Arba Minch

University
Sawla Campus
Department of BAIS

Fundamentals Of
Computer Networking
(BAIS2051)
Section: A

Name: HABIB KEDIR

ID No: SSHR/778/16
SUBMITTED TO: Mr. AMANUEL K.
SUBMITTED DATE: 12/3/2017 E.C 1
 Table Of Contents Pages

1 ) Introduction…………………………..…………………………..…………………………..………… 3

2 ) What is the solution to distortion? …………………………..……………………………………….. 4

3 ) What is data Encoding and Decoding?…………………………..…………………………………… 5

4 ) Explain the following types of data Encoding techniques? And Describe them.

A) Digital Data, Digital Signals…………………………..…………………………..……………… 7

B ) Digital Data, Analog Signals…………………………..…………………………..…………….. 8

C ) Analog Data, Digital Signals…………………………..…………………………..…………….. 9

D ) Analog Data, Analog Signals…………………………..…………………………..……….…… 11

5 ) Explain the following different types of multiplexing? And Describe them.

A) Frequency-Division Multiplexing…………………………..…………………………..……….. 13

B ) Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing…………………………..…………………………...14

C ) Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing…………………………..………………………………14

6 ) Summary…………………………..…………………………..…………………………..………….. 16

7) Reference…………………………..…………………………..…………………………..……………17

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 Introduction
In the realm of telecommunications and data transmission, understanding the intricacies of distortion, data encoding and
decoding, and multiplexing techniques is paramount for ensuring efficient communication systems. Distortion refers to
any alteration in the original signal that can lead to a loss of information or quality during transmission. Solutions to
distortion often involve various methods of signal processing and error correction to restore fidelity. Distortion in
communication systems can greatly affect the quality and integrity of the transmitted signals. To address this issue,
various solutions are implemented, such as equalization, which adjusts the frequency and phase characteristics to
counteract the distortive effects of the transmission medium.

Data encoding and decoding are fundamental processes in digital communication and data storage. Encoding involves
transforming data into a different format or code to facilitate efficient transmission, storage, or security, whereas decoding
is the process of converting the encoded data back to its original form for proper interpretation and use. Data encoding and
decoding are critical processes that transform information into a format suitable for transmission over different media,
allowing for effective communication between devices.

Digital data is directly encoded into digital signals using techniques such as Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ), Manchester
coding, and more. Various encoding techniques exist depending on whether the data is digital or analog, and whether the
signals are digital or analog as well. Each combination presents unique characteristics that influence how data is
transmitted and received. Furthermore, multiplexing techniques such as Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM),
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM), and Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM) play essential
roles in optimizing bandwidth usage by allowing multiple signals to share the same communication channel without
interference. This comprehensive exploration will delve into these concepts, elucidating their significance in modern
communication systems.

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 1, What is the solution to distortion?

Solution to Distortion in Transmission Impairment

Signal Distortion

Signal distortion is a significant issue in transmission impairment, affecting both analog and digital signals. It occurs when
the shape of the signal changes as it travels through a transmission medium, leading to discrepancies between the
transmitted and received signals. The primary types of distortion include frequency distortion and phase (or delay)
distortion, which can result in timing jitter and data loss.

Mitigation Techniques for Signal Distortion:

1. Equalization Techniques:
o Equalization is one of the most common methods used to combat signal distortion. This technique
involves adjusting the frequency response of the received signal to counteract the effects of distortion
introduced during transmission. By equalizing the amplitude and phase characteristics across different
frequency components, equalization helps restore the integrity of the original signal.
o There are various forms of equalization, including linear equalizers, decision feedback equalizers, and
adaptive equalizers. Each type has its own advantages depending on the specific characteristics of the
transmission medium and the nature of the distortion.
2. Use of Amplifiers:
o Amplifiers can be utilized to compensate for attenuation—a related issue that often accompanies
distortion. By boosting the strength of weakened signals before they reach their destination, amplifiers
help maintain signal quality over long distances.
3. Improved Transmission Medium:
o Selecting or designing better transmission media can significantly reduce distortion. For instance, using
fiber optic cables instead of traditional copper wires can minimize both attenuation and distortion due to
their superior properties in transmitting light signals with less interference.
4. Error Correction Techniques:
o Implementing error correction protocols at various layers of data communication can help recover lost or
corrupted data caused by distortion. Techniques such as Forward Error Correction (FEC) allow receivers
to detect and correct errors without needing retransmission.
5. Signal Conditioning:
o Signal conditioning involves preprocessing signals before transmission to enhance their quality. This may
include filtering out noise or unwanted frequencies that could contribute to distortion.
6. Adaptive Modulation:

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 o Adaptive modulation techniques adjust the modulation scheme based on current channel conditions,
which can help optimize performance under varying levels of distortion.
7. Distance Management:
o Reducing the distance between transmitting and receiving ends can also mitigate some effects of signal
distortion since longer distances typically exacerbate these issues due to increased attenuation and
potential for interference.

By implementing these strategies, it is possible to significantly reduce or even eliminate many forms of signal distortion
associated with transmission impairment, thereby improving overall communication reliability.

2, What is data Encoding and Decoding?

Data encoding and decoding are fundamental processes in data science that facilitate the transformation of data
into formats suitable for storage, transmission, and analysis.

Data Encoding

Data encoding refers to the process of converting data from one format to another. This is typically done to prepare data
for various applications, such as storage or transmission over networks. The primary goal of encoding is to ensure that
data can be efficiently processed by algorithms or systems while maintaining its integrity and usability. Encoding
techniques vary based on the type of data being handled—whether it is categorical, numerical, textual, or multimedia.

Common encoding methods include:

1. One-hot Encoding: Used primarily for categorical variables, this technique converts each category into a binary
vector where only one element is ‘1’ (indicating the presence of that category) and all others are ‘0’. This method
helps avoid misleading interpretations of ordinal relationships among categories.
2. Label Encoding: This technique assigns a unique integer value to each category in an ordinal variable, preserving
the order among categories but potentially introducing bias if not applied carefully.

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 3. Binary Encoding: A more compact form of representation where categories are first converted into integers and
then those integers are represented in binary form.
4. Hash Encoding: This method uses hash functions to convert categorical variables into numerical representations
while minimizing dimensionality.
5. Feature Scaling: Techniques like normalization and standardization adjust the range of independent variables or
features of data to improve model performance.

Data Decoding

Data decoding is the reverse process of encoding; it involves converting encoded data back into its original format so that
it can be interpreted and utilized effectively. Decoding is crucial for extracting meaningful insights from encoded datasets.
Various decoding techniques include:

1. Data Parsing: Breaking down encoded data into manageable parts for analysis.
2. Data Transformation: Modifying the structure or format of data to make it suitable for specific analytical tasks.
3. Data Decompression: Restoring compressed data back to its original size without loss of information.
4. Data Decryption: Converting encrypted data back into a readable format using decryption keys.
5. Data Visualization: Presenting decoded information in graphical formats to facilitate understanding and
interpretation.

3, Explain the following types of data Encoding techniques? And Describe them.

A) Digital Data, Digital Signals B) Digital Data, Analog Signals

C) Analog Data, Digital Signals D) Analog Data, Analog Signals

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A) Digital Data and Digital Signals

Data encoding is a crucial aspect of computer science and telecommunications, as it involves converting information into
a format suitable for transmission or storage. Two fundamental concepts in this domain are Digital Data and Digital
Signals. Below, I will explain these concepts in detail. Digital data represents information in a discrete format using
binary code, while digital signals are the physical representation of this data during transmission. Understanding these
concepts is essential for fields such as computer science, telecommunications, and multimedia processing.

o Digital Data : Digital data refers to information that is represented in a discrete form, typically using binary code (0s
and 1s). This type of data can represent various forms of information, including text, images, audio, and video.

Characteristics:

1. Discrete Nature: Unlike analog data, which can take on any value within a range, digital data is quantized into
distinct values. For example, an image may be represented by pixels with specific color values.
2. Binary Representation: Digital data is often encoded in binary format. Each piece of information is translated
into a sequence of bits (binary digits), where each bit can be either 0 or 1.
3. Error Detection and Correction: Digital data allows for the implementation of error detection and correction
techniques. This ensures that the transmitted or stored data remains accurate despite potential corruption during
transmission.

Encoding Techniques for Digital Data:

• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): A character encoding standard that uses 7
bits to represent characters such as letters and numbers.
• UTF-8 (Unicode Transformation Format): An encoding system that can represent every character in the
Unicode character set using one to four bytes.
• JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group): A commonly used method for compressing digital images by
reducing file size while maintaining quality.

o Digital Signals : Digital signals are representations of digital data that are transmitted over communication
channels. They consist of discrete values that convey information through variations in voltage or current levels.

Characteristics:

1. Two-Level Signal Representation: Digital signals typically have two states—high (representing binary ‘1’) and
low (representing binary ‘0’). This makes them less susceptible to noise compared to analog signals.
2. Time-Domain Representation: In the time domain, digital signals appear as square waves due to their discrete
nature.

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 3. Bandwidth Efficiency: Digital signals can be compressed more efficiently than analog signals, allowing for
higher data rates over limited bandwidth.

Encoding Techniques for Digital Signals:

• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): A method used to digitally represent analog signals by sampling the amplitude
at regular intervals and quantizing it into discrete values.
• Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM): An extension of PCM that encodes the difference between
successive samples rather than absolute values, improving efficiency.
• Manchester Encoding: A technique where each bit of data is represented by two level transitions; this helps with
synchronization between sender and receiver.

B) Digital Data, Analog Signals

Data encoding is a crucial process in the field of computer science and telecommunications, as it involves converting data
into a specific format for efficient transmission or storage. The two primary types of data that are often discussed in this
context are digital data and analog signals.

✓ Digital Data : Digital data refers to information that is represented in discrete values, typically binary (0s and 1s).
This type of data is used extensively in computing and digital communications.

Encoding Techniques:

1. Binary Encoding:
o This is the most fundamental form of digital encoding, where each piece of information is represented as
a sequence of bits (0s and 1s). For example, the letter ‘A’ can be encoded in binary as 01000001
according to the ASCII standard.
2. Base64 Encoding:
o Base64 is a method for encoding binary data into ASCII characters. It uses a set of 64 different characters
to represent binary data, making it suitable for transmission over text-based protocols like email.
3. Run-Length Encoding (RLE):
o RLE compresses data by replacing sequences of repeated values with a single value followed by the count
of repetitions. For instance, the string “AAAABBBCCDAA” would be encoded as “4A3B2C1D2A”.
4. Huffman Coding:
o This technique assigns variable-length codes to input characters based on their frequencies. More frequent
characters are assigned shorter codes, which helps reduce overall file size.
5. Manchester Encoding:
o In Manchester encoding, each bit of data is represented by two levels of voltage; a transition at the
midpoint indicates a bit change. This method provides synchronization between sender and receiver.
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✓ Analog Signals :: Analog signals are continuous waveforms that represent physical quantities such as sound, light,
temperature, etc. Unlike digital data, analog signals can take on any value within a given range.

Encoding Techniques:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM):

o AM encodes information by varying the amplitude (strength) of the carrier wave while keeping its
frequency constant. This technique is commonly used in radio broadcasting.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM):
o FM encodes information by varying the frequency of the carrier wave while keeping its amplitude
constant. FM is widely used for high-fidelity broadcasts such as music radio stations.
3. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):
o PCM converts analog signals into digital form by sampling the amplitude at regular intervals and
quantizing those samples into discrete values. PCM is fundamental in digital audio recording.
4. Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
o PSK encodes data by changing the phase of the carrier signal according to the input signal’s state
changes. It’s commonly used in digital communication systems like Wi-Fi.
5. Delta Modulation:
o Delta modulation simplifies PCM by only recording changes between successive samples rather than
absolute values, thus reducing bandwidth requirements while still capturing essential signal
characteristics.

C) Analog Data and Digital Signals

Both analog data encoding and digital signal encoding serve essential roles in how we capture, transmit, and store
information across various media forms today. While analog methods offer certain qualities related to continuity and
fidelity in representation, digital methods provide robustness against interference along with enhanced efficiency for
modern applications.

Data encoding is a fundamental concept in information technology, telecommunications, and computer science. It refers
to the process of converting data into a specific format for efficient transmission, storage, or processing. Two primary
types of data encoding techniques are analog data encoding and digital signal encoding. Below is an in-depth explanation
of these two categories.

Analog Data : Analog data refers to information that is represented in a continuous form. This type of data can take on
any value within a given range and is characterized by its ability to represent physical quantities such as sound, light,
temperature, and pressure. The key features of analog data include:

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 1. Continuous Signal: Unlike digital signals, which are discrete, analog signals vary continuously over time. For
example, the sound waves produced by a musical instrument can be represented as an analog signal that varies
smoothly.
2. Waveform Representation: Analog data is often represented using waveforms. These waveforms can be
sinusoidal (sine waves), triangular, square, or other shapes depending on the nature of the signal being encoded.
3. Amplitude and Frequency: In analog encoding, two critical parameters are amplitude (the height of the
waveform) and frequency (the number of cycles per second). Changes in amplitude correspond to variations in
loudness for audio signals or brightness for visual signals.
4. Examples: Common examples of analog data include vinyl records (which encode sound as grooves on a disc),
traditional television broadcasts (which transmit video signals as varying electromagnetic waves), and
thermometers that use mercury levels to indicate temperature.
5. Limitations: While analog signals can provide high fidelity and detail, they are susceptible to noise and distortion
during transmission. This degradation can lead to loss of quality over long distances or through multiple
generations of copying.

❖ Digital Signals : Digital signals represent information using discrete values rather than continuous ones. This
encoding technique has become increasingly prevalent due to its advantages in terms of reliability, efficiency, and
ease of processing by computers and digital devices.

1. Binary Representation: Digital signals typically use binary code (0s and 1s) to represent information. Each bit
represents a binary state—either “on” (1) or “off” (0). Multiple bits can be combined to represent more complex
information such as characters or images.
2. Sampling: To convert analog data into digital form, a process called sampling is used where the continuous signal
is measured at regular intervals (sampling rate). The sampled values are then quantized into discrete levels.
3. Quantization: This step involves rounding off the sampled values to the nearest predetermined level based on the
resolution desired (e.g., 8-bit audio has 256 possible amplitude levels).
4. Advantages:
o Noise Resistance: Digital signals are less prone to degradation from noise compared to their analog
counterparts.
o Compression: Digital data can be compressed efficiently without significant loss of quality.
o Storage & Processing: Digital formats allow for easier storage and manipulation using modern
computing technologies.
5. Examples: Examples include CDs (which store audio as digital samples), DVDs (for video content), computer
files like JPEG images or MP3 audio files, and digital communication protocols like Ethernet.

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D) Analog Data and Analog Signals

1. Introduction to Analog Data and Analog Signals

Analog data refers to information that is represented in a continuous form, as opposed to digital data, which is discrete.
This type of data can take on an infinite number of values within a given range. Analog signals are the physical
representation of this analog data, typically manifested as varying electrical voltages or currents that correspond to the
information being transmitted. Analog data and analog signals represent information in a continuous manner that closely
mirrors real-world phenomena. While they offer advantages in terms of fidelity and nuance, they also face challenges
related to noise susceptibility and degradation over distance.

2. Characteristics of Analog Data

Analog data is characterized by its continuous nature. For example, consider the sound waves produced by a musical
instrument; these waves can vary smoothly over time without any abrupt changes. This continuity allows for a more
nuanced representation of information compared to digital formats, which rely on binary states (0s and 1s).

• Continuous Representation: Unlike digital data, which is quantized into specific values, analog data can
represent an infinite number of possibilities within a range.
• Real-world Correspondence: Analog signals often correlate directly with real-world phenomena such as
temperature, sound, light intensity, etc.
• Susceptibility to Noise: One significant drawback of analog data is its vulnerability to noise and distortion during
transmission. Any interference can alter the signal’s integrity.

3. Characteristics of Analog Signals

Analog signals are typically represented graphically as waveforms. The key characteristics include:

• Amplitude: This represents the strength or intensity of the signal at any given moment. In audio signals, for
instance, amplitude correlates with loudness.
• Frequency: Frequency indicates how many times the signal oscillates per second (measured in Hertz). In audio
applications, frequency corresponds to pitch; higher frequencies produce higher pitches.
• Phase: Phase refers to the position of the waveform relative to time zero and affects how signals combine when
multiple signals are present.

Analog signals can be classified into two types:

1. Periodic Signals: These repeat at regular intervals (e.g., sine waves).

2. Aperiodic Signals: These do not have a repeating pattern (e.g., noise).

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4. Applications of Analog Data and Signals

Analog encoding techniques are widely used in various fields:

• Audio Recording and Playback: Vinyl records and cassette tapes utilize analog methods for capturing sound
waves.
• Television Broadcasting: Traditional television broadcasts used analog signals before transitioning to digital
formats.
• Communication Systems: Many older communication systems relied on analog modulation techniques like
Amplitude Modulation (AM) and Frequency Modulation (FM).

IN CONCLUSION :

A) Digital Data, Digital Signals

Digital data refers to information that is represented in discrete values, typically as binary code (0s and 1s). When this
digital data is transmitted using digital signals, it maintains its discrete nature throughout the process. Encoding
Techniques: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) And Line Coding

B) Digital Data, Analog Signals

In this scenario, digital data is encoded into analog signals for transmission. This process often involves modulation
techniques. Encoding Techniques: Amplitude Modulation (AM) And Frequency Modulation (FM) And Phase Shift
Keying (PSK): PSK encodes digital data by changing the phase of an analog carrier wave.

C) Analog Data, Digital Signals

Analog data represents continuous information, such as sound waves or temperature readings. When this type of data is
converted into digital signals for processing or transmission, it requires specific encoding methods. Encoding
Techniques: Sampling And Quantization And Delta Modulation

D) Analog Data, Analog Signals

This category involves transmitting continuous analog data using continuous analog signals without any conversion to
digital form. Encoding Techniques: Frequency Modulation (FM) And Amplitude Modulation (AM) And
Continuous Wave Transmission

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4, Explain the following different types of multiplexing? And Describe them?

A) Frequency-Division Multiplexing B) Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing

C) Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used in communications to combine multiple signals into one medium for transmission. This
process allows for more efficient use of available bandwidth and resources. There are several types of multiplexing, each
with its own methodology and application. The three primary types of multiplexing are Frequency-Division Multiplexing
(FDM), Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), and Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM). Below is
a detailed explanation of each type.

A) Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-Division Multiplexing is a method where multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously over a single
communication channel by allocating different frequency bands to each signal. Each signal modulates a specific
frequency carrier wave, and these carrier waves are combined into one composite signal for transmission.

Key Characteristics:

• Bandwidth Allocation: In FDM, the total bandwidth of the communication medium is divided into non-
overlapping frequency bands. Each band is assigned to a different signal or data stream.
• Continuous Transmission: All channels operate continuously, which means that they can transmit data at all
times without waiting for their turn.
• Applications: FDM is commonly used in radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, and traditional telephone
systems. For instance, in FM radio, different stations broadcast on distinct frequencies within the FM band.

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Advantages:

• Efficient use of bandwidth.

• Continuous data flow without delay.

Disadvantages:

• Requires careful management to avoid interference between channels.

• More complex filtering equipment may be needed to separate the signals at the receiver end.

B) Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing involves dividing time into fixed intervals or slots and assigning each slot to a
specific signal or data stream. In TDM, each user gets access to the entire bandwidth but only during their designated time
slot.

Key Characteristics:

• Time Slots: Each channel is allocated a specific time slot in which it can transmit its data. These slots repeat in a
fixed cycle.
• Synchronization: The transmitter and receiver must be synchronized so that both know when to send and receive
their respective signals.
• Applications: TDM is widely used in digital telephony systems such as T1 lines where multiple voice calls share
the same physical line.

Advantages:

• Simple implementation due to fixed time slots.

• Predictable performance since each channel has guaranteed access to the medium.

Disadvantages:

• Inefficient if some channels have no data to send during their time slots; this leads to wasted bandwidth.
• Requires precise synchronization between sender and receiver.

C) Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM)

Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing improves upon synchronous TDM by dynamically allocating time slots
based on demand rather than assigning fixed slots. In STDM, time slots are assigned only when there is data to
transmit from a particular source.
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Key Characteristics:

• Dynamic Allocation: Unlike TDM’s fixed allocation, STDM assigns time slots based on statistical analysis of
traffic patterns. Channels that have more data need can utilize more time slots dynamically.
• Buffer Management: STDM typically employs buffers at both ends of the communication link to manage
incoming data streams effectively.
• Applications: It finds applications in computer networks where variable traffic loads exist, such as Ethernet
networks.

Advantages:

• More efficient use of bandwidth since idle channels do not waste resources.
• Better suited for bursty traffic patterns typical in modern digital communications.

Disadvantages:

• Increased complexity due to dynamic allocation algorithms.

• Potential delays if many users attempt to send data simultaneously since they must wait for available time slots.

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 Summary

1. Solution to Distortion: Distortion in data transmission refers to the alteration of the original signal during its transfer,
which can lead to errors in interpretation. Solutions to distortion typically involve the use of signal processing
techniques such as equalization, which adjusts the amplitude and phase of signals, and error correction codes that help
detect and correct errors in transmitted data. Additionally, employing higher quality transmission mediums and
protocols can minimize distortion.
2. Data Encoding and Decoding: Data encoding is the process of converting information into a specific format for
efficient transmission or storage. This involves transforming data into a coded format that can be easily processed by
computers or transmitted over communication channels. Conversely, decoding is the reverse process where encoded
data is converted back into its original format for interpretation or use.
3. Types of Data Encoding Techniques:
o Digital Data, Digital Signals: This technique involves representing digital information using discrete signals.
For example, binary data (0s and 1s) is transmitted as electrical pulses or light signals in fiber optics.
o Digital Data, Analog Signals: In this method, digital information is encoded onto an analog signal for
transmission. A common example is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), where digital audio signals are
converted into analog waveforms.
o Analog Data, Digital Signals: Here, continuous analog signals are sampled and quantized to create a digital
representation. This technique is used in applications like audio digitization where sound waves are converted
into digital formats.
o Analog Data, Analog Signals: This involves transmitting continuous signals without conversion to digital
form. An example includes traditional radio broadcasting where sound waves are modulated onto radio
frequencies.
4. Types of Multiplexing:
o Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): FDM allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously
over a single communication channel by allocating different frequency bands to each signal. Each band
carries a separate signal without interference.
o Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM): In STDM, time slots are assigned to each signal on a
fixed schedule within a single channel. Each signal takes turns transmitting its data in rapid succession
according to predetermined time intervals.
o Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM): Unlike STDM’s fixed allocation of time slots, statistical
TDM dynamically allocates time slots based on demand from active users. This method optimizes bandwidth
usage by allowing idle channels to be used by other transmissions.

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