm/forearm facing back
What is the second part of the stroke? …….Hand pulls straight back, along the line of the shoulder and side of the
body. Maintain hand/forearm facing back. Elbow remains high.
What is the last part of the stroke?.....Accelerate through the finish until you thumb your thigh, lift your elbow high
How do you recover?.....Touch your thigh, elbow high; hand below your elbow
How do you describe your handing speed through the water?.....it accelerates
What should the breath be like? ....Keep head low and in line with spine. Keep one goggle in the water and
breathe in the pocket.
When do you breathe? ......Turn your head while your hand is entering the water. Turn the head back quickly
(before the other arm enters).
Biggest mistakes on breath? .... (1) Rotating too much (2) Breathing and turning the head back too late.
Your feet are……fast feet
What is the kick like?......a whip
Describe the kick? Up straight, snap down
For specific drills, see Chapter 5 of the Foundations of Coaching DVD.
Part 3: Backstroke
Topic Questions:
1. What are the essential backstroke skills?
2. What is the backstroke skill teaching progression?
3. What are some effective backstroke drills?
Backstroke is the companion stroke to freestyle and should be the second stroke taught, often simultaneously to freestyle.
Both are considered long axis strokes because the entire body moves on the same axis. Many of the same principles
apply to both strokes. Strong quality kicking is essential in the ability to swim backstroke and to perfect the arm stroke
mechanics. Note that roll and rotate are used interchangeably. Young children more readily understand the concept of
“rolling the body” and need to be taught the concept of “body rotation.”

Kicking
Body position and alignment
Steady head
Rolling/rotating the body
Alternating arms in steady rhythm
No splash entry
Anchoring the hands in the water
Good underwater catch with deep arms, up and over recovering
Acceleration

Like freestyle, good backstroke technique begins with strong kicking and an emphasis on both the streamlined position
and the side glide position. Emphasize that backstrokers swim by switching from side to side rather than by lying on the
back.
Streamline kicking
Streamline kicking to one arm pull and side glide
Streamlining kicking to one arm pull, side glide and switch sides, adding cycles
Drills
Kicking, one arm overhead, one arm at side
Kicking, streamlined with or without a board
Side glide and side kicking
Streamline kicking to one arm pull to side glide and switch sides
One arm backstroke
Key Phrases
Splash equals slow
Freestyle and backstroke are the same stroke
Palm always facing towards feet
Fingers pointing towards the side of the pool
Deep and straight
Bend elbow early when hand is about 12-18 inches under water
Deep, up and over
Don’t push the hands down
Roll/rotate the hips, shoulders follow
Follow through on the finish
Steady head
Backstroke Teaching Questions and Answers
Where do your hands go in the water?....with the arms straight at 11 o’clock and 1 o’clock
What part of your hand goes in the water first?...little finger
Where are your fingers pointing on the entry?....Out
After the entry, what do you do?……roll to complete the body rotation, catch deep with a bent elbow
The first part of the stroke is……deep and straight.
The catch is……..with a bent elbow
How deep? ……about 12-18 inches underwater.
Palm and forearm face…… towards the feet.
What is the second part of the stroke?....Pull straight through. Maintain palm and forearm pushing directly back
towards feet.
Where does your hand finish the stroke?....to the side, deeper than the hips
What part of the hand recovers first?....the thumb
The speed of the hand through the stroke is…..accelerated from s-l-o-w to fast
What helps the body to roll?...a strong follow-through on the finish
What causes overreaching or entering with the back of the hand? .....Not using the finish to roll the hip
What do your shoulders and hips do?.....roll and rotate (about 30-40 degrees)
What does your head do?......stays steady
Where are your ears?.....at water level
What is the kick like?......like kicking a ball on the surface of the water
Where are your eyes looking?.......up and slightly back
Part 4: Breaststroke
Topic Questions:
1. What are the essential breaststroke skills?
2. What is the breaststroke skill teaching progression?
3. What are some effective breaststroke kick drills?
Body position and timing are crucial in breaststroke. Swimmers should be taught to return to the streamline position at the
conclusion of every stroke cycle. There are many style variations in breaststroke. It may be easier to teach a traditional
breaststroke style and then modify the stroke to fit the swimmer. Breaststroke is a short axis stroke because unlike
freestyle and backstroke, the entire body does not rotate on one long axis.

Timing: pull, kick, glide
Lean forward and “swim downhill”
A kick that pushes water back
Wide arm stroke
Late breath

Kicking on wall, kicking on back, kick on belly
Kick with/without a board: “breathe, kick, glide”
Kinesthetic teaching of arm stroke on pool deck
Full stroke emphasizing glide in streamline position
Drills
Sit on the side of the pool and kick “up to the wall, toes out, push back together”
Kick on back with/without board
Kick on belly with/without board/face in “breath, kick, glide”
Kick on front, hands down, touch heels to hands “up, kick, dive”
Sculling while sitting on kickboard
Foam “noodles” in the arm pits
Key Phrases
Whole stroke: (1) Scull out (2) Pull towards the body, breathe (3) Recover arms, set-up kick (4) Extend arms, kick
back (5) Stretch
Pull, kick, glide
The kick: Heels up, toes out, push back
Breathe late, at end of insweep of hands
Hips at surface
Breaststroke Teaching Questions and Answers

What is the goal of breaststroke? ....to maintain forward speed at all times
Where do swimmers lose speed? ....At the peak of the breath by going too high and getting too vertical.
Where do the hands begin the stroke?......arms extended, below the surface
What begins the stroke?.....little finger turns up
Where does the first part of your stroke go?....Out
How wide do you go?....way outside your shoulders
Then what? ....Hands “turn the corner.” (Rotate so that the hand/forearm face towards the chest.)
Where do you hands point on the sweep in? ....Inward and towards the feet.
Where do the hands finish the in-sweep?.....In front of the chest, below the neck
The hands recover………fast. Push forward with the elbows.
When do you breath? ......Late, at the end of the insweep of the hands. (When your hands and elbows are under
the chin.)
Where is your head during the stroke? ......in line with the spine, looking slightly downward.
How do you kick? ..... heels up, toes point out, kick straight back.
What is the timing of the kick…..start the kick with the arm recovery, kick back when arms are extended.
Part 5: Butterfly
Topic Questions:
1. What are the essential butterfly skills?
2. What is the butterfly skill teaching progression?
3. What are some effective butterfly drills?
As in breaststroke, body position and timing are crucial in the butterfly. Butterfly and breaststroke are referred to as short
axis strokes because of the varying body movement of the upper half versus the lower half of the body; the body is not
moving on one long axis as in freestyle and backstroke. Butterfly is a rhythm stroke with the rhythm driven by the body
position. The body rolls through the water by moving the chest down and hips up, then chest up and hips down.

Kicking
Timing
Low splash entry
Body position

One pull and “dive” or press. (The downward chest press brings the hips up and creates the kick. Young
swimmers may not understand the concept of “chest press” and will more readily understand “diving” slightly
underwater.) “Hands go in, hips go up” is a visual concept for teaching.
All types of dolphin kicking (with a board, streamlined without a board, under water)
Pull and kick, then kick again (kick when hands leave the water, kick when hands enter the water.)
Drills
One arm fly
3 kicks per stroke; dive under and streamline
Right arm, left arm, both arms
Key Phrases
Drive forward on entry and extension
Kick in, kick out: arm entry kick and arm exit kick
Hands go in, hips go up
Press down with chin and chest
Stretch out, look at the bottom
Breathe low
Controlled and relaxed recovery
Back of the head in line with the spine. Don’t lift to breathe.
Butterfly Teaching Questions and Answers

Where do the hands go in the water?.....in front of the shoulders
Where are the elbows?......up
What part of the hand goes in the water first?.....first two fingers
What are three things you do when your hands enter the water?....stretch out, chest down, hips up
How much should a swimmer press down with the chest? ....Enough so that the hips come up and to help the
arms drive forward.
Describe the first part of the pull……..fingers down, elbows stay up, hand/forearm face back
Describe the second part of the stroke……hands travel inward to meet under the chest, elbows up
What happens on the third part of the stroke?....hands sweep out fast
What part of your hand comes out of the water first?.....little finger
When do you breathe?.....Head comes out when arms are under chest, head comes back in just before the arms
enter
What should the breath be like? ..... Low to the water. Breathe forward, head in line with spine. Don’t lift head up
too much or arch the back to breathe.
Where do the eyes look when you breathe? …….forward and down
When your arms extend forward, where do you hips go?.....up
When do you kick?.....kick when your hands enter, kick when your hands leave; entry kick, exit kick
Is one kick bigger than another? ....No, they are both strong
How do you recover?......arms straight, bend when even with the shoulders
Part 6: Starts
Topic Questions:
1. What are the progressions for teaching forward starts, backstroke starts and relays starts?
2. What are the safety issues that must be addressed?
Following are some considerations and instructional hints for teaching racing starts to young and/or inexperienced
swimmers. Safety is a major concern when teaching starts, especially head first entries. Be sure to tell swimmers of the
potential dangers and that they can get hurt doing the start incorrectly or fooling around on the starting blocks. Follow
teaching progressions recommended in Safety Training for Swim Coaches and ensure that swimmers can execute a
shallow head first entry before attempting to teach racing starts. Be aware that USA Swimming rules mandate minimum
water depths for both teaching racing starts and for using starting blocks in competition. Have all swimmers first
demonstrate the ability to do shallow head first entries into deep water. If swimmers are fearful or unable to complete a
shallow head first entry, teach or review the process. Refer to The American Red Cross Safety Training for Swim
Coaches supplement, pages 12, 13 and 14 for teaching progressions. Backstroke starts can also involve danger in that
the swimmers are moving backwards and cannot see what is behind them. Do not allow swimmers to practice any racing
starts unsupervised. Use caution when practicing movements on a wet pool deck which may be slippery.
Forward Start (Freestyle, Breaststroke and Butterfly)

Description
Swimmers can use either a grab start with two feet forward or a track start with one foot back. Dependent upon their age
and development, swimmers may feel better balance in the track start.
Strong leg back, toes straight ahead
Other leg forward, toes over the edge
Hands grab block on each side of front leg, thumbs forward
Look down or slightly back
Forward knee over the toes, hips over the heels
Lean forward
Actions
Pull down for an instant
Head and arms thrown forward
Drive with the legs
Perform a shallow dive
Mistakes
Leaning back excessively
Head too far up or too far down. (Keep head in neutral position after leaving block)
Hands or head thrown too high
No leg push
Breaking at the hips or executing a start in the pike position
Progression
Swing jumps on deck
Swing jumps from the deck into deep water
Swing jumps from the blocks into deep water
Swing dives from the blocks into deep water
Coaching
Safety warnings
Awareness of water depth with appropriate warnings and instruction
Remind swimmers to execute a shallow dive
Stand next to the block
Check start position and make adjustments
Ask “what goes out?” (hands and head)
Ask “how do you enter the water?” (shallow)
Note
Teaching dolphin kick off of the forward start may not be appropriate for young or inexperienced swimmers. There
is a documented tendency for young or inexperienced swimmers to hit the knees or toes on the pool bottom in
shallower water
Backstroke Start
Very young swimmers often cannot reach the handles on the starting blocks intended for backstroke starts. Teach them to
start by gripping the gutter.
Description
Strong foot slightly lower than the other foot
Feet shoulder width apart
Bring head toward the wall, not up, but in
Hips point down the pool, not next to the heels
Knees at 90 degrees
Arms bent, head down
Action
Hands, head, legs, in that order
Arms throw out and around
Head goes back
Legs drive
Mistakes
Pushing legs first
Head too far back
Going too deep
Hands thrown straight over head
Slipping caused by pulling up too high or improper foot placement
Progression
Quarter squat jumps on dry or non-slippery deck
Arm throw on dry or non-slippery deck
Off the ladder in the deep end
Coaching
Safety warnings
Awareness of water depth with appropriate warnings and instruction
Stand next to the block
Check start position and make necessary adjustments
“Push your belly to the sky”
Relay Starts
Swimmers love relays, both in practice and in meets. Teach them right away to do correct relay starts. “Step” relay starts
are probably not appropriate for young and/or inexperienced swimmers.
Position
Feet are shoulder width apart, toes over the edge
The back is parallel with the water surface
Arms outstretched at about 45 degrees
Knees slightly bent
Action
Arms lift, head drops and the body begins “falling”
Arms swing up, back and around (in a clockwise movement) and coordinate with a leg drive as they swing
through and forward
Progression
Stand on deck, hands out front at 90 degrees to torso
Move arms up and around
Swing and jump
Swing and jump from side of the pool
Swing and dive
Coaching
Teach safety. Be sure of headfirst entry skills and racing start skills before teaching relay starts
Practice the movements first without having a swimmer in the water
Stand beside block and check body position
Ask for key words: swing, dive
Once the swimmer can perform the movements, have the swimmer do the skill with a swimmer in the water
approaching the wall.
Remind the swimmer in the water to stay low until the swimmer leaving the blocks has completed the entry
Practicing without blocks is potentially dangerous. The swimmer in the water must stay low in the water and could
be advised to stay on one side of the lane until the swimmer executing the start has completed the entry.
Part 7: Turns
Topic Questions:
1. What are the common aspects of all turns?
2. What are some drills to teach and improve turning and push-off techniques?
Push-offs
Before teaching turns, teach the swimmers how to do push-offs. Every turn is followed by a push-off in the streamlined
body position. Practice push-offs and insist on correct push-offs at all times during practice.
Position
One hand on the gutter, one hand pointing to the other end of the pool
Feet on the wall, toes and knees pointing up at 45 degree angle
Key words: sink, touch, push
Action
Hand comes off the wall as the body sinks, staying on the side, head up
Hands touch, legs push, keeping body on the side
Key words: streamline, kick, swim
Freestyle Turns
Be sure that swimmers have learned to push-off on their sides. Practice the approach to the wall emphasizing strong
kicking and swimming into the wall without taking a breath. A good drill is mid pool turns where the swimmers practice the
approach and turning action without the use of the wall.
Progression
Approach only
Approach, tuck and turn
Approach, tuck, turn and push off on back
Backstroke Turns
Having learned a freestyle turn, swimmers can progress to a backstroke turn. The turning mechanics are the same. The
swimmers must know when to roll to the back to initiate the turn. Have them count their strokes from the flags to the wall,
then subtract one stroke. For example if they take four strokes from the flags to the wall, to initiate the turn they would
take three strokes and make the fourth stroke a stroke across the body which turns the body onto the breast. Swimmers
love to practice swimming corkscrew to learn the roll from the back to the breast.
Freestyle and Backstroke Turn Questions:

Where do you finish your swimming?.....before the T
Where are your hands when you approach the wall?....by the hips, palms down
What begins the turn?....a dolphin kick
What do you do with your head?.....tuck tight
Where does your head go?....to your hands
Where do your feet hit the wall?....about a foot deep
Where are your toes pointing when they hit the wall?.....about a 45 degree angle from straight up
Where are your toes pointing when you push off the wall?....same place, 45 degree angle from straight up
What is pushing off the wall like?....jumping off a trampoline
Where are you looking when you push off the wall?....slightly to the side
After the feet leave the wall, what do you do?....streamline, kick swim
What hand do you pull with first?....the deep arm
Breaststroke and Butterfly Turns

The basic motion of both turns is rotating back, not around. Be sure to review push-offs and the push-off position and
emphasize pushing off on the side. Have swimmers practice the touching and turning technique against a wall or
fence prior to practicing the skill in the water. Then, practice holding on to the side of the pool kicking. Go through the
2-1-0-blast-off sequence (see below.)
Breaststroke and Butterfly Turn Questions
Do we touch with short arms or long arms?.....long arms
How do we touch the wall?....fingers at water level, shoulders even
What three things happen after the touch?......head back, elbow to the side, tuck toward the wall
What happens first?.....They all happen at the same time
Where is the head looking?.....up
What is the countdown?.....2-1-0-Blast-off
What is the 2?....two hands on the wall
What is the 1?.....one hand on the wall
What is the zero?.....nothing on the wall
What is the blast-off?....feet kick the wall away
Where are the toes pointing on the blast-off?.....up and slightly to the side
Push off on your…….side
Breaststroke Pullout Training Drills

The timing of breaststroke pullouts can be taught through counting 3-2-1. Streamline and count to 3, pull down past the
hips and count to 2, then recover and streamline for a one count before initiating the stroke. Young children (and older
ones too) like to “count large animals.” Streamline and count “1 elephant, 2 elephants, 3 elephants,” then pull down past
the hips and count “1 elephant, two elephants,” recover the arms and count “1 elephant” and then begin the stroke.
Practice drills include double pullouts after a turn, pullouts to a cone placed on the bottom and pullout contests.
Note that a single dolphin kick is now a legal part of the breaststroke pullout. The kick is part of the pull-down sequence,
not a separate motion. The pull-down thus becomes similar to a butterfly stroke.
Butterfly Push-off and Breakouts

Teach swimmers to push-off on their sides in the streamline position and use underwater dolphin kicks to rotate the body
onto the breast before beginning the arm stroke. Practice increasing the distance and adjusting the depth and alignment
of the body kicking through hoops, kicking to a cone placed on the bottom or kicking underwater across the pool. Young
swimmers will get a better feel for the kicking motion by kicking with fins.
Chapter 6: Physical Conditioning
Table of Contents
Part 1: Basic Physiology

o Generation of energy through metabolism
o The metabolic pathways
o Applying aerobic training
o Continuous training
o Interval training
 The acronym DIRT
Part 2: Season Planning
o Periodization
o Structuring the season
 Macrocycles
 Mesocycles
 Microcycles
 Rest and taper
o Principles of training
o Additional training considerations
o Buy-in from athletes and parents
Part 3: Energy Zones
o Understanding energy zones
o The energy zone charts
 4 Energy Zones
 7 Energy Zones
Part 4: Planning Novice and Age Group Practices
o Defining groups
o Planning for a safe and disciplined environment
o Novice practices
 Basic components
 Examples of a basic practice plan (charts)
 Kick sets
 Racing
o Age group practices
 Basic components
o Working with multiple groups
Part 5: Planning Senior Level Practice Sessions
o Considerations for senior swimmers
o Building training sets for senior swimmers
o Incorporating dryland training
Part 6: Fueling for Performance
o The basic nutrients
o Nutrition for recovery
o Nutrition for competition (chart)
Chapter 6 : Physical Conditioning Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
o Educating parents about nutrition
Part 7: Keys to Hydration
o During workout
o After workout
o Fluid replacement tips
Part 8: Disordered Eating
o Definitions of disordered eating and eating disorders
o Warning signs of disordered eating
o The role of the coach
Part 9: Advocating for Drug-free Sport
o Dietary supplements
o Energy drinks
o Doping control
Chapter 6 : Physical Conditioning Page 2 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
Part 1: Basic Physiology
Topic Questions:
1. What is the relationship between exercise intensity and duration of exercise?
2. Why is the aerobic pathway the primary source of energy production for swimmers?
3. Why is it incorrect to associate aerobic training only with long slow swimming?
4. What is the difference between continuous training and interval training?
5. What is meant by the acronym DIRT?
Generation of Energy through Metabolism

Metabolism is the ongoing interrelated series of chemical interactions taking place in the body that provide the energy and
nutrients needed to sustain life. Physical work, like swimming, places increased energy demands on the body. The body
must generate energy through pathways that break down fuel stores. Dietary consumption of fats, carbohydrates and
proteins provide the building blocks for stored fuels within the body. The breakdown of the fuel stores occurs in the
skeletal muscle cells and is responsive to the energy demands. Exercise training or performance can be classified in
relation to both the intensity and duration of the activity. These two components are critical in generating the energy
demand.
An inverse relationship exists between exercise intensity and duration. This means that when the intensity is high the
activity can only last a short period of time. On the opposite end, when duration is long the intensity that can be
maintained is relatively low.
Metabolic Pathways
Swimming is dependent upon the constant generation of energy by the skeletal muscles. Without energy the athlete is
unable to move in the water. Energy can be generated within the body through three pathways: the ATP-CP, anaerobic
glycolysis, and aerobic pathways.
ATP-CP Pathways
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) are stored in the muscle and serve as immediate
energy reservoirs. These energy stores can be utilized very rapidly but are limited in supply. This source of
energy production can maintain activity for approximately 10 seconds. After this point another source of energy
production must contribute for muscular contraction to continue. The ATP-CP pathway is used when energy
demand is high—in short bouts of activity and at the start of exercise. There are no actual borders between the
energy systems. After 10 seconds of work, the ATP-CP system may still be involved, but its contribution will be
diminished.
Anaerobic Glycolysis Pathways

Muscle glycogen is another source for energy production in the muscle that can be maintained for longer periods
of time. If the energy demand is relatively high, the muscle breaks down glycogen through anaerobic pathways.
There are several by-products or metabolites produced during the breakdown of glycogen including inorganic
phosphate, hydrogen ions, creatinine and lactic acid or lactate. Lactate has actually been shown to be useful in
that it is converted back to energy sources. However, some of the metabolites accumulate in the muscles
affecting muscle contraction and future energy production. The glycolytic pathway can produce relatively high
amounts of energy for up to about two minutes. If continued work is necessary, energy must be generated by the
aerobic pathways.
Aerobic Pathways
When the activity lasts longer than a minute and a half to two minutes, the aerobic pathways are used. Because
the metabolic pathways are interconnected, the aerobic pathways are also used for activities shorter than one
minute, but the contribution is very small. Aerobic pathways use oxygen in the process of generating energy.
Energy production can be maintained for long periods of time with this system, but the intensity of the work must
be reduced.
Chapter 6: Physical Conditioning Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.
The energy demand (how much and how long energy is needed) will determine the primary source of energy delivery.
These pathways are interconnected to produce a constant supply of the energy the body needs for various demands and
tasks. Note that intensity of exercise and duration are inversely related, meaning that highly intense work can be
maintained only for short periods of time. On the other hand, low-intensity work can be performed for long periods of time.
Practical Implications for Coaches

Young athletes need a progressive program of aerobic training. They will respond to this style of training over time. Both
anecdotal and scientific evidence supports the benefits of a strong aerobic base in both children and adults. Research on
sensitive periods of development indicates that the aerobic system can be developed the most during the prepubescent
and pubescent states of development. Many world-class sprinters trained and successfully swam distance events early in
their careers. An aerobic base must be pursued early in the swimmer’s career and it should be maintained throughout his
or her entire career. In fact, studies indicate that the contribution of the aerobic system is quite high in sprint events.
Quantity and quality are not polar opposites when used to describe aerobic training. Terms that are more appropriate are
volume/duration and intensity. The use of appropriate volume/duration and intensity in a progressive manner during a
training cycle allows for maximization of the training load. The term aerobic is often incorrectly associated with slow, easy
swimming. Aerobic intensities range from very easy to very intense. A swimmer’s aerobic potential can be developed by
exposing the swimmer to practices that are progressively longer in duration at a relatively low intensity. Repeat distances
for very young athletes may consist only of 25 yard swims with the focus on good technique maintained throughout the
swims while older, experienced athletes might complete a 3,000 meter swim for time. Few athletes would consider this as
an easy practice. Therefore, it is very important to remember that aerobic training is not merely slow swimming for hours.
Continuous Training and Interval Training

Straight swimming without a rest interval is considered continuous training. Continuous training is pursued in two general
types—slow-paced and fast-paced. In most swimming programs, continuous training is used for warm-up or cool-down
periods. The T30, or 3,000 for time swim would be other examples of continuous training.
Interval training consists of periods of work followed by rest intervals. Interval training design comprises four primary
components. Depending on the manner in which these four components are manipulated, aerobic or anaerobic pathways
will be primarily taxed by the set. The four components of interval training design can be referenced using the acronym
DIRT:
D = the Distance of the swim, which also includes the number of swims in the set
I = the Interval of the swim, which is determined by the time of the swim plus the rest
R = the amount of Rest between swims, determined by the interval and how fast the swimmers complete each swim
T = the Time for each swim
Applying the DIRT acronym to the set 10 X 100 @ 1:30:
D = the Distance which is 1,000 yards or meters (10 x 100)
I = the Interval which is 1:30 per 100
R = the Rest which is the time between the end of the swim and the beginning of the next swim. If the swimmer does
1:20 per 100, the rest is 10 seconds
T = the Time for each swim. How fast is the swimmer completing each repeat? This time should be guided by the coach.
Is the swimmer going as fast as possible on each swim? Trying to maintain a certain pace throughout the swim? Trying
to go faster on each swim?
Put together, the elements of the DIRT acronym determine the INTENSITY of the set. It is the responsibility of the coach to
design the intensity of the set by indicating not only the length and intervals but how fast the swimmers are expected to swim.
Design of practices and specific set design based on continuous or interval training will be discussed in a later section.
Part 2: Season Planning
Topic Questions:
1. How does a coach plan or breakdown the season in macrocyles, mesocycles, microcycles and taper time?
2. Why must a coach apply the principles of overload and progression to training planning?
3. What are some additional considerations when planning a season?
4. Why is it a good idea to share appropriate aspects of the season plan with athletes and parents?
Periodization
The success of the swim season begins with planning. Whether a coach works with novice, age group or senior level
swimmers, the coach must plan the season with the desired end results in mind. With the end in mind, the coach must
decide and plan how to get there. Periodization is the process of varying a training program at regular time periods to
bring about optimal gains in physical performance. Periodizing an exercise program aims to optimize training during short
(weeks, months) as well as long periods of time (years, a life time, or an athletic career). The goal of periodization is to be
able to achieve peak performance at a particular time, such as for a major competition.
Structuring the Season

Macrocycles
A season or a year-long plan is called a macrocycle. Determine the date of the key competition where a peak
performance is desired. The season could be a year in length, six months in length or as with some high school
seasons, only 10 weeks in length. The coach’s philosophy and the swim schedule in the area both help to
determine the length of the season and the culminating competition.
Rest/Taper
Determine the amount of rest or taper time needed to achieve optimum performance. The decision will be based
on the age, experience, body size, amount of training and other related factors. Younger, weaker, less trained
swimmers may require little or no taper. They perform well by keeping their skills sharp and their techniques
refined while continuing with their normal practice routine. With a good night’s sleep, they are ready to go! Older
and bigger senior level swimmers will require a longer taper period to race effectively at the end of a season of
training. The taper phase will range from 7 days up to several weeks. Subtract the time that has been planned for
the taper phase to determine the time available for actual training. With a 10 week season, a coach cannot plan to
taper for three weeks!
Mesocycles
Training periods of approximately six-weeks are called mesocycles. Look at the remaining time and calculate
training blocks based on six-week periods. An effective training period allows a swimmer to benefit from
adaptations of the body that are a result of training. As a general rule of thumb, the body will need roughly six
weeks to make significant physical and chemical changes in its ability to provide energy to the muscles. While
mesocycles may last from four to eight weeks, six weeks is a good average number to use when planning. A
three-month season, September through November and part of December, allows for a two block period of time
plus a short taper. In planning a long course season of April to August, there is a total of 16-18 weeks for training
and a taper which would give the coach almost three full six week training blocks. On the other hand, the typical
high school season has only one six-week block and perhaps a second partial training block before taper time.
This does not allow much time to stimulate significant changes in the body. Keep in mind that there are no real
boundaries or borders between blocks or cycles. All changes of training emphasis should be gradual.
Microcycles
Microcycles are generally weeklong training periods, but can range from 4-10 days in length. Determine what the
training emphasis will be in each training block. After looking at the training blocks, a decision must be made
regarding what type of training will be emphasized in each block. This does not mean that ONLY one specific type
of work will be done; however, this will be the training emphasis during that training block. Plan each week’s
emphasis, then plan what will be emphasized each day, each practice. Don’t forget to plan rest and recovery into
the schedule.
Principles of Training
Overload Principle. The training stimulus must provide a greater workload than the swimmer has experienced
before. The body will make initial adaptations but if the workload is always the same adaptation and improvement
will stop. Overload can be achieved by manipulating the components of DIRT:
o D = Distance. How far? How many?
o I = Interval. How intense? How hard?
o R = Rest. How much?
o T = Time. How fast?
Progression Principle. The overload must be increased progressively. Sudden, radical increases in workload
may result in inappropriate adaptation or injury.
Individual Difference Principle. Individuals will respond differently to training. Even though training may be
planned for the entire team or group, consider and track individual differences and responses. Individuals may
also respond differently to the same training load during different seasons.
Specificity Principle. The muscles and movement patterns involved in the training sessions will be the ones
stimulated to adapt. Train speed and speed will improve. Train endurance and endurance will improve.
Reversibility Principle. If a type of training is neglected for a period, its benefits can decline or reverse. Thus, a
certain amount of maintenance work must be done to retain the benefits from all types of training.
Recovery Principle. Research shows that actual adaptation takes places during recovery. Appropriate recovery
needs to be built into the training plan so athletes can benefit from and adapt to the work done in pool.
Determining appropriate recovery is dependent on the ability and training level of the athlete.
Additional Considerations
Long Term Training. The best improvements result from a multi-year approach to physical improvement and
development. Short-term or seasonal training may bring immediate positive results, but may limit the ultimate
potential of the swimmer. A club should have a long term training progression plan.
Adaptation and Stress. Typically the body will adapt positively to a stress placed on it if the stress is applied
gradually. The body will break down and fail to respond if the stress is applied too radically. Remember that
stress, for an athlete, can come from many sources other than training. School, family, peers, nutrition and sleep
patterns are common sources of added stress.
Background of the Athletes. The age, experience and training backgrounds of the athletes will provide
information about where to start their training program. Are the swimmers novice level 12 and younger or
experienced 15 and older athletes? When in doubt, begin with a less challenging practice and adjust accordingly.
Variety. Mixed forms of training in every practice ensure that athletes receive varied and appropriate training
stimuli.
Emphasis. In the overall long term development of the swimmer concentrate first on skill and technique
development and then on aerobic development.
Buy-in from Athletes and Parents

Sharing appropriate aspects of the season plan with athletes and parents can increase support and understanding.
Parents will want to know the overall plan and emphasis. They should understand that the emphasis is on skill, technique
and athletic fitness rather than speed with their 10 year olds. Parents of older athletes should understand that the
swimmers may “train through” some meets while focusing on peak performance at other times. For young children it is
enough that they understand “we practice so that we can succeed in races.” Older swimmers will benefit from knowing
and understanding the focus of the season, i.e. the key meets. They can understand training cycles, training emphasis
and yardage goals. Knowing the plans and emphasis can help then get through the toughest parts of the season while
focusing on their peak performance goals.
Part 3: Energy Zones
Topic Questions:
1. Why is it important to understand energy zones in the process of training athletes?
2. What are the four/seven basic energy zones?
Understanding Energy Zones

Metabolism is the process of storing and releasing the energy. (See Part 1: Basic Physiology.) Energy for the body is
stored in different forms. Various metabolic pathways are used to convert these forms into accessible energy that an
athlete can use to perform work. There are no "borders" to energy pathways in a body. At any given time, several
pathways, not just one, may be engaged in energy production but dominance of an energy source depends on the
duration and intensity of the exercise. Usually workload is broken into several energy "zones" based on the duration and
intensity of the training. Energy "zones" allow athletes and coaches to develop a specific pathway of energy recycling and
to quantify, track, and plan the physiological adaptations desired.
There are several reasons for understanding energy zones in swimming:
Swimming sets of different duration and intensity are supported by energy from different sources. During high
intensity short-term swimming bouts, most energy is recycled through the anaerobic pathway. During low intensity
long-term swimming bouts the energy is recycled aerobically using oxygen.
Different swimming events require the training of different energy pathways.
Pre-pubescent athletes show significant improvements in long duration, low intensity events and are able to
enhance the utilization of their aerobic capacity. Higher aerobic work during this time also results in increased
performance across all distances not just longer distances. A gradual increase in the proportion of anaerobic work
beginning at ages 12-14 for girls and 13-15 for boys maximizes development and enhances performance, but
only if preceded by ample aerobic work. (See Growth and Development, Part 2.)
The same swimming set can be swum in different energy zones. For example, swimmers can swim sets with
higher or lower intensities. One of the keys in determining intensity is work to rest ratio. Another is time or speed.
Different pathways of energy recycling will be recruited.
Adaptation in athletes to the same swimming intensity depends on their current condition, types of muscle fibers,
training history and other factors. Therefore it is important to test athletes during a season and select appropriate
swimming intensities to train different energy zones.
Energy Zone Charts

USA Swimming recommends the use of a simplified 4 category system of energy zones or a more complex 7 category
system. The following charts give introductory coaches an easier starting point, and allow them to increase the number of
categories when they are comfortable within the basic system. The sets shown as for “Senior Age Group Swimmers” refer
to experienced, teenaged swimmers.
Part 4: Planning Novice and Age Group Practices
Topic Questions:
1. How can disciplinary problems be minimized?
2. What are the basic components of an age group practice?
3. What are the basic components of a novice practice?
4. Why should a coach emphasize kicking and racing in a novice practice?
5. What are the more advanced practice elements to introduce to age group swimmers?
Definition
Although there is no universally accepted definition, we are defining age group swimmers as aged 9 through 12 (and quite
possibly up to age 14 depending on the situation) and having the skills to swim in USA Swimming or similar competition.
We define novice swimmers as generally aged 12 and under and still developing stroke and turn skills as well as learning
how to complete a workout. (Swimmers aged 8 and under are yet another group and where staff and pool space allow
these young swimmers should have the opportunity to practice together as a separate group regardless of their ability or
experience.) Novice swimmers aged 13 and over have more developed cognitive, conceptual and social abilities and
should not be practicing in the same group as much younger novices. Where possible they should have their own group
or be integrated into a group of swimmers of similar age. See Chapter 3 Part 3: Organizing the Wet Side for more on
Training Group design.
Planning
Planning age group and novice practices is no less important than planning for senior workouts. While age group and
novice swimmers do not need the work buildup followed by rest cycles of senior swimmers, they do need to have “points
of focus” for keeping their attention and for systematically preparing them for the next level. Plans should be written and
based on larger goals for the group. What is the goal for the group? How do daily and weekly practice routines bring the
group closer to its goals?
Organizing a Safe and Disciplined Practice Environment

Safety, fun, teaching and racing are the priorities. These elements are much more important for the novice group and
young age groupers than training. Parents expect that their children will be in a safe environment. To achieve this, provide
both structure and discipline. Lack of structure leads to increased disciplinary problems and wasted time. Have clearly
stated rules that are enforced consistently. Make use of time-outs for disciplinary problems. Keep the activities fresh, keep
the swimmers moving and, especially for the boys, provide opportunity to race and compete during each practice. Control
the size of the area being used so that the swimmers are not too spread out. Divide them into heats or groups and
remember that young children do not instinctively understand send-offs, who should go first or how to organize
themselves. The coach must teach them. Refer to Chapter 3: Organizing the Wet Side for additional information.
Novice Practices
Many coaches are used to designing sets or thinking about yardage as the primary goal. But novice swimmers are not just
miniature seniors. They have special needs and considerations. First of all, forget about making yardage the primary
objective. Begin with the end in mind, which is to get the swimmers ready for moving to the age group team and swim
meets. These considerations determine what to teach. The most basic elements to teach are:
1. Kicking: for strength and endurance
2. Body and head position: streamlining, underwater swimming, balance
3. Fundamental stroke skills: teach freestyle and backstroke first, then breaststroke and butterfly
4. Fundamental starting and turning skills
5. Racing: streamlining, controlled breathing, controlled pace, fast finish
6. Dryland skills: basic athleticism and core strength
7. Practice skills: pace clock, circle swimming etiquette
Example of a Basic Practice Plan for a Novice Practice Group
Here is a basic practice plan if you have 3 days a week for one hour each day in the pool. Dryland such as push-
ups or calisthenics can take place for 5-10 minutes either prior to or following pool time.
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

12 minutes Kick set Kick set Kick set
12 minutes Teach Teach Drill set
12 minutes Drill set Kick set Teach
12 minutes Kick set Teach Kick set
12 minutes Racing Relays Racing
Example of a Specific Lesson Plan for a Novice Practice Group
Here is a specific lesson plan sample based on the practice plan shown above.
Time Component Activity

6:00 Kick Set Freestyle kicking with board (widths)
6:12 Teach Backstroke streamline to one arm side glide to
switch; hold (widths)
6:24 Drill set Free streamline to one arm side glide to switch;
(widths)
6:36 Kick Set Backstroke kick with fins (widths)
6:48 Relays Freestyle relays (widths)
Kick Sets For Novice Swimmers

For novice and young age group swimmers, a kick set is an aerobic and strength building activity. Because
kicking strength is so fundamental, it is wise to start every day with a kick set. The swimmers will know what to
expect each day and it serves as both a warm-up and an aerobic set. In addition, even the most novice swimmers
can kick with a kickboard. As they become experienced, vary the exercise so that they do some of the work with
boards, some without, some with fins, some without. Kick sets can include many repeats of short distances
(widths, 25‟s or 50‟s) with short rest done in heats. Some examples of kick sets are:
o 5 x (50 free with board, 25 back no board, 25 fly no board) with 10 sec. rest between each kick
o 16 x 25: 4 x (2 free, 1 back, 1 breast) with 10 sec. rest
o 4 x 100 IM kick no boards with 20 sec. rest
Racing For Novice Swimmers

Most kids love to race. This is also a skill that they need to learn and practice. Teach racing by having the
swimmers go from a start to mid pool, widths, or 25‟s and 50‟s as skills progress. Allow plenty of rest, at least a
1:1 work rest ratio. This can easily be accomplished by having the swimmers race in two heats. One heat swims
while the other rests. Other skills to work on while teaching racing include controlled breathing patterns, fast
finishing, streamlined starts and finishing touches. Relays are also a great way to teach racing and incorporate
fun.
Age Group Practices

It is a good idea to plan, in writing, the progressions for workout sets, total yardage per week, and moving from a stroke
development oriented practice to aerobic development to racing development. While progressing, always maintain stroke
development, aerobic development and racing. With age groupers, work on everything, but shift the emphasis every 3 to 6
weeks for variety and to coincide with the meet schedule. Of the components listed below, the coach can determine the
relative importance of each component and how that importance may change during the season. Creating a general plan
based on those priorities then leads to a more specific weekly plan and finally to a detailed daily workout.
Basic Components of an Age Group Practice

With an age group practice, yardage is more important than with a novice group, but still does not have the importance
that it has with a senior group. Many coaches are used to designing sets or thinking about yardage as the primary goal.
Just as we mentioned with novice swimmers, age group swimmers are not miniature seniors. They continue to have
special needs and considerations, just as the novice group does. The primary goal is to get the swimmers ready for
moving to the senior group. By focusing on what it takes to develop age groupers into senior swimmers the coach creates
appropriate components of the workout. The most basic elements to teach are:
Progressive Aerobic Development. Begin to introduce aerobic sets of longer duration (approximately 15-20
minutes) on predetermined intervals. An example would be 5 x 200 free on 3:00 or 4 x 200 breaststroke on 4:00.
On these sets, work on stroke count or other skills that need to be emphasized. Turn the same sets into challenge
sets by reducing the intervals each week. It‟s fine to build up to 40 or 60 minute aerobic sets. Vary the distances,
strokes, and intensity to keep the sets interesting. Doing a set of 20 x 100 free on 1:20 or doing a 6000 yard
workout in 90 minutes are both laudable workout goals for an advanced age group team but they should not be
the singular and everyday focus of the age group workout. Getting to this level should be the result of reasonable
progressions over time while continuing to develop the other components listed below.
Kicking. Quality kicking should be incorporated every day. Kicking is the foundation of good stroke technique
and shouldn‟t be de-emphasized just because the swimmers have graduated from the novice group.
Long Quality Swims. Timed 400m, 500y, 800m, 1000y, 1500m and 1650y swims. Swimmers don‟t turn 13 and
suddenly and magically know how to swim a distance event. Teach them early.
Race Preparation. Learning how to race. Do 50‟s, broken 50‟s, broken 100‟s, and broken 200‟s on a 1:2 work-
rest ratio. It is not physiological training as much as “brain training.”
Sprinting. 25‟s or less on lots of rest. Let „em race!
Test Sets. On a regular basis incorporate some type of test to monitor improvements in aerobic ability and
workout ability.
Stroke, Start and Turn work. Not drills, but actual teaching. (Do drill work as part of aerobic development.)
Games and or Relays. Let them have some fun! Keep safety in mind.
Dryland Training. Young swimmers benefit greatly from calisthenics, body-weight exercises such as push-ups
and core body abdominal work. A program as short as 5 minutes up to 30 minutes is appropriate for age group
swimmers, depending on age and ability. Dryland can be incorporated either prior to or following pool time.
Working with Multiple Groups

A coach should always write a workout that challenges the best swimmers. However, with a large group of swimmers, this
may mean that some of the slower swimmers can become discouraged. So the challenge for the coach is meeting the
needs and challenging the swimmers of all levels.
Some coaches will use the “same but less” method in writing workouts where the sendoff interval stays the same but the
distance will vary. The top swimmers might be doing 10 x 100 on 1:30, a second group might be alternating 75‟s with
100‟s on 1:30, and a third group might be doing 10 x 75 on 1:30.
Another method is to write two or three or more separate and distinct workouts for each ability group on the age group
team. The down side of this is that it requires careful planning and excellent discipline. The upside is that workouts are
designed to be suited to each ability level. A recommendation for dealing with multiple distinct workouts is that to divide
the workout time into 15 or 20 minute blocks of time and design all sets to last 15 or 20 minutes so that each group begins
and ends at about the same time. The coach can then rotate from group to group at the end of the set. This requires that
one group can do a set on their own with the pace clock, while one coach works with one group and another coach works
with the third group.
Whichever method is chosen, remember that the goal is to meet the needs of swimmers of varying abilities within the
group.
Part 5: Planning Senior Level Practice Sessions
Topic Questions:
1. What are the important considerations when planning a senior practice session?
2. What are the basic elements of a practice session?
3. What are some ways to incorporate dryland training into the practice session?
4. What are the steps in designing an interval set?
5. How can you track athlete improvement or progress?
Definition
As stated earlier, it is hard to precisely define “senior” swimmer. In general, senior swimmers are high school aged and
are experienced in skills, training and competition. Often, talented and experienced 13 and 14 year olds not yet in high
school are included in the senior group. See Chapter 3 Part 3: Organizing the Wet Side for more on Training Group
design.
Important Considerations for Senior Swimmers

Daily practices are the most visible element of the training cycle. Each daily practice has its place in the micro (weekly),
meso (6 week) and macro (season) cycles. Daily practices must be planned before stepping onto the pool deck. Planning
begins by asking a few basic questions:
1. Where does this practice fit in the weekly cycle?
2. What is the main focus or objective of this practice?
3. What will be taught today?
4. What secondary objectives are there?
5. Are there any unusual distractions or obstacles to deal with today?
Remember, practices are a progression and a preparation. Everything that is done in practice should lead a swimmer on a
progression from training to competition. Progression also needs to occur within the training plan. Changes in practice
intensity, frequency, and volume should progress throughout the period of development over the course of a season, the
year and the entire career of the swimmer.
Following are some elements to be included or considered when designing senior practices.
Warm-up. To prepare the body for hard work, every practice should begin with a warm-up. The warm-up should include
activity to increase the heart rate and respiration rate, loosen the limbs and prepare psychologically. Some stretching on
land can precede the water warm-up. The duration of the water warm-up could be very short comprising only one set or
continuous swim or a bit longer with a few sets. The coach should control the pace and type of work done in the warm-
up.
Main Set. A main set can follow warm-up. This set should be the primary focus of the practice and require a higher level
of mental concentration and physical fatigue. It can be structured in many different ways but should always work toward
the goal(s) or focus of the practice and training cycle. For senior swimmers it should be at least 20-30 minutes in length.
Other Sets. Following the main set, recovery work, drill work or skill work could be incorporated.
Fun. Swimmers report that fun includes successful completion of challenging sets, interaction with teammates and
coaches and learning new skills. Depending on the age and focus of the athletes, games, relays and planned play could
be incorporated.
Cool-down. End every practice with some type of a cool-down period. The cool-down, such as slower swimming at
“recovery pace” will facilitate the repair of physiological stress resulting from the practice. Not only does the cool-down
aid in recovery from the current practice, but it also is vital in preparing the swimmer for the next practice.
Heart Rate. This is one of the most important factors in determining which energy system is being stimulated. Heart rate
is controlled mainly by the speed or velocity at which the distances are swum plus the amount of rest given.
Building a Set for Experienced Swimmers

Interval training is the most common form of training. Remember the acronym DIRT (Distance, Interval, Rest, Time). A
practice is designed based on using a number of training sets that involve time intervals as send-offs for given distances.
Set design is only limited by the imagination of the coach. Research has shown that intensity and work-to-rest ratio are
the most important components in determining the physiological adaptation that takes place. Following is the process of
designing a set. Use the charts shown in Part 3: Energy Zones.
1. Energy Zone. Decide what type of adaptation is desired as a result of the interval set. This adaptation will dictate
the intensity category. (First column on the Energy Zone Charts.)
2. Duration. Decide the duration of the set from within the recommended range. (Second and third columns on the
Energy Zone Charts.)
3. Repeat Distance. Pick an appropriate repeat distance within the recommended ranges. (See the last column on
the Energy Zone Charts for samples.)
4. Number of Repeats. Calculate the number of repeats that will give the desired total length of the set.
5. Rest Interval. Choose a rest interval within the recommended range (Fifth column on Energy Zone Chart.) The
rest interval should be selected with consideration of both the length of each repeat and the intensity of each
swim. Of these two factors, intensity should be given more weight in selecting the rest interval. For example, if the
repeat distance is at the low end of the range but intensity is in the middle of the range, select a rest interval
toward the middle of the recommended range. If an intensity at the upper end of the range is chosen, a longer
rest interval towards the upper end of its range would allow the swimmer a better chance of being able to
complete the set at the desired intensity.
With experience, a coach will be able to design sets quickly. Always remember to make technique and mechanics a
priority. Insist on proper stroke mechanics throughout a set. If the swimmers repeatedly fail to maintain mechanics, the set
may need to be redesigned with more rest or a slightly lower intensity. Stop the swimmer(s) or revise the set immediately
rather than continue with incorrect mechanics. Otherwise what is occurring is mal-adaptation; the muscles being trained
may not be the ones you want trained.
Use variety, but not to the point of chaos or confusion. Vary repeat distances, intensities and rest intervals to keep things
fresh and challenging, but do not try to cover too much ground in one set. The result may be too little effective targeted
training.
Incorporating Dryland Training
Many senior coaches incorporate dryland work into their daily planning. Scheduling, space, supervision and available
equipment are often the determining factors when planning to incorporate dryland training. Even minimal dryland work can
greatly increase the general fitness levels and athleticism of younger swimmers and no equipment is necessary. Older
swimmers can do a wide variety of dryland work including core strength training, running, medicine ball work and rubber
tubing. Dryland training may comprise 30 minutes or more of dryland circuitry for senior athletes. All dryland training must
be directly supervised by a coach.
Dryland work can be done before or after the pool session. If done before, be sure to warm-up with some stretching or
light calisthenics prior to beginning a dryland routine. Similarly, after an extensive dryland routine following a pool session,
cool-down with light stretching.
Coaches must consider how the dryland training can be structured to improve swimming performance. Very strong
athletes may not need to work very much on dryland. They may benefit more from working on the transition of strength to
the water. This would include swimming with paddles, swimming with resistance and surgical tubing. If the athletes’
strength level is low, they can increase their strength on dryland and benefit their swimming. Swimmers need specific
strength for the muscle groups involved in swimming so concentrate on pulling strength and core stability.
Part 6: Fueling for Performance
Topic Questions:
1. What are the basic nutrients and the primary functions of each?
2. What are some easy guidelines to teach athletes concerning fueling for recovery and competition?
3. Why is it important to educate parents about nutrition?
Coaches have no control over what swimmers eat at home. However coaches can play a major role in educating
swimmers about the importance of good nutritional choices and the value of fueling for performance. The analogy of fuel
in the gas tank of a car and fuel in the body of the swimmers is one that even young swimmers can relate to. Emphasize
that fueling for performance means:
Always having a full tank.
Getting the most economical fuel.
Fueling at the right times and places.
The Basic Nutrients

The basic nutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. Carbohydrates are the primary fuel
source for aerobic athletes and, contrary to popular opinion, are not fattening. If taken in reasonable amounts,
carbohydrates are used for energy, leaving little to be converted to body fat. Protein builds and repairs muscle, produces
hormones, supports the immune system and replaces red blood cells. Protein is not a main source of energy except in
cases of malnutrition or starvation. Most athletes do not need extra protein. They get adequate protein from a normal diet.
Again contrary to popular opinion, protein does not build muscle bulk, only exercise does that. Fats are essential for
hormone production, storage of vitamins and delivery of essential fatty acids. The body needs fat, but the average
American diet contains more than enough. High fat foods should be traded for low fat substitutes so that fat intake is
limited to 25% of total calories. The necessary vitamins and minerals are also readily available in the foods consumed in a
healthy diet. Vitamins, minerals and water make the body more efficient at accessing carbohydrates, fats and proteins
when they are needed during exercise and recovery.
In terms of total calories, swimmers should aim for a diet of:

60% carbohydrate
15% protein
25% fat
Of course this will vary but carbohydrate intake shouldn’t drop below 50%, protein should not go above 25% and fat
should not go above 30%.
There are no magic foods and no magic food groups! Extra vitamins, minerals and supplements are not necessary in a
healthy diet. The easy guidelines for your athletes are as follow:
Eat colorful foods. The more naturally colorful the more vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and carbohydrates are
available for recovery and general health.
Eat early and often. The first two hours post-workout are the most critical.
Drink early and often. Hydration must be continuous. (See Part 7: Hydration.)
Recovery Nutrition
After exercise, the dietary goal is to provide adequate energy and carbohydrates to replace muscle glycogen and ensure
rapid recovery. Start the replenishment process immediately. The “window of opportunity” to maximize glycogen
replacement lasts only about 2 hours. It is also advisable to pulse the system, i.e. eat something substantial every hour
rather than waiting for a large meal or eating only every 3 to 4 hours. The replenishment should be adjusted according to
the intensity of the practice. A less intense workout requires less replenishment. Finally, something is better than nothing
so emphasize consuming some carbohydrate fuel immediately after workout rather than waiting until the next full meal.
Nutrition for Competition

Once again, teach athletes that there is no magic food and that they must focus on long term nutritional choices. When it
comes to swim meets, they need to prepare nutritionally for the entire competition. There is no way to fuel for a particular
race. It is important to maintain constant energy, blood sugar levels and hydration by snacking and replenishing
throughout the competition. Shown below are some recommendations for “competition cuisine”:
One Hour or less to go 2-3 hours to go 3-4 hours to go

Fruit and vegetable juice such Fresh fruit and vegetable Fresh fruit and fruit and
as orange, tomato or V-8 juices vegetable juices
AND/OR AND AND
Fresh fruit such as apples, Breads, bagels, English Breads, bagels, baked
watermelon, peaches, grapes, muffins with limited amounts of potatoes, cereal with low-fat or
or oranges butter, margarine, cream skim milk, low-fat yogurt,
cheese, or peanut butter sandwiches with a small
amount of peanut butter or
lean meats and cheese
AND/OR AND/OR AND/OR
1 ½ cups of a sport drink 4 cups of a sport drink 7 ½ cups of a sport drink
Educating the Parents

Since the parents are normally responsible for the food that swimmers eat, it is crucial that parents have good nutritional
information. Nutrition is the number one topic that parents ask about because it is something that they can directly
influence. Begin right away to educate both the swimmers and their parents about fueling for performance. The main
question parents ask is, “What should my child eat before practice? At meets?” Here is a very practical answer to that
question along with practical suggestions.
The best pre-practice or pre-meet meal should contain primarily carbohydrates. Carbohydrate-rich foods like pasta,
breads and cereal are easily digested and absorbed. (Rule of thumb: 0.5 - 2.0 grams of carbohydrate per pound of body
weight one to four hours prior to exercise.)
Remind parents and swimmers that it is crucial that swimmers eat before morning practice. Some swimmers will resist a
meal before morning practice or the early morning session of a swim meet. Remind swimmers of the analogy of the empty
gas tank. If they have not eaten since the previous evening, the gas tank is empty and there is no fuel to produce energy
for competition or training. Some of the items below are well tolerated before morning practice or competition.
Meals that provide 100 grams of carbohydrates
1 bagel with peanut butter and 2/3 cup of raisins

1 cup of low-fat yogurt, 1 banana and 1 cup of orange juice
1 turkey sandwich with 1 cup of applesauce
2 cups of spaghetti with meat sauce and 1 piece of garlic bread
8 oz. of skim milk, 1 apple, 1 orange, 2 slices of bread and 3 pancakes
1 serving of sports drink and 1 bagel
Part 7: Keys to Hydration
Topic Questions:
1. What is a guideline for how much fluid should be consumed during a swim practice?
2. Why is a 6-8% carbohydrate drink a good recommendation following a workout?
3. What are some hydration guidelines and tips for swimmers to follow in their daily lives?
Water is one of the basic nutrients necessary for overall health and athletic performance. Fluids are necessary for two
primary reasons: to stay hydrated and to provide the body with fuel.
During Workout
Regardless of age or length of practice, all athletes need fluids to stay hydrated. This is easily accomplished with a couple
of sips from a water bottle every 15-20 minutes. As athletes progress, practices get longer and tougher. It’s well
established that athletes who exercise beyond 90 minutes benefit from a supplemental fuel source which a sports drink
can provide. Years of research shows that drinks that are 6-8% carbohydrate by weight provide the perfect balance
between fuel and hydration. A couple of sips every 15-20 minutes keep the body fueled, helps prevent unnecessary tissue
breakdown and maintains hydration. Gatorade and Powerade fit this 6-8% rule.
After Workout
Water is an excellent choice to replenish fluids after practice. It’s always wise to drink at least one cup. But after a hard
workout, replenishing fuel stores is equally important. Each hour after practice, athletes need a little over 1 gram of
carbohydrate for every kilogram (2.2 lbs.) they weigh. This replenishing must begin within the first hour.
A sports drink that is 6-8% carbohydrate by weight is easily digested and quickly absorbed and can provide a convenient
way to get some of the necessary fuel within the first 20 minutes. High protein drinks often forgo the carbohydrate and
carbohydrate is what must be replenished within the first hour after workout. A little protein won’t hurt; in fact it may
actually help by supporting the tissue repair and re-building processes. But too much protein, especially when it comes in
place of carbohydrate, may be detrimental to the post-workout recovery process.
Remember, carbohydrate is the primary fuel source during hard exercise. Glycogen, the storage form for carbohydrate, is
what the body taps into for fuel when exercise is very intense. Protein is used as a fuel source during exercise only when
carbohydrate and fat are not present in sufficient quantities. If an additional carbohydrate source is not supplied, the body
taps into stored protein, the muscles. This is why it is good to drink carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during workout, to
spare muscle protein. This is also why it is important to replace carbohydrate stores lost during a workout in order to start
the next workout with a full tank of gas.
During the Day

Staying hydrated during the day is just as critical as hydrating during and after workouts. Most athletes can do this by
incorporating a variety of fluids into their daily diets such as water, fruit juice, milk and soups. Remember that variety is the
key to a healthy diet. If swimmers use a sports drink during and after practice, it may be better to drink water and juice
during the day to stay hydrated. Juices are often healthier than sports drinks in that their sugars are natural. Always keep
in mind that juices and sports drinks contribute to total caloric intake.
Fluid Replacement Tips for Swimmers
Keep a fluid bottle by the side of the pool when working out and drink between repeats and sets.
Choose sports drinks that taste good, stimulate fluid absorption in the body, maintain proper fluid balance in the
body and provide energy to working muscles.
Avoid carbonated drinks which can cause stomach bloating and may reduce fluid intake.
Avoid caffeine-filled beverages which are diuretics and contribute to fluid loss.
Check the color of the urine. Dark-colored urine may indicate dehydration and the need to consume additional
fluids.
Part 8: Disordered Eating
Topic Questions:
1. What is the difference between disordered eating and an eating disorder?
2. What are the early warning signs and symptoms of disordered eating?
3. What is the role of the coach when disordered eating is suspected?
Disordered Eating and Eating Disorders

There are many hypotheses regarding what causes disordered eating or eating disorders and why athletes appear to be
predisposed to these conditions. Biological factors, such as gender and neurotransmitter imbalances (chemicals that help
regulate emotions in the brain), as well as psychological influences, such as family issues, emotional trauma, low self-
esteem and perfectionism appear to be key factors. In addition, sociological influences, such as a culture that equates
thinness with success, power and beauty also play a critical role.
Disordered eating includes various combinations of unhealthy eating patterns such as food restriction, preoccupation with
food (counting calories or fat grams with every food intake), preoccupation with weight, skipping meals or rigid food
patterns, not eating around others, fasting or exercising to compensate for eating.
An eating disorder is a medical condition that requires a diagnosis. It is characterized by the limitation of food intake such
that the body’s needs are not met. This may involve restricting foods, binging, purging (includes vomiting, using laxatives,
diuretics, and/or diet pills), compulsive exercise to “work off the calories“, or any combination of these. Eating disorders
stem from a distorted perception of one’s self, both physically and emotionally. An eating disorder is not about food. It is
primarily psychological. Controlling food is merely the mechanism by which the individual attempts to cope with underlying
emotional issues.
Both eating disorders and disordered eating are characterized by a spectrum of unhealthy eating behaviors. The
difference is that an eating disorder is a clinical condition that exists at the extreme of this spectrum and can result from
both physical and emotional stresses. While 90% of eating disorder sufferers are said to be female, men have become
increasingly at risk. Over the last few years there has been an explosion in the number of men with eating disorders, body
image issues, and compulsive exercise patterns.
Degrees of Disordered Eating

At the extreme end of the disordered eating spectrum are clinical eating disorders. The two most common eating
disorders are Anorexia and Bulimia.
Anorexia. Anorexia is an eating disorder characterized by refusal to maintain body weight at 85% of expected
weight for height, intense fear of gaining weight or being fat, disturbance of the way the body is perceived and, in
females, the absence of the menstrual period (amenorrhea). Typically anorexics are severely underweight.
Bulimia. Bulimia is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating, recurrent
inappropriate compensatory behavior to prevent weight gain, and self-evaluation that is unduly influenced by body
shape or weight. Binge and purge behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three or more months and are
not exclusively linked with episodes of anorexia. Bulimics are often of normal weight or slightly above.
Early Warning Signs of Disordered Eating
Preoccupation with food; a lot of talk about food

Preoccupation with weight
Dissatisfaction with body
Skipping meals
Repeated comments about “feeling fat”
Severe food restriction
Eating only “safe,” “healthy,” or “fat-free” foods
Not eating around others
Often cold or chilled on and away from pool deck
Wearing baggy clothes
Binging/purging
Excessive exercise (i.e. additional exercises which is not part of the program)
Keep in mind that a swimmer can exhibit any of the above signs without having disordered eating. A swimmer who
exhibits several signs for an extended period of time (more than one to two months) is the one to be concerned with. This
will never be an exhaustive list, but one sign may be a flag to look for others.
Reducing the Risk: The Role of the Coach

Reduce the risk of disordered eating by creating an environment in which swimmers feel comfortable and confident.
Focus on performance and how important fuel/food is to enhancing both strength and endurance. De-emphasize weight
by eliminating weigh-ins, body composition testing and comments about weight. Avoid talking about appearance, good or
bad. An innocent comment like, "you look fit" can be easily misinterpreted. Say instead, "your stroke looks good" or "that
was a great set.” A negative comment like "you need to be leaner" could be addressed more effectively by addressing the
real performance issues. If an athlete is performing well, she may not need to be leaner, and if the athlete is performing
poorly it may not have anything to do with weight or body size. Factors such as strength training, technique and sport
psychology play key roles in improving performance. Focus on coaching to improve performance, not controlling body
type.
The coach has a responsibility to step in as soon as he or she becomes aware of signs or symptoms of disordered eating
or disordered eating patterns. Get the parents involved early, as soon as suspicions are aroused. In the meantime,
generate conversations that reinforce the idea that fueling the body is about performance, not weight. Ultimately turn the
situation over to a professional. It is not something a coach can deal with or “fix” alone.
For more information see Prevention, Recognition and Action: A Comprehensive Guide for Coaches (2003)
Part 9: Advocating for Drug-free Sport
Topic Questions:
1. What is the role of the coach in advocating for sport free of performance- enhancing substances?
2. Why are dietary supplements considered “take at your own risk”?
3. Do athletes need to take vitamins “just in case”?
4. What do athletes need to do to check on the status of any medications they may be taking?
The coach has important responsibilities when it comes to supplements and performance-enhancing substances.
Educate the athletes and their parents about the dangers of supplements and performance-enhancing
substances.
Be an advocate and role model for a level playing field in sport, free of performance-enhancing substances.
Team rules and policies should reflect a drug-free position, but the coach must be clear about what “drug-free” means. It
is important to stress the difference between performance-enhancing substances and necessary medications such as
asthma inhalers. Educational efforts must be age appropriate, but it is never too early to start talking to athletes about the
dangers of supplements and performance- enhancing substances as well as the value of good nutritional choices to fuel
for training and performance.
What is a Dietary Supplement?

A dietary supplement is defined as a product that is intended to supplement the diet, contains one or more dietary
ingredients, is intended to be taken by mouth and is labeled on the front panel as a “dietary supplement.” Dietary
supplements are a category of food and are regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However,
regulation can be lax and often depends on information provided by the manufacturer.
USA Swimming’s Position on Supplements

In an effort to maintain the integrity of the sport and the safety of athletes, USA Swimming has taken a proactive role in
making athletes and coaches more aware of the risks involved in the use of commercially available dietary supplements
that have been linked to enhancing performance. Along with the US Anti-Doping Agency (USADA), USA Swimming
considers dietary supplements “take at your own risk,” placing full responsibility for any effects and repercussions on the
athlete.
It is the role of USA Swimming to educate swimmers, coaches and parents on the issues of dietary supplements,
including general and specific risks, normal values and toxicity, drug testing and drug interactions, stacking, and
conventional dietary alternatives. It is also the role of USA Swimming to validate or repudiate via research review or
sanctioned research the answers to the many questions that surround scientific and anecdotal evidence versus actual
application. Any recommendations or opinions offered by USA Swimming regarding the use of dietary supplements are
based on a yellow-orange-red light continuum Health & Contamination Risk Chart for Dietary Supplements and the most
current publicly available scientific and consumer-specific information.
Claims made by the manufacturers/ distributors of dietary supplements regarding the effectiveness of their products are
not strictly regulated by the FDA. Any commercial dietary supplement is susceptible to containing substances that may
appear on the Prohibited Substance list(s) of the International Swimming Federation (FINA) and/or the International
Olympic Committee (IOC). The potential exists for commercial supplements to contain substances that do not appear on
the product’s list of ingredients. Statistics indicate that in some cases, the use of legal dietary supplements has been
linked to positive test results for prohibited substances in athletics. Therefore, because supplements are not strictly
regulated by the FDA, there is no guarantee that what is actually in the product is on the label.
Vitamins
Many athletes take a vitamin and/or mineral supplement “just in case” their diets are inadequate. In most cases this is
highly unnecessary. Eating a variety of foods from all of the food groups and eating them in quantities that are sufficient to
support the caloric demands of training and recovery is one of the keys to success. Turning to supplements for a quick fix
is not the answer.
For more information please visit Supplements Info on the USA Swimming website or Dietary Supplements-Important
Information for Parents.
Energy Drinks
As a consumer and also as someone who gives advice to swimmers and parents, remember that the coach is part of a
target audience for the manufacturers of so-called energy drinks. Advertisements, images and slogans are created for a
purpose – to convince consumers to buy the advertiser’s product. Each drink is different, but most energy drinks contain a
cocktail of fancy, high-tech-sounding ingredients which are not regulated, have little or no nutritional value, and can be
potentially harmful given that many of them can enhance the potency of stimulants in the drinks. The amount of caffeine
and other stimulants or stimulant-like herbs in energy drinks can also be a cause for alarm as the side effects from the
repeated or misused consumption of these drinks could potentially be a health threat. Stimulant abuse has a range of
possible side effects including:
Addiction and withdrawal symptoms
Dehydration – For instance, the diuretic quality of caffeine can have a dehydrating effect, potentially leading to
other side effects, including less blood being pumped with each heart beat, cramping and, ultimately, exhaustion
Anxiety
Tremors
Increased heart rate and blood pressure
Possible cardiac arrhythmia (an abnormality of the rhythm or rate of the heart)
Insomnia
Thus, in many cases, energy drinks may actually bring on fatigue and interfere with optimal athletic performance. Any
stimulant effect may be short lived or non-existent. Not only can high amounts of stimulants be harmful to the athlete’s
body, but there is no documented health benefit in consuming “stimulant” drinks. A person may feel good for a short
period, but once the body starts to use up the substantial quantities of sugar in these drinks, the effects of the caffeine and
other stimulants wear off causing a “crash” and leaving a tired and drained feeling.
When energy drinks are consumed and a short-term “rush” or feeling of stimulation is experienced many people think that
they are getting energy. This is not true. What they are frequently getting is a large dose of caffeine with some
carbohydrates thrown in as a side order. It is a recipe for short-term stimulation and long-term fatigue.
The best piece of advice to teach athletes and parents is that the energy needed to sustain difficult and long training
schedules and other daily activities and responsibilities is not going to be found in a can or a bottle. The only reliable way
to maximize peak performance is to evaluate and modify the dietary intake to ensure that the athlete is meeting the
nutritional requirements for the body and level of energy output. For more information visit the website of United States
Anti-Doping Agency (USADA).
Doping Control
Doping Control rules are in place for all athletes. These rules can be confusing for athletes, coaches and parents and it is
critical that any questions/concerns be clarified. Costly mistakes can be made that not only count against the athlete, but
count against all of USA Swimming.
Doping Control takes place during major competitions. Individuals attending major competitions are subject to drug testing
regardless of whether or not they are National Team members, Olympians or first place finishers. Athletes competing in
these competitions should make sure to file all necessary paperwork in advance to be in the strictest compliance with
doping control rules.
All athletes should check the status of all medications prior to using them. This includes both over-the-counter and
prescription medications and will help athletes to determine if a medication requires documentation in advance, as well as
if a medication is prohibited. Be aware that there are over-the-counter medications that are prohibited. Make athletes and
parents aware that they should always check to see if a substance is prohibited by calling the United States Anti-Doping
Agency (USADA) Drug Reference Line at 1-800-233-0393 or check the Drug Reference Online
(www.usantidoping.org/dro) before consuming the medication or substance. This is a resource that young athletes and
their parents should begin utilizing from the starts of their careers.
The most commonly asked question is “Why can't there be a list of prohibited drugs using common over-the-counter
names rather than scientific 30 letter words?” A simple answer is there are so many drugs on the market and many more
being brought on each day that no list would ever be complete. It would put the athlete at risk to check a list that may or
may not be accurate.
The US Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) has created a variety of educational resources geared towards young athletes,
teenagers, and elite athletes that focus on the health risks associated with the use of performance enhancing substances.
Coaches should encourage parents and athletes to link to these valuable educational resources via the doping control
section of the USA Swimming website.
For more information please visit Doping Control on the USA Swimming website.
Chapter 7: Evaluation
Table of Contents
Part 1: Athlete Evaluation

o Tracking improvement
o How to evaluate athletes
Part 2: Coach and Club Evaluation
o Aspects of coach evaluation
o Evaluating assistant coaches
o Evaluating the club as a whole
Chapter 7: Evaluation Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.

Part 1: Athlete Evaluation
Topic Questions:
1. Besides meet results, what are some aspects of athlete evaluation?
2. How can test sets be used to track performance and improvement?
Tracking Improvement
A coach and an athlete need to have measurement points along the way to measure improvement based on the training
plan. The obvious first tracking area is the athlete’s performance in swim meets. The key question should be “Is the
athlete’s performance in swim meets consistent with expectations based on the training load?” A coach may make
necessary adjustments to the training based on performance in a meet.
Meet performance, however, is not the only way for a coach to track improvement. Another essential element to tracking
improvement is the use of test sets in practice. Test sets should be designed to test the various energy systems that a
coach is trying to overload and adapt. Run test sets every couple of weeks and be sure that they are run in the same
consistent manner every time. Over time, results from test sets will give the coach and the athlete a more accurate picture
of overall development than swim meet performance.
Test sets for young swimmers can be as simple as 10 x 50 on 60 seconds recording the swimmers’ times for every 50.
Instruct the swimmers as to how the set is to be completed. Possibilities include:
Maintaining a consistent (average) time throughout the set and striving to improve the consistent (average) time
each time the set is offered.
Descending (getting faster) throughout the set.
Starting out as fast as possible and maintaining the time for as long as possible.
Dropping the interval (from 60 seconds, to 55 seconds to 50 seconds) each time the set is offered.
Dropping the interval throughout the set and challenging swimmers to keep “making the interval.” (Example, 2 x
50 on 60 seconds, 2 x 50 on 55 seconds, 2 x 50 on 50 seconds, 2 x 50 on 45 seconds.)
The same kind of set can be varied endlessly by altering the number of repeats, the repeat distances and the rest
intervals, depending on the age and ability of the swimmers. The important thing is to set up the set consistently each time
it is offered so that results can be tracked. Swimmers should be excited and motivated to participate in test sets. Posting
of results, especially showing individual and group improvement, can be very motivational. Results that show a lack of
improvement or even a decline in performance must be analyzed. Are the swimmers too tired? Unmotivated? Bored? Has
the set been offered too often? Is it too difficult?
Athlete Evaluation
When evaluating the success of athletes, be sure to evaluate their performance based on their goals, their potential, the
effort they have put forth and finally, the outcome of the event. Chart best time progress and achievement of personal
goals. Subjectively evaluate improvement in technique and chart milestones in training improvement based on test sets or
ability to complete progressively harder sets. Also, keep track of athlete attendance, since it is virtually impossible to
improve without coming to practice. Athlete evaluation is particularly relevant when decisions are made about moving an
athlete to a higher training group versus retaining an athlete in the current training group or perhaps dropping the athlete
down a level. Both parents and swimmers will want to know the reasoning behind the decisions. The more objective
measurements that are tracked, the more weight there will be behind the decision.

Part 2: Coach and Club Evaluation
Topic Questions:
1. What is the purpose of evaluation?
2. What are some aspects of a coach’s work that should be evaluated in addition to athlete performance?
3. Where do assistant coaches fit into the evaluation process?
4. What is the coach’s role in evaluating the success of the club?
Coach Evaluation
Evaluation is an ongoing process and within a swim program there should be evaluation of the club as a whole, of the
governing board (if there is a board) and of the coaches, both individually and as a staff. Evaluation should be
constructive and positive and should not be used punitively since the purpose of evaluation is growth and improvement. It
is the responsibility of the head coach to evaluate the assistant coaches, while the board or employer evaluates the head
coach. A coach-owner is encouraged to establish a self-evaluation process.
Even if there is no formal evaluation process, coaches should evaluate themselves individually throughout the season and
at the conclusion of the season. Coaches should also set individual coaching-related personal goals. Individual coaching
goals might include such things as continuing education, season planning, punctuality and involvement in the LSC.
The evaluation of a coach focuses on how the coach’s performance supports club goals, mission and objectives. As much
as possible, the evaluation concentrates on measurable, objective aspects of the coach’s work rather than on subjective
opinions. A summary includes the major strengths and weaknesses of the coach and areas for future improvement.
Outcome and performance of the athletes will, of course, be part of the coach’s evaluation, but the entire evaluation
should not be based on athlete performance.
What, then, are some areas that should be evaluated? Generally speaking, the primary areas of evaluation should come
directly from the coach’s contract and job description. The contract and job description should list what is expected of the
coach. “On deck” areas of responsibility include coach-athlete interaction, teaching skills, practice management and meet
management. Each one of those areas would have several specific responsibilities. Administrative areas of responsibility
include meets, office duties, communication, planning, team growth and knowledge. Each of these would have several
specific responsibilities. A final section might include various people skills and personal management issues.
Here is a partial list of other measurable items that could be included in a formal, informal or self-evaluation.
Performance at end of season meets
Comparison of swimmers’ best time progress
Retention of athletes throughout the season and from season to season
Growth of the program
Number of swimmers who meet specific time standards
Timely completion of administrative duties
Personal growth as measured by educational development
Educational sessions conducted for parents or team members
Are there areas that should not be evaluated by a board? Yes, there are. Technical issues are out of bounds for an
evaluation done by board members. Issues such as taper, balance of anaerobic and aerobic work, appropriate yardage
for 12 year olds and event selection are not board issues. These are technical issues for which there is not a single
universally acceptable answer. They are topics that should be discussed and possibly researched among the coaching
staff. The bottom line for the board is “Are the athletes improving, is the team improving, and are they happy with their
progress?”
Evaluating Assistant Coaches

Since assistant coaches work for, are trained by, and are supervised by the head coach, they should be evaluated at least
twice a year by the head coach. The evaluation should be based on what assistant coaches are asked to do. Assistant
coaches should have written job descriptions detailing their responsibilities, authorities and standards of performance.

The head coach creates a job description for each assistant coach based on:
What the head coach needs from that position
The skills of the assistant coach
The commitment level of the assistant coach
The American Swimming Coaches Association offers personal assistance and has documents for coaches and employers
for establishing evaluations and contracts. Call 800-356-2722 for more information.
Club Evaluation
Although the coach will be most interested in swimmer performance in the pool, the coach must also be an integral part of
ongoing club evaluation and improvement. It is vital that the club has written goals, based upon its values and philosophy,
which were arrived at in a cooperative effort with staff and board. These goals should be the driving force of the daily
activities of the staff and board. Clubs should conduct periodic evaluations to determine if the organization is fulfilling its
mission and accomplishing its goals. The coaching staff should be a vital source of information when evaluating the club
and determining what the club does well and what it can do better. Coach input on retention rates, improvement statistics,
attendance, meet participation and achievement of competitive success is vital to evaluating the club’s progress. USA
Swimming’s Club Recognition Program is an outstanding tool for clubs to use to monitor achievement and progress.

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Table of Contents (click on the Chapter Heading to be taken directly to the pdf file)

Chapter 1: Philosophy and Ethics

1. Personal Reasons for Coaching and Personal Philosophy

Chapter 2: Teaching and Communication

1. Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Chapter 3: Organization and Administration

Chapter 4: Growth and Development

1. Understanding the Basics of Physical Growth and Development

Chapter 5: Skills and Mechanics

Table of Contents Page 1 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.

Athlete Development Charts

1. Progressions for Athlete Development

Table of Contents Page 2 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.

Table of Contents Page 3 © 2007 USA Swimming. All rights reserved.

Personal Qualities the Coach Possesses

Qualities Attributed to the Coach

Using Excellent Listening Skills

1. To provide personal and social development for lifetime skills.

Providing Personal and Social Development for Lifetime Skills

Developing and Improving the Technical Skills of Swimming

Providing a Fun and Enjoyable Environment

Orienting Young People to Competition

Dominant Values that Coaches Teach to Swimmers

Meeting Physical and Personal Needs of Swimmers

Physical needs for swimmers include:

Club Leaders Parents

Understanding and Identifying Why Kids Swim

2. Promote a team concept

3. Be aware of the need to provide external fun for younger athletes

4. Be aware of what is discouraging for swimmers

6. Work to enhance each athlete's perception of ability

Managing Athlete Behavior

Striving for Diversity in Your Program

Racial, Ethnic and Socioeconomic Diversity

Have the Same Expectations

The Coach as a Leader and Role Model

A Note about Finances

Part 1: Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Thorndike’s Three Laws of Learning

• The Law of Exercise

• The Law of Effect

Learning Styles and the Learning Environment

Communicating on the Appropriate Level: Vocabulary and Delivery

Principles for Effective Demonstrations and Explanations

Practice Makes Perfect?

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Content and Emotion

Coaching and Communication Styles

Effective Communication Guidelines

Reinforcement and Reward

Extrinsic versus Intrinsic

The Value of Goal Setting

Process versus Outcome Goals

Principles of Goal Setting

Individual and Team Goals

Facilitating Individual Goal Setting

Facilitating Team Goal Setting

Mental Preparation for Competition

Imagery and Visualization