CRAFT CERTIFICATE IN INFORMATION COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
MATHEMATICS
SET THEORY
A set can be defined as a collection of things that are brought together because they obey a certain
rule.
These 'things' may be anything you like: numbers, people, shapes, cities, bits of text ..., literally
anything.

The key fact about the 'rule' they all obey is that it must be well-defined. In other words, it enables
us to say for sure whether or not a given 'thing' belongs to the collection. If the 'things' we're talking
about are English words, for example, a well-defined rule might be:

'... has 5 or more letters'

Requirement of a set
1. A set must be well defined i.e. it must not leave any room for ambiguities e.g sets of all students
- which? Where? When?

A set must be defined in terms of space and time

2. The objective (elements or members) from a given set must be distinct i.e each object must appear
once and only once, (must appear but not more than once).
3. The order of the presentation of elements of a given set is immaterial.
e.g 1,2,3 = 1,3,2 = 3,2,1

Types of Sets
In set theory, there are different types of sets. All the operations in set theory could be based on
sets. Set should be a group of individual terms in domain. The universal set has each and every
element of domain. We are having different types of sets. We will see about the different types of
sets.

Different Types of Sets

There are different types of sets in set theory. They are listed below:
• Universal Set
• Empty set
• Singleton set
• Finite and Infinite set
• Union of sets
• Intersection of sets
• Difference of sets
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 • Subset of a set
• Disjoint sets
• Equality of two sets

Universal Set
The set of all the 'things' currently under discussion is called the universal set (or sometimes, simply
the universe). It is denoted by U.
The universal set doesn‘t contain everything in the whole universe. On the contrary, it restricts us
to just those things that are relevant at a particular time. For example, if in a given situation we‘re
talking about numeric values – quantities, sizes, times, weights, or whatever – the universal set
will be a suitable set of numbers (see below). In another context, the universal set may be
{alphabetic characters} or {all living people}, etc.

Singleton Set:
A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.
For example:
• A = {x : x is neither zero, prime nor composite}
It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1.
• B = {x : x is a whole number, x < 1}
This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set.
• Let A = {x : x N and x² = 4}
Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2 whose square is 4.
• Let B = {x : x is an even prime number}
Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime number which is even, i.e., 2.

Finite Set:
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set. An empty set is also a
finite set.
For example:
• The set of all colors in the rainbow.
• N = {x : x N, x < 7}
• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}

Infinite Set:
The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing never-ending elements is called an
infinite set.
For example:
• Set of all points in a plane
• A = {x : x N, x > 1}
• Set of all prime numbers
• B = {x : x W, x = 2n}

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 • Note:
All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form.
For example:
The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not follow any particular pattern.

Cardinal Number of a Set:

The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the cardinal number of A. It is denoted
by n(A).
For example:

• A {x : x N, x < 5} A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Therefore, n(A) = 4

• B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA

B = {A, L, G, E, B, R}
Therefore, n(B) = 6
Equivalent Sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if their cardinal number is same, i.e., n(A) = n(B).
The symbol for denoting an equivalent set is ‘↔’.
For example:
A = {1, 2, 3} Here n(A) = 3

B = {p, q, r} Here n(B) = 3 Therefore, A ↔ B

Equal sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the same elements. Every element of A is
an element of B and every element of B is an element of A.

For example:

A = {p, q, r, s}

B = {p, s, r, q}

Therefore, A = B

Empty Set
• A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, or the
null set or the void set and it is denoted by and is read as phi. In roster
form, is denoted by {}.

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 • An empty set is a finite set, since the number of elements in an empty set is
finite, i.e., 0.

For example:
(a) The set of whole numbers less than 0.
Clearly there is no whole number less than 0.
Therefore, it is an empty set.

(b) N = {x : x N, 3 < x < 4}

• Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number}
Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number between 2 and 3.

Note:
≠ {0} has no element.
{0} is a set which has one element 0.
The cardinal number of an empty set, i.e., n( ) = 0

Cardinality of Empty Set:

Since we know that the cardinal number represents the number of elements that are present in the
set and by the definition of an empty set, we know that there are no element in the empty set.
Hence, the cardinal number or cardinality of an empty is zero.

Properties of Preparation for Empty Set:

1. Empty set is considered as subset of all sets. ϕ⊂X
2. Union of empty set ϕ with a set A is A. A∪ϕ=A Intersection of an empty
set with a set X is an empty set.

Solved Examples
Question 1: A is a set of alphabets and B is a set of numbers. What is the intersection of A and B?

Solution: A ∩ B = { }

Question 2: Write the set A which is a set of goats with 10 legs.

Solution: A = { }

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Examples of Empty Sets
Given below are some of the examples of empty sets.

Solved Examples
Question 1: Which of the following represents the empty set?

1. A set of cats with 4 legs

2. A set of apples with red color

3. A set of positive numbers in which all are less than 1

4. A set of rectangles with 4 sides

Solution:
Option 1: A set of cats with 4 legs. This set is possible where cats are having 4 legs.
Option 2: A set of apples with red color. This set is possible where apple is in red color.
Option 3: A set of positive numbers in which all are less than 1.
This set is not possible because the positive numbers must be greater than 1. So, this set is
considered as empty set.

Answer: 3
Question 2: A is a set of numbers from 1 to 10. B is a set of negative numbers. What is the
intersection of A and B?

Solution:
Given:
A = set of number from 1 to 10. = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} B = set of negative numbers

= {-1, -2, -3, -4,….} Intersection of A and B = A ∩ B = { }

Answer: The intersection of given sets is an empty set.

Subset
Consider the sets, X = set of all students in your school and Y = set of all students in your class. It
is obvious that set of all students in your class will be in your school. So, every element of Y is
also an element of X. We say that Y is a subset of X. The fact that Y is a subset of X is expressed
in symbol as Y⊂X. The symbol ⊂ stands for "is a subset of" or "is contained in".If Y is a subset of
X, then X is known to be a superset of Y. The subset of a set will have elements equal to or less
than the elements in the given set.
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Subset Definition
A set A is said to be a subset of a set B, if every element of A is also an element of B. In other
words, A⊂B if whenever a∈A, then a∈B. It is often convenient to use the symbol ⇒ which means
"implies". Suppose, for two sets A and B, A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1} then B is the subset of A.
Subset Symbol:
Using the symbol ⇒, we can write the definition of subset as follows:

A⊂B if a∈A⇒ a∈B

We read it as "A is a subset of B if a is an element of A, which implies that a is also an element of

B". If A is not a subset of B, we write A is not a subset of B. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {4, 5,
6}, then we can draw a Venn diagram for this as follows:

Operation of a Set
Union of Sets
We denote the union of A and B by A∪B. Thus, AUB =x|x∈A or x∈B or x∈AandB.

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Union of Two Sets
Let we have two sets A and B, then the union of these two sets is the set of all elements of each
sets i.e. the set of those elements which are in either sets.

If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {3,4,5,6,7} then A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

With the help of Venn diagram, we can prove it.

Union of Three Sets

If we have three sets say A, B and C, then the union of these three sets is the set that contains all the
elements or all contains that belongs to either A or B or C or to all three sets.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = { 2, 3, 5, 6} and C = { 2, 4, 5, 7}. Then, A∪B∪C = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} We
can show it in the Venn diagram as follows:

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Union of Sets Examples
Given below are some of the examples on union of sets.

Solved Examples
Question 1: Find the union of each of the following two sets:

1. X = {1, 3, 6} Y = {1, 2, 6}

2. X = {a, e, i, o, u} Y = {a, e, c}

3. X = {3 , 4 ,5} B = φ

Solution:
X Y = {1, 2, 3, 6}
X Y = {a, c, e, i, p, u}
X Y = {3, 4, 5}

Question 2:
If X = {1, 2, 5, 6}, Y = {3, 4, 6, 9}, Z = {3, 5, 6, 9} and W = {3, 6, 9, 11}. Find
1. X Y
2. X Z
3. Y Z
4. Y W
5. X Y Z
6. X Y W
7. Y Z W

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 1. X Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,9}

2. X Z = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9}
3. Y Z = {3, 4, 5, 6, 9}
4. Y W = {3, 4, 5, 6, 9,11}
5. X Y Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9}
6. X Y W = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11}
7. Y Z W = {3, 4, 5, 6, 9,11}

Find the Union of the Sets

Here, we will learn how to find the union of the sets with the help of the following examples.

Solved Examples Question

1:
Two sets are given.
A = {5, 12, 13, 16, 19}
B = {5, 10, 13, 16, 19}
Find A B

Solution:
Given sets are:
A = {5, 12, 13, 16, 19}
B = {5, 10, 13, 16, 19}
A B = {5, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19}

Here, common elements in A, B are 5,13,16,19 So,

it is taken only one times.
Question 2:
Find X Y for the following set.

X = {4, 6, 8, 9, 11} Y
= {3, 5, 6, 8, 11}
Given sets are

X = {4, 6, 8, 9, 11}

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Y = {3, 5, 6, 8, 11}
So, X Y = {3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11}

Here, common element is taken only one time.

Intersection of Sets
Intersection is an operation on sets. It is just opposite to union. It is a very useful and
important concept in set theory. Before we learn about intersection, we need to understand
some basic concept like what is set.

Find the Intersection of the Sets

For finding the intersection of two sets, we usually select those elements which are common in
both the sets. If there are three sets, then we select those elements which are common in all three
sets. Hence, if there are n number of sets, then we select only those elements which are common
in all the n sets. In this way, we find the intersection of sets

Intersecting Set: The intersection of two sets is the set of all the elements of two sets that
are common in both of them.
If we have two sets A and B, then the intersection of them is denoted by A ∩ B and it is read as
‘A intersection B’.

Disjoint set: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if no elements match in both sets.

Solved Examples

Question 1:

If A = {1, 3, 4, 6, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, find A ∩ B. What do you conclude?

Solution:
We have given that A = {1, 3, 4, 6, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8} We
have to find the intersection of A and B.

So, A ∩ B = {1, 3, 4, 6, 9} ∩ {2,4,6,8}

A ∩ B = {4, 6}

Question 2:

If A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2,4,6,8}, find A ∩ B. What do you conclude?

We have A ∩ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {2,4,6,8}

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No data match in both the sets, therefore the sets are disjoint sets.

Question 3:

If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and C = {4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}, then find

A ∩ B and A ∩ B ∩ C.

Solution:
Given sets are
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
C = {4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
First, we have to find A ∩ B. Then, we have to treat A ∩ B as a single set.

For A ∩ B, we select those elements which are common in sets A and

B. So, A ∩ B = {2, 4, 6}

For (A ∩ B) ∩ C, we select those elements which are common in sets A ∩ B and C.

So, (A ∩ B) ∩ C = {4, 6}

So, A ∩ B ∩ C = {4, 6}

Question 4:

If A = {1,3,5,7,9}, B = {2,4,6,8} and C = {2,3,5,7,11}, find (A ∩ B) and (A ∩ C) What do

you conclude?

Solution:
We have given that
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
C = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}

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A ∩ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {2, 4, 6, 8} = { }

Thus, A and B are disjoint sets

A ∩ C = {1,3,5,7,9} ∩ {2,3,5,7,11} = {3,5,7}

Thus, A and B are disjoint sets while A and C are intersecting sets.
Intersection of Two Sets
Let X = {2, 3, 8, 9} and Y = {5, 12, 9, 16} are two sets.
Let A and B are two sets. Then, the intersection of A and B can be shown as below.

Intersection of Three Sets

If we have A, B and C, then the intersection of these three sets are the set of all elements A, B
and C that are common in these three sets.

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Solved Example Question:
If we have A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 8}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 9} and C = {1, 3, 6, 8 }, then find the A ∩ B ∩ C.

Solution:
Given that A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 8}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 9} and C = {1, 3, 6, 8 }.

Then, it is clear that the elements 6 and 8 are common in all the three given sets.
Hence, we get A ∩ B ∩ C = {6, 8}.

Complement of a Set
In set theory, complement set is one of the branch.

The set of all elements in the universal set that are not in the initial set are said to be complement set.
The complement of a set is represented by the symbol A’. The set is a collection of the object. Set is
denoted by the symbols {}. In this article, we see in detail about the complement set.

Complement of a Set Definition

If we have a set A, then the set which is denoted by U - A, where U is the universal set is called the
complement of A. Thus, it is the set of everything that does not belong to A. So, the complement of a
set is the set of those elements which does not belong to the given set but belongs to the universal set
U. Mathematically, we can show it as A = {x \ x ∉ A but x ∈ U}

Since we know that every set is the subset of the universal set U, then the complementary set is
also the subset of U. The total number of elements in the complementary set is equal to the
difference between the number of elements of the set U and the number of elements of the given
cset (say A). If A is the given set, then the complement of A is denoted as AC or A'.

For example, U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and a set A = { 2,3,4,5,6}. Then, the complement of c

A is denoted by AC or A'.
AC = {1, 7, 8, 9}. We can show this with the help of Venn diagram

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Complement of a Set Example
Given below are some of the examples on complement of a set.
Solved Examples

Question 1: Value of set U = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {7, 8, 9, 10} and B = {8, 9, 10}. Find the
complement of A, complement of B, complement of A union B.

Solution:
Step 1: Given
U = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {7, 8, 9, 10}
B = {8, 9, 10}

Step 2: The element of set U is {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. The element that does not belong to A is
{2, 4, 6}. Complement of A is {2, 4, 6}.

Step 3: Complement of B is {2, 4, 6, 7}

Step 4: Complement of A ∪ B is {2, 4, 6}.

Question 2: Values of set U = {3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12} and A = {8, 9, 10, 12}. Find the compliment of
A.

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Solution:
Step 1: Given
U = {3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12}
A = {8, 9, 10, 12}

Step 2: The element of set U is {3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12}. Elements {3, 5, 7} does not belong to the set
A.

So, AC = {3, 5, 7}

Question 3: Values of set U = {1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10} and A = {6, 7, 8}. Find the complement of A

Solution:
Step 1: Given
U = {1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10}
A = {6, 7, 8}
Step 2: The element of set U is {1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10}. Elements {1, 4, 10} does not belong to the set
A.

AC = {1, 4, 10}.

Set Difference
Here, we are going to learn about an operation on set called difference of sets. In mathematics, a set
can have a limited number of elements. Set is a collection of data. We can perform many operations
on set. The difference operation is one of them. The subtract(difference) symbol in the function
represents the removal of the values from the second set from the first set. The operation of
subtraction is a removing or taking away objects from group of object.

Difference of Two Sets

Difference of sets P and Q is defined as a set of all the elements which are in set P but not in set Q.
Difference of sets is denoted by either by the symbols - or \. P minus Q can be written either P - Q or
P \ Q.

Take set P as usual and compare with set Q. Now, remove those element in set P which matches with
set Q. If P = {a,b,c,d} and Q = {d,e}, then P - Q = {a,b,c}.

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By representing it in the Venn diagram,

Symmetric Difference of Sets

If we have two sets A and B, then the symmetric difference of these two sets A and B is the set of
all elements those are either in A or in B not in both sets. So, we can say that the symmetric
difference of two sets is the union without the intersection.

Set Difference Examples

Given below are some of the problems based on difference of sets.

Solved Examples
Question 1: Consider the two sets A = {11,12, 13, 14, 15, 16}, B = {12, 14, 16, 18}. Find the
difference between the two sets?

Solution:

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Given A = {11,12, 13, 14, 15, 16}
B = {12, 14, 16, 18}
A - B = {11, 13, 15}
B - A = {18}

Question 2: A = {2,3,4,1,8,9} and B = {2,3,4,1,8,12}. What is A - B and B - A?

Solution:
Given A = {2,3,4,1,8,9}
B = {2,3,4,1,8,12}

Here, all elements of A is available in B except 9.

So, the difference A - B = {9}.
Here, all elements of B are available in A except 12.
So, the difference B - A = {12 }.

Question 3: Consider two sets A = {a, b, f, g, h}, B = {f, g, a, k}. Find A - B and B - A?
Solution:
Given A = {a, b , f , g , h}
B = {f, g, a, k} So, A - B = {b, h} and B - A = {k}

Question 4: Consider given sets P = {19, 38, 57, 76, 95} and Q = {7, 19, 57, 75, 94}. Find P - Q
and Q - P.

Solution:
Given P = {19, 38, 57, 76, 95}
Q = {7, 19, 57, 75, 94} So, P - Q = {38,76,95} and Q - P = {7,75,94}

Venn Diagrams
In mathematics, we can use the graphs and diagrams to solve some problems in geometry as well as
in algebra. To follow this procedure, we can show some relations in set theory with the help of
diagram, which is called as the Venn diagram. It is also known as set diagram. Venn diagrams are
named so in the name of its founder John Venn in around 1880.
In set theory, Venn diagrams are studied. A set is defined as a collection of the same types of
things. Venn diagram is an important and unique way of representing sets and various operations on

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them. It is a pictorial representation of sets. It is an easy way to understand about set theory. Venn
diagrams are everywhere in set theory. With the help of Venn diagrams, we are able to show the
operations of union, intersection, difference, complement etc. on the given sets.

In this page, we can discuss about these things with the help of a Venn diagram. In this process, the
sets are represented by circles. Venn diagrams are generally used to represent operations on two or
three sets. In order to learn about set theory in detail, one needs to command on Venn diagrams. In
this article, students will learn about different types of Venn diagrams. So, go ahead with us and
understand about Venn diagrams in detail.

Venn diagram is a graphical tool in which we use overlapping circles to visually presentation among
some given sets information. In Venn diagram, we can use two or more than two circles to show
sets.

Make a Venn Diagram

To make a Venn diagram, first we draw a rectangle to show the universal set U and mark U inside
the rectangle. After that, we will make circles for given sets and name them as A, B, C etc. Then,
according to the given relation of the sets, we can make a diagram for these sets in the rectangle to
show the relationship of the sets. Sometimes, we have some elements for the individual sets, then
fill all the elements in their respective sets and as per the given relation of the sets.

For example, if A and B are any two arbitrary sets, elements such that, some elements are in A
but not in B, some are in B but not in A, some are in both A and B, and some are in neither A
nor B, we represent A and B in the pictorial form as in shown in the Venn diagram.

A is a subset of B and is represented as shown in the Venn diagram.

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Disjoint Sets
A and B are disjoint sets as shown in the Venn diagram.

Triple Venn Diagram

For the triple Venn diagram, we need three sets as A, B and C. In the triple Venn diagram, we
have to show some relationship between these three sets.

For example, let A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {a, b, f, g, h} and C = {a, c, e, f, g, j, k}. Here, we can
find A ∩ B, B ∩ C, A ∩ C and A ∩ B ∩ C with the help of triple Venn diagram.

Given A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {a, b, f, g, h} and C = {a, c, f, g, j, k}. Now, A ∩ B = {b}, B ∩ C = {f,
g}, A ∩ C = {c} and A ∩ B ∩ C = {a}

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4 Circle Venn Diagram
Some times, we have four sets in a given problem and we want to show their relationship with
the help of Venn diagram. For this, we can draw four circles in a rectangle box, each circle
represents a unique set. Then, according to sets relation fill all the elements at their place.

Venn Diagram With Lines

In mathematics, sometimes we use the lines in the Venn diagram to show the union, intersection,
difference etc. for the given sets. If we have sets A and B, then with the line Venn diagram we can
show as:

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Picture of a Venn Diagram
If we have two sets A and B, then A B i.e. A union B:

A ∩ B i.e. A intersection B:

A and B are disjoint sets:

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A subset B:

Venn Diagram Union

If we have two sets A and B, then A B is the set of all elements that are in set A and in the set B. If any
element common in these two set, then we will take that one only one time. So, we can say that the union of
the set A and B is everything which are either in set A or in the set B.

Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {2,6,7,8} then A B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}. To show this union, we

can use the Venn diagram also as

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