ANRS BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE

TRAINING MANUAL FOR ZONE AND WOREDA EXPERTS

MODULE 2
Part A
DESIGN OF DIVERSION WEIR AND MAIN CANAL

August, 2013
Bahir Dar
Contributors Alphabetically:
Abdo Kedir
Endager Getinet
 Design of diversion weir and canal

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figure.............................................................................................................................. iii

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. iv
1 HYDROLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Food estimation method .................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Return period........................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Rational Formula ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 SCS method .................................................................................................................... 6
2 DIVERSION WEIR ............................................................................................................ 22
2.1 Function of diversion weir ............................................................................................ 22
2.2 Selection of weir site ..................................................................................................... 22
2.3 Classification of weir .................................................................................................... 23
2.4 Component of diversion weir........................................................................................ 25
2.5 Hydraulic design of the weir ......................................................................................... 28
2.5.1 General design consideration ................................................................................................ 28
2.5.2 Discharge over the weir......................................................................................................... 29
2.5.3 Section of the weir body........................................................................................................ 30
2.5.4 Water profile at the weir site ................................................................................................. 30
2.5.5 Tail water depth..................................................................................................................... 33
2.5.6 Apron and cut-offs ................................................................................................................ 35
2.6 Stability analysis of the weir ......................................................................................... 41
2.7 Under-sluice .................................................................................................................. 45
2.8 Canal head regulator ..................................................................................................... 46
2.9 Retaining wall ............................................................................................................... 47
2.9.1 Type of retaining wall ........................................................................................................... 47
2.9.2 Dimension of retaining wall .................................................................................................. 48
2.9.3 Stability analysis of retaining wall ........................................................................................ 49
3 CANAL SYSTEM DESIGN............................................................................................... 50
3.1 Types of canal ............................................................................................................... 50
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3.2 Planning and layout of irrigation system ...................................................................... 51

3.3 Canal section design ..................................................................................................... 54
3.3.1 Procedure for canal section design ........................................................................................ 54
3.3.2 Longitudinal section .............................................................................................................. 55
3.4 Design of unlined earth canals ...................................................................................... 57
3.4.1 Hydraulic Design formulae ................................................................................................... 58
3.5 Design of lined canal .................................................................................................... 70
3.5.1 Type of lining ........................................................................................................................ 70
3.5.2 Hydraulic design of lined canal ............................................................................................. 74
4 CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL DAMSERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2 Types of Dams ................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3 Site Selection for Dams .................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4 Storage Capacity of a Reservoir ....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5 Design of Embankments and Cut-Offs ..........................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6 Designing a Spillway .....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
REFERENCE .............................................................................................................................. 83
ANNEXES ................................................................................................................................... 84
Annex-1 Hydrology .................................................................................................................. 84

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List of Figure

Figure 1-1 Composite hydrograph ................................................................................................ 16

Figure 1-2Timely distribution of rainfall ration as percentage of daily rainfall ........................... 17
Figure 2-1 A typical water profile over the weirs ......................................................................... 31
Figure 2-2 Length of the jump in terms of sequent depth of jump in horizontal channel ............ 32
Figure 2-3 Backwater curve by approximate method ................................................................... 33
Figure 2-4 Cross-section of the weir site for X-river .................................................................... 34
Figure 2-5 Stage-discharge curve of x- river at the weir site ........................................................ 35
Figure 2-6 Seepage flow hydraulic gradients ............................................................................... 38
Figure 2-7 Uplift pressure under impervious floor ....................................................................... 39
Figure 2-8 Pressure distribution by Bligh theory .......................................................................... 40
Figure 2-9 Geometry of different type of retaining ...................................................................... 48
Figure 3-1 Layout of irrigation system with five level hierarchy of canal ................................... 51
Figure 3-2 Masonry canal lining for small canals ........................................................................ 81
Figure 3-3 Masonry canal lining (in area with back water pressure problem) ............................. 81
Figure 3-4 Masonry-upside unstable ............................................................................................ 81
Figure 3-5 Masonry-Terraced ground, downhill side unstable ..................................................... 82
Figure 3-6 Concrete lined canal in cut and fill ............................................................................. 82

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List of Tables
Table 1-1 Recommended runoff coefficient c for pervious surfaces by selected hydrologic soil
groupings and slope ranges ..................................................................................................... 4
Table 1-2 Frequency Factors for Rational Formula ........................................................................ 5
Table 1-3 Area to point rainfall ration .......................................................................................... 18
Table 1-4 Runoff curve number for the hydrological soil cover complex for condition II ......... 19
Table 1-5 Runoff curve number (CN) conversion and constants ................................................. 21
Table 2-1Recommended type of weir ........................................................................................... 26
Table 2-2 Tabular value of stage and discharge at the weir site for x-river ................................. 34
Table 2-3 Value of f for different soil ........................................................................................... 37
Table 2-4 Recommended value of Bligh coefficient and safe hydraulic gradient ........................ 38
Table 2-5 Coefficient of friction between concrete and cohesive and non cohesive soil ............. 44
Table 2-6 Internal angle of friction for different type of soil ....................................................... 45
Table 2-7 Allowable bearing pressure of different material ......................................................... 45
Table 3-1Recommended tertiary unit sizes................................................................................... 54
Table 3-2Hydraulic design formulae for unlined and lined canal ................................................ 58
Table 3-3 Recommended value of manning‘s ―n‖ ........................................................................ 60
Table 3-4 Permissible velocities for various soil textures ............................................................ 61
Table 3-5 Recommended canal side slope .................................................................................... 62
Table 3-6 Recommended B/D ratio for unlined channels ............................................................ 63
Table 3-7 Recommended canal freeboard .................................................................................... 66
Table 3-8 Seepage canal losses values for different soil canal routes .......................................... 67
Table 3-9 Recommended radius of bends ..................................................................................... 68
Table 3-10 Recommended seepage gradients for different soil types .......................................... 69
Table 3-11 Recommended Minimum Embankment Widths ........................................................ 70
3-12 Recommended Linings ......................................................................................................... 71
Table 3-13 Recommended values of maximum velocity & roughness coefficient ...................... 75
Table 3-14 Side slopes for lined canals ........................................................................................ 77
Table 3-15 Recommended B/d Ratio for Hard Surface ................................................................ 77
Table 3-16 Recommended freeboard values for hard surface lined canals .................................. 78
Table 3-17 Canal Lining Thickness .............................................................................................. 79

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1 HYDROLOGY

1.1 Introduction

Hydrology is generally defined as a science dealing with the interrelationship between water on
and under the earth and in the atmosphere. For the purpose of this manual, hydrology will deal
with estimating flood magnitudes as the result of precipitation. In the design of hydraulic
structure like weir, floods are usually considered in terms of peak runoff or discharge in cubic
meters per second (m3/s) and hydrographs as discharge per time.
The collection of relevant data, test of the appropriateness of data‘s and analysis of data by
applying the principles of applied hydrology to obtain the required values are the first and most
important task to be conducted before the design of any hydraulic and irrigation structure
commences. For all hydrologic analyses, the following factors shall be evaluated and included
when they will have a significant effect on the final results:
 Drainage basin characteristics including: size, shape, slope, land use, geology, soil type,
surface infiltration, and storage;
 Stream channel characteristics including geometry and configuration, natural and
artificial controls, channel modification, aggradation - degradation, and debris;
 Flood plain characteristics; and
 Meteorological characteristics such as precipitation amounts and type, time rate of
precipitation (hyetograph)
The maximum design discharge (peak flood) is the peak river discharge that corresponds to a
certain return period which is usually decided by the designer on economic and engineering
ground. The maximum design discharge will be used to determine the weir crest length and the
back water curve & afflux.

1.2 Food estimation method

Many hydrologic methods are available. The methods to be used and the circumstances for their
use are depends on the available data, size of the catchment and importance of the project. If

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possible the method shall be calibrated to local conditions and tested for accuracy and reliability.
The following hydrologic methods can be used for the peak flood estimation:
 Rational method
 SCS method (NCRS curve number method)
 Catchment area regression equations
 Flood frequency analysis like Gumbel or Log Pearson III analyses
 Empirical formula
The flood frequency analysis method is particularly useful where long records of stream gauge
data are available at or near to and on the same stream as the structure site. Regional regression
equations provide estimates of peak discharge for watersheds in specific geographic regions.
Hence in this manual the Rational and SCS method will be described since these method can be
used in the area where streamflow data is not availiable which is quite often the case in the
design of weir for small scale irrigation scheme.
1.2.1 Return period
Flood discharges are often referred to as peak discharges as they occur at the peak of the
stream‘s flood hydrograph (discharge over time). Peak discharge magnitudes are a function of
their expected frequency of occurrence, which in turn relates to the magnitude of the potential
damage and hazard
While designing a weir, provision must be made for the flood that is likely to occur during the
lifetime of the structure. However, one can neither choose a very high nor a very low flood
magnitude for the design. A very high flood never occurs during the lifetime of the structure. If
such magnitude it will result in a costly structure. On the other hand, if a very low flood
magnitude is chosen for the design and exceeded, it will result in the failure of the structure,
causing much more damage than would have been caused in the absence of the structure. The
hydrological study guideline of the ministry of water resource of Ethiopia recommend a peak
river discharge that corresponds to 25 to 50 & 50 to 100 years return period for small & medium
scale diversion structures.
1.2.2 Rational Formula
The Rational Method was first introduced in 1889. Although it is often considered simplistic, it
still is appropriate for estimating peak discharges for small urban and rural watershed in which

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no significant flood storage appears. It is found to be suitable for peak flow prediction in small
catchments in area where the time of concentration is small.
The rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a catchment area as a
function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient, and means rainfall intensity for duration equal
to the time of concentration.
The rational formula is expressed as:

Where,
Q = design peak discharge (m3/sec).
C = runoff coefficient repressenting a ration of runoff to rainfall
I = average rainfall intensity for aduration equat to the time of concentratio, for a selected return
period, mm/hr
A = the watershed area (km2)
Assumption in rational formula
The rate of runoff resulting from any constant rainfall intensity is maximum when the duration of
rainfall equals the time of concentration. That is, if the rainfall intensity is constant, the entire
drainage area contributes to the peak discharge when the time of concentration has elapsed. This
assumption becomes less valid as the drainage area increases. For large drainage areas, the time
of concentration can be so large that the assumption of constant rainfall intensities for such long
periods is not valid, and shorter more intense rainfalls can produce larger peak flows.
Additionally, rainfall intensities usually vary during a storm.
Procedure for estimating peak discharge by Rational method:
1. Watershed area
The first step in applying the Rational Method is to obtain a good topographic map and define
the boundaries of the catchment area in question. A field inspection of the area should also be
made to determine if the natural drainage divides have been altered.
2. Time of concentration
Determine the time of concentration, with consideration for future characteristics of the
watershed. The time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the
hydraulically most remote point of the catchment area to the point under investigation. Use of the

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Rational Method requires the time of concentration for each design point within the catchment
area. The duration of rainfall is then set equal to the time of concentration and is used to estimate
the design average rainfall intensity (I) in rational formula.
The time of concentration can be computed by method:

( )
√
Where‘
Tc = Time of concentration (hr)
L = Length of the main water course (mm)
S = slope of the main water course (m/m)
3. Runoff coefficient
Select or develop appropriate runoff coefficients for the watershed.
The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the Rational Method least susceptible to precise
determination and requires judgment and understanding on the part of the designer. A typical
coefficient represents the integrated effects of many drainage basin parameters. Table 1-1 gives
the recommended runoff coefficient (C) for pervious surfaces by selected hydrologic soil
groupings and slope ranges. From this table the C values for non-urban areas such as forest land,
agricultural land, and open space can be determined.

Table 1-1 Recommended runoff coefficient c for pervious surfaces by selected hydrologic
soil groupings and slope ranges
Soil Type
A B C D
Terrain Type
Flat, <2% 0.04-0.09 0.07-0.12 0.11-0.16 0.15-0.20
Rolling, 2-6% 0.09-0.14 0.12-0.17 0.16-0.21 0.20-0.25
Mountain, 6-15% 0.13-0.18 0.18-0.24 0.23-0.31 0.28-0.38
Escarpment, >15% 0.18-0.22 0.24-0.30 0.30-0.40 0.38-0.48

Where the watershed comprises more than one characteristic, you must estimate C values for
each area segment individually. You may then estimate a weighted C value using Equation:

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Where:
C = weighted (composite) runoff coefficient
C1, C2, C3,… Cn = runoff coefficients applicable to areas A1, A2, A3 … An
n = number of different type of area within watershed
At = total area = A1+A2+A3+…An
The coefficients given in Tables 1-1 are applicable for storms of 5-yr to 10-yr frequencies. Less
frequent, higher intensity storms will require modification of the coefficient because infiltration
and other losses have a proportionally smaller effect on runoff. The adjustment of the Rational
method for use with major storms can be made by multiplying the right side of the rational
formula by a frequency factor Cf. The rational formula now becomes:

The frequency factor Cf values are listed in the Table 1-2

Table 1-2 Frequency Factors for Rational Formula

Recurrence Interval (years) Cf

5 1.0
10 1.0
25 1.1
50 1.2
100 1.25

Hydrological Soil Groups for Ethiopia

Soil properties influence the relationship between runoff and rainfall since soils have differing
rates of infiltration. Permeability and infiltration are the principal data required to classify soils
into Hydrologic Soils Groups (HSG). Based on infiltration rates, the Soil Conservation Service
(SCS) has divided soils into four hydrologic soil groups as follows:
Group A: Sand, loamy sand or sandy loam. Soils having a low runoff potential due to high
infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of deep, well-drained sands and gravels.
Group B: Silt loam, or loam. Soils having a moderately low runoff potential due to moderate
infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of moderately deep to deep, moderately well to
well drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures.
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Group C: Sandy clay loam. Soils having a moderately high runoff potential due to slow
infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of soils in which a layer exists near the surface
that impedes the downward movement of water or soils with moderately fine to fine texture.
Group D: Clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay or clay. Soils having a high runoff
potential due to very slow infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of clays with high
swelling potential, soils with permanently-high water tables, soils with a clay pan or clay layer at
or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious parent material.
4. Rainfall intensity
The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for duration equal to the time of
concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has been selected for
design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment area, the rainfall intensity can be
determined from Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves. Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves for use
in Ethiopia are given in Annex-1-Hydrology part.

1.3 SCS method

This method was developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS). The
SCS (now known as NRCS) peak flow method calculates peak flow as a function of drainage
basin area, potential watershed storage, and the time of concentration
The primary input variables for the NRCS methods are as follows:
 drainage area size (A) in square kilometers
 time of concentration (Tc) in hours
 weighted runoff curve number (RCN)
 rainfall distribution (NRCS Type II)
 total design rainfall (P) in millimeters.
Catchment Area: A catchment area is determined from topographic maps and field surveys. For
large catchment areas it might be necessary to divide the area into sub-catchment areas to
account for major land use changes, obtain analysis results at different points within the
catchment area.

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Rainfall: The SCS method is based on a 24-hour storm event which has a Type II time
distribution. The Type II storm distribution is a 'typical" time distribution which the SCS has
prepared from rainfall records. It is applicable for interior rather than the coastal regions and
should be appropriate for Ethiopia. To use this distribution it is necessary for the user to obtain
the 24-hour rainfall value.
Rainfall-Runoff Equation: A relationship between accumulated rainfall and accumulated
runoff was derived by SCS from experimental plots for numerous hydrologic and vegetative
cover conditions. Data for land-treatment measures, such as contouring and terracing, from
experimental catchment areas were included.
The SCS runoff equation is therefore a method of estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day
storm rainfall. The equation is:
( )
( )
Where:
Q = accumulated direct runoff, mm
P = accumulated rainfall (potential maximum runoff), mm
Ia = initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior to runoff, mm
S = potential maximum retention, mm
The relationship between Ia and S was developed from experimental catchment area data. It
removes the necessity for estimating Ia for common usage. The empirical relationship used in the
SCS runoff equation is:

Substituting 0.2S for Ia in foregoing equations, the SCS rainfall-runoff equation becomes:
( )
( )
S is related to the soil and cover conditions of the catchment area through the CN. CN has a
range of 0 to 100, and S is related to CN by:

( )

Procedure for the design of peak flood by SCS method

1. Design storm rainfall

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The design storm rainfall is estimated by using frequency analysis. Extreme value type I
distribution (EVI) is applied for estimation of design storm rainfall. Storm rainfalls are
commonly modeled by EVI as it applicable to the extreme hydrological events.
EVI is expressed using the equation:
̅
Where = the design storm for a certain return period (mm)
̅ = the mean of the observed daily highest rainfall (mm)
s = the standard deviation of observed daily highest rainfall (mm)
= the frequency factor for a return period, T
For EVI, (Chow, 1964) derives the following expression for a frequency factor:
√
{ [ ( )]}

The mean of observed daily highest rainfall;

̅ ∑

The standard deviation of the sample,

√ ( ̅)

Example
The maximum daily rain fall of X-meteorological station for 19 years of record is shown in the
following table. Calculate the design storm that can be used for the determination of design
discharge for the design of diversion weir for 50 years return period
Maximum daily highest rainfall for 19 year period of x- meteorological station
Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
RF
(mm) 43.1 44.3 44.7 47 49.2 50 50.8 51 58 58.3
Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
RF
(mm) 58.5 60 6.4 66.2 67 82 85.5 95.2 99.8

Solution
From the descriptive statistics‘
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̅
s = 21.365
√
{ [ ( )]}

XT = 58.789 +2.592288 x 21.365 = 114 mm

2. Time of concentration, rainfall excess duration and time to peak
Time of concentration
The time of concentration can be computed by:

( )
√
Where‘
Tc = Time of concentration (hr)
L = Length of the main water course (mm)
S = slope of the main water course (m/m)
If the slope of the river course is not uniform in all reach of the river, the time of concentration is
computed by dividing the longest water course into different segment so that the time of
concentration would be found by summing the individual time of concentration.

Duration of excess rainfall, D

D ≈ Tc/6 if Tc < 3 hr
D ≈ 1hr if Tc > 3hr
Time to peak
Tp = 0.5D+0.6Tc
Time of base of hydrograph = Tp = 2.67 Tp
Lag time, TL =0.6 Tc
3. Peak runoff for 1mm of runoff

Where
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qp = peak runoff (m3/s/mm)

A = Area of the catchment
Tp = Time to peak
4. Direct runoff
The direct runoff is computed by,
( )
( )
The detail procedure for the estimation of the peak flood by complex hydrograph is presented
here under.
Step Designation/Formula Symbol Unit Value
1 Area of catchment (This can be determined from A km2 70.3
1:50,000 scale topographical maps
2 Length of main watercourse from watershed divide L m 19
to proposed diversion to proposed diversion or
storage site (topographical map)
3 Elevation of watershed divide opposite to the main H1 m 3046
water course (topographical map)
4 Elevation of streambed at proposed diversion site H2 m 1690
(topographical map)
5 Slope of main watercourse, S = (H1–H2)/L S m/m 0.0714
6 Time of concentration, TC hr 1.80

( )
√
7 Rainfall Excess duration D hr 0.30

8 Time to peak, Tp = 0.5D + 0.6TC Tp hr 1.23

9 Time base of hydrograph, Tb = 2.67Tp Tb hr 3.30
10 Lag time, TL = 0.6 TC Te hr 1.08
3
11 Peak rate of discharge created by 1mm runoff qp m /s /mm 12.0
excess on whole of the catchment

( )

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12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Duration Daily point Rainfall Rain Areal Areal Incremental Descending
rain fall of profile fall to point rainfall rainfall order
return profile rainfall
period 50 ratio
years
hr mm % mm % mm mm No
0-0.30 25 27.5 57 15.7 15.7 1. 15.7
0.30-0.60 34 37.4 59 22.1 6.4 2. 9.4
0.60-0.90 44 48.4 65 31.5 9.4 3. 6.4
110
0.90-1.20 48 52.8 69 36.4 4.9 4. 5.0
1.20-1.50 53 58.3 71 41.4 5.0 5. 4.9
1.50-1.80 57 62.7 73 45.8 4.4 6. 4.4
12 Fill in 0-D hr, D-2D hr, … 5D-6Dhr.
13 Determine the magnitude of the daily rainfall with the given recurrent interval by
applying statistical method.
14 Read from figure. 1-2 the rainfall profile (%) occurring in D, 2D, 3D … 6D
hours, and enter in 14.
15 Multiply 13 and 14 to find the rainfall profile (mm) and enter in 15
16 From Table 1-1, read areal to point rainfall ratio for different duration and
particular catchment area. The method is based on research conducted in India
and influenced by return period, magnitude of storm shape and orientation of area
etc. Alternatively for small catchment, you can use area reduction factor, ARF so
that column17 can be obtained by multiplying ARF with column 16

17 Multiply 15 and 16 and file in 17

18 Calculate incremental rainfall by deducting the current areal rainfall from the
preceding areal rainfall as listed in (18).
19 Assign order to the rainfall depths in descending order 1 to 6

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20 21 22 23 24 25
Rearranged Rearranged Cumulative Times of incremental hydrograph
order incremental rainfall Time of Time of Peak Time to end
rainfall beginning
No. mm mm hr hr hr
6 4.4 4.4 0 1.23 3.3
4 5.0 9.4 0.30 1.53 3.6
3 6.4 15.8 0.60 1.83 3.9
1 15.7 31.5 0.90 2.13 4.2
2 9.4 40.9 1.20 2.43 4.5
5 4.9 45.8 1.50 2.73 4.8
20 From 19, mention the rearranged order as 6, 4, 3, 1, 2, 5 (arbitrarily) but
considering ascending and descending feature of the hydrograph ordinates, where
peak value is around the middle of the hydrograph.
21 Fill in the corresponding incremental rainfall value to the rearranged order of 20
from 18.
22 Fill in the cumulative rainfall values of 21 by adding with the rainfall values in the
preceding duration
23 Fill in the time of beginning of hydrograph as 0, D, 2D … 5D hr.

24 Fill in the time to peak as Tp, D+ Tp, 2D+Tp … 5D + Tp or add Tp in every value of
23 and mention in 24.
25 Add Tb in every value of 23 and fill in 25

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26 27 28 29 30 31
Land use Area Ratio Hydrologic Curve No. Weighted Sum Weighted ―CN‖
cover Condition ―CN‖ ―CN‖
Wood land 0.20 Poor 83 17 AMC CN
Meadows 0.30 Good 48 23 II 86
Cropland 0.50 Poor 91 46
III 94
26 Identify all types of land use cover such as cropped area, fallow land, pastures,
meadow, forest etc. from the catchment map.
27 Find ratio of each type of land use cover to the total catchment area and enter in
27.
28 Ascertain treatment practice of each type of land use cover, hydrologic condition
corresponding to it from the catchment map and enter in 28.
29 Ascertain hydrologic soil groups for each type of land use cover as below:
Group A: Low runoff potential
Group B: Moderate runoff potential
Group C: Soil having high runoff potential
Group D: Soil having very high runoff potential
Find the corresponding curve number ―CN‖ from Table 1-4.
30 Multiply 27 and 29 and enter in 30.
31 Add 30. This curve number is corresponding to antecedent moisture condition II
(AMC-II). Find ―CN‖ for AMC III from Table 1-5.

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No Description/Formula Symbol Unit Example

32 Find maximum potential difference S between S mm 16.2
Rainfall (P) and Direct Runoff (Q) from

( )

Where CN = Value corresponding to AMC III as

obtained in 31.
33 Substitute the value of S in the following Q mm
( )
formula, giving the relation between Direct
Runoff Q and rainfall P
( )
( )
34 Substitute values of P1 as mentioned in 22, in the 22 34
above formula and find the corresponding values P (mm) Q (mm)
of Q (34). 4.4 0
9.4 1.7
Enter the value of Q in 36. 15.8 5.5
31.5 18.0
40.9 26.4
45.8 31.0

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35 36 37 38 39 40
23 24 25
Duration Cumulative Incremental Peak Time of Time Time Composite
Runoff Runoff Runoff for Beginning to to Hydrograph
Increment Peak End
Hr. mm Mm m3/S hr. hr. hr. t-Q
0-0.30 0 0 0 0 1.23 3.3 Triangular
0.30-0.60 1.7 1.7 20.4 0.30 1.53 3.6 Hydrograph
0.60-0.90 5.5 3.8 45.6 0.60 1.83 3.9 Synthesis
0.90-1.20 18.0 12.5 150.0 0.90 2.13 4.2
1.20-1.50 26.4 8.4 100.8 1.20 2.43 4.5
1.50-1.80 31.0 4.6 55.2 1.50 2.73 4.8
35 Enter the same time as in 12 i.e. 0 – D, D – 20, 2D – 3D, … 5D – 6D
36 There are the values of Q as found out in 34 corresponding to the value of P.
37 Find incremental runoff by reducing the values of 36 by preceding values.
38 Multiply 37 with peak rate of runoff corresponding to mm runoff excess as found at
11.
39 Plot triangular hydrograph, Figure1-1, with time of beginning, peak time and, time to
end as mentioned in 23, 24, 25 and peak runoff as mentioned in 38.
40 Plot a composite hydrograph, Figure1-1, by adding all the triangular hydrographs.
The resultant hydrograph will be composite hydrograph of desired return period. The
coordinate of the peak of this hydrograph will give the peak runoff with desired
return period.

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Figure 1-1 Composite hydrograph

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Figure 1-2Timely distribution of rainfall ration as percentage of daily rainfall

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Table 1-3 Area to point rainfall ration

Are Durati 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0 18.0 21.0 24.0
a on 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
25 66 78 82 85 87 88 88 91 92 93 93 94 94
2
km
50 (hrs) 61 71 78 82 84 85 87 89 90 91 92 92 93
75 57 67 75 79 82 84 83 87 89 90 91 91 92
100 54 65 73 78 80 82 83 86 88 89 90 91 91
125 52 63 72 76 79 81 82 85 87 88 89 90 91
150 50 61 70 75 78 80 61 84 86 88 89 89 90
175 48 59 69 74 77 79 81 84 86 87 88 89 90
200 46 58 68 73 76 78 80 83 85 87 88 88 89
225 45 57 57 72 75 77 72 82 85 86 87 88 89
250 44 55 66 71 74 77 78 82 84 86 87 88 88
275 42 54 65 70 74 76 78 81 84 85 86 87 88
300 41 53 54 70 73 75 77 81 83 85 86 87 88
325 40 53 63 58 72 73 77 80 83 84 86 87 87
350 38 52 63 68 72 74 76 80 82 84 85 86 87
375 39 51 62 68 71 74 78 80 82 84 85 86 87
400 38 50 61 67 71 73 75 79 82 83 85 86 87
425 37 50 61 67 70 73 75 79 81 83 84 85 86
450 36 49 60 66 70 72 74 79 81 83 84 85 86
475 36 48 60 66 69 72 74 78 81 83 84 85 86
500 35 48 59 66 69 72 74 78 80 82 84 85 86
525 34 47 59 65 68 71 73 78 80 82 83 85 85
550 34 47 58 64 68 71 73 77 80 82 83 84 85
575 33 46 58 64 68 71 73 77 80 82 83 84 85
600 33 45 57 63 67 70 72 77 79 81 83 84 85
625 32 45 57 63 67 70 72 76 79 81 83 84 85
680 32 45 56 63 67 69 72 76 79 81 82 84 84
675 31 41 56 62 66 69 71 76 79 81 82 83 84
700 31 44 56 62 66 69 71 76 78 80 82 83 84
725 31 45 55 62 66 69 71 75 78 80 82 83 84
750 30 43 55 61 65 68 71 75 78 80 82 83 84
49

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Table 1-4 Runoff curve number for cultivated agricultural land

Cover description Curve numbers for
Hydrologic soil group
2
Cover Treatment Hydrologic A B C D
Type condtion3
Fallow Bare soil - 77 86 91 94
Crop residue Poor 76 85 90 93
cover (CR) Good 74 83 88 90
Row Straight row (SR) Poor 72 81 88 91
Crops Good 67 78 85 89
SR + CR Poor 71 80 87 90
Good 64 75 82 85
Contoured (C) Poor 70 79 84 88
Good 65 75 82 86
C + CR Poor 69 78 83 87
Good 64 74 81 85
Contoured & Poor 66 74 80 82
terraced (C & T) Good 62 71 78 81
C&T + CR Poor 65 73 79 81
Good 61 70 77 80
Small grain SR Poor 65 76 84 88
Good 63 75 83 87
SR + CR Poor 64 75 83 86
Good 60 72 80 84
C Poor 63 74 82 85
Good 61 73 81 84
C + CR Poor 62 73 81 84
Good 60 72 80 83
C&T Poor 61 72 79 82
Good 59 70 78 81
C&T + CR Poor 60 71 78 81
Good 58 69 77 80
Close-seeded SR Poor 66 77 85 89
or broadcast Good 58 72 81 85
Legumes or C Poor 64 75 83 85
Rotation Good 55 69 78 83
Meadow C&T Poor 63 73 80 83
Good 51 67 76 80
1
Average runoff condition, and Ia = 0.2S.
2
Crop residue cover applies only if residue is on at least 5% of the surface throughout the year.
3
Hydrologic condition is based on a combination of factors that affect infiltration and runoff,
including (a) density and canopy of vegetative areas, (b) amount of year-round cover, (c) amount

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

of grass or closed-seeded legumes in rotations, (d) percent of residue cover on the land surface
(good > 20%), and (e) degree of roughness.
Poor : Factors impair infiltration and tend to increase runoff.
Good : Factors encourage average and better than average infiltration and tend to
decrease runoff.

Runoff curve number for other agricultural land

Cover description Curve numbers for hydrologic soil group
Cover type Hydrologic A B C D
condition

Pasture, grassland, or range- Poor 68 79 86 89

continuous forage for grazing2 Fair 49 69 79 84
Good 39 61 74 80

Meadow-continuous grass,
-- 35 59 72 79
protected from grazing

Poor 48 67 77 83
Brush-weed-grass mixture Fair 35 56 70 77
with brush the major element3 Good 304 48 65 73

Poor 57 73 82 86
Woods-grass combination 5 Fair 43 65 76 82
Good 32 58 72 79

Poor 45 66 77 83
Fair 36 60 73 79
Woods6 Good 304 55 70 77

Farms—buildings,lanes, -- 59 74 82 86
driveways, and surrounding
lots

1
Average runoff condition, and Ia = 0.2S
2
Poor: < 50% ground cover or heavily grazed with no mulch
Fair: 50 to 75% ground cover and not heavily grazed
Good: > 75% ground cover and lightly or only occasionally grazed
3
Poor: < 50% ground cover
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Fair: 50 to 75% ground cover

Good: > 75% ground cover
4
Actual curve number is less than 30; use CN = 30 for runoff computations.
5
CNs shown were computed for areas with 50% grass (pasture) cover. Other combinations of
conditions may be computed from CNs for woods and pasture.
6
Poor : Forest litter, small trees, and brush are destroyed by heavy grazing or regular burning.
Fair : Woods grazed but not burned, and some forest litter covers the soil.
Good : Woods protected from grazing, litter and brush adequately cover soil.

Table 1-5 Runoff curve number (CN) conversion and constants

CN for CN for AMC CN for CN for AMC
Condition I III Condition II I III
100
II 100 100 58 38 76
98 94 99 56 36 75
96 89 99 54 34 73
94 85 98 52 32 71
92 81 97 50 31 70
90 78 96 48 29 68
88 75 95 46 27 66
86 72 94 44 25 64
84 68 93 42 24 62
82 66 92 40 22 60
80 63 91 38 21 58
78 60 90 36 19 56
76 58 89 34 18 54
74 55 88 32 16 52
72 53 86 30 15 50
70 51 85 25 12 48
68 48 84 20 9 37
66 46 82 15 6 30
64 44 81 10 4 22
62 42 79 5 2 13
60 40 78 0 0 0

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

2 DIVERSION WEIR

2.1 Function of diversion weir

A diversion weir is a structure built across a river to raise water elevation up to a specified level
and to divert the water in a specified orientation for different purposes, such as irrigation,
hydropower generation, flood control, etc.
The diversion weir will be designed and constructed to serve the following functions:
Raise the water level on its upstream side;
Regulate the supply of water into the canal;
Control the entry of silt into the canal; and
Help in controlling changes in river behavior.

2.2 Selection of weir site

There are some important criteria that should always be satisfied in the design of diversion weirs
irrespective of type. These criteria are listed below:
1. The desired amount of water should be diverted for most of the time.
2. The sediment grains in water should not be allowed to enter the water intake. However, no
matter how perfect the design is, some sediment will always exist in the diverted water.
Therefore, an ideal design should aim at limiting the amount of entrainment of especially
coarse sediment into the intake.
3. Head losses in the intake should be minimized in order to have a low spillway.
4. Accumulated objects in front of the intake should be easily flushed downstream.
5. The flow velocity should be controlled in order to protect the river bed from the erosion and
to protect the related structures from scouring.
6. Water level fluctuations in front of the intake should be decreased.
In addition to the above criteria, the following condition should be assessed while selecting the
weir site for irrigation:
a) Proximity of the irrigable area

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

The associated canal alignment should enable adequate command without excessive excavation
or embankment. Under optimum conditions the diversion site should be located neither very
close to the irrigable area so as not to miss gravity command area nor very far so as to avoid very
long idle reach of main canal that would inflate project cost.
With respect to the adjoining land surface, the elevation of water surface upstream of the weir
should not be so low as to require an excessively high weir to divert the water at the intake;
b) River bank (abutment) & river bed stability and water tightness
Assuring the water tightness & stability of the abutment & river bed is quite important once the
diversion site is selected. The weir should be located with firm, well defined banks so that the
river couldn‘t overtops its embankment and change its course. From the hydraulic point of view
the most suitable location for diversion structures is where the river is straight, has stable banks
& no deposit islands are formed. When a straight reach cannot be found, the weir should be built
on the outside bank of a bend where the river even at its minimum discharge can supply the main
canal with adequate water and sedimentation is less.
In contrast to the use of standard abstraction or a barrier across a river (which is a weir structure)
river bank diversion is also possible very rarely as it demands unerrodible riverbed &
undepositing river section. In addition the abstraction of flow in the irrigation season should be
very small percent of the river discharge and the minimum water level at the site should be
sufficient to provide command of the area so as to facilitate river bank diversion.
c) Availability of construction material at nearest place
d) Easy arrangement of flow diversion during construction

2.3 Classification of weir

Diversion weirs can be classified according to various criteria. The following broad classification
could be employed:
a) According to function:
Storage weirs: used to divert & at the same time store water hence some time called low dams.
Pickup weirs: used to divert released water from an upstream located storage facility
Diversion /intake weirs: used to raise the level of water upto a required level & divert into a
canal.
Discharge weirs: generally used as spillways to carry over floods.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

b) According to control of flow over crest:

Barrage: a low obstructive barrier where gates are provided on the crest to control the flow
passing across the structure;
Weir: obstruction across streams with crest fixed at about pond level or if lower than pond level,
with provision of controlling device (e.g. Drum gates) whereby the controlling device will be
lowered during flood.
c) According to material of construction:
Masonry: all parts of the weir are constructed using masonry stones. The required section is
moderate as it is structurally analyzed as monolithic structure.
Rock fill with concrete masonry: rock fill is supported by grids of masonry work or reinforced
concrete buttresses. The rock fill is either in a form of gabion or random fill. It requires big
section to achieve stability.
Reinforced concrete: all components aprons, crest, glacis etc are constructed out of reinforced
concrete. Mostly sloping downstream glacis is provided to create hydraulic jump in a short
distance.
Cyclopean concrete: The major control section of the weir is constructed out of cyclopean
concrete, a mix of rubble stone & cement concrete.
d) According to the shape of the weir:
Horizontal broad crested weir: The weir comprises a horizontal crest between vertical abutments
and two vertical or inclined faces.
Ogee shaped weir: From an economic point of view, spillway must safely discharges a peak flow
under the smallest possible head, while on the other hand the negative pressure on the crest must
be limited to avoid the danger of cavitations.
e) According to design aspect:
Gravity weirs: structures made stable as a result of self weight to counteract uplift, lateral &
sliding forces
Non gravity weirs: the floor relatively thinner, resists the uplift by bending. Structures made
stable as a result of structural reinforcement & designed as a reinforced concrete structure. E.g. A
vertical barrier wall built across streams where there exists a portion above the river bed level
consisting of reinforced concrete.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

2.4 Component of diversion weir

The most common components of the weirs & barrages are basically the following:
 Weir /spilling section
 Under-sluice /scouring sluice
 Intake structure/head regulator for canal
 Apron
 Cutoff
 Divide wall
 Retaining and river protection works
1. Weir spilling section
Weir spilling section/overflow section of the weir is part of a weir placed across the river
obstructing the flow to attain certain head for commanding the field.
In selecting the type of spillway section to be used in the design of diversion structure (weir) for
a particular site, the following factors are to be considered particularly under the Ethiopian
Context. These are; character & strength of foundation, availability of construction material,
necessity for a controlled crest, cost & last but not least river morphology as related to sediment
transport based on the nature of the river (perennial or intermittent).
As it can be easily noticed most perennial & intermittently flowing rivers particularly in the
northern portion of the country, are characterized by river morphology which carries quite
significant volume of bed & suspended sediment load, where the bed load has sizes of boulders
ranging from few centimeters up to 75 cm. Thus this calls for a special consideration that will
allow the passage of this bed load right after the first occurrences of the flood flow season.
Therefore weirs with opening slots or barrages could be recommended for this purpose.
However, for ordinary purposes the following table suggests the recommended type of weirs
considering both safety & cost.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Table 2-1Recommended type of weir

No. Site condition Diversion recommended
function crest design construction
1. Perennial river, less significant Storage Weir Gravity Masonry
bed load & moderate up to good /diversion/ /cyclopean
foundation bearing capacity concrete /rock
fill with
masonry/
2. Perennial or intermittent river Storage Barrage Gravity Masonry
highly significant bed load & /diversion/ /open /cyclopean
moderate up to good foundation slotted concrete/
bearing capacity weir
3. Some as above but bad Storage Barrage Non- Cyclopean
foundation bearing capacity /diversion/ /open gravity concrete
slotted /reinforced
weir/ concrete/
4. River water released from storage Pick up Weir Gravity Masonry
dam & moderate up to good /non- /cyclopean
foundation bearing capacity gravity concrete /rock
fill with
masonry/
5. Same as above but bad Pick up Weir Gravity Cyclopean
foundation bearing capacity /non- concrete
gravity /reinforced
concrete

2. Under-sluice
Under-sluice/scouring sluice are opening provided in the body of the weir. The function of the
under sluice is to intercept the bed loads as it approaches the canal intake and discharge it, with
its bed load, downstream of the weir. This allows drawing comparatively silt free water to the off
taking canal. Sluice also used be used to decrease the flow over the crest during the peak flow
period. The under-sluices may be on one or both sides of the headworks, depending on whether it
is a single canal or double canal system.
3. Intake structure

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Intake structure is provided to regulate the supply of water into the off taking canal; to control
entry of silt and other material to the off taking canal as well as to exclude high flood entering
into the off taking canal.
4. Divide Wall
It is a long solid wall constructed at right angle to the weir axis & divides the river channel into
two compartments, small and bigger. The smaller compartment which is nearer to the head
regulator will be used to create a stilling pond to be used by the head regulator.
It usually extends upstream beyond the beginning of the regulator and downstream to the
launching apron (talus). The sluice bay floor level is generally kept as low as possible to create
pool conditions (for silt settlement and its exclusion) and the dividing wall separates the two
floor levels of the weir. The downstream extension of the dividing wall provides a barrier
between the stilling basin and scouring bay, in order to avoid cross-currents. A properly designed
dividing wall can also induce desirable curvature to the flow for sediment exclusion from the
canal-head regulator.
5. Apron
The main purpose of u/s apron is to protect the channel bed from the impact of the flow against
the weir, and to protect the upstream bed against cross currents flow along the face of the weir,
particularly when the scouring sluices are in operation. The upstream apron also provides extra
length to the structure and hence reduces the under-floor pressure and exit gradient of seepage
flow. The upstream apron generally is generally set at the minimum bed level of the channel at
the site. The purpose of downstream apron is to resist uplift pressure, reduce the exit gradient of
seepage and to dissipate the energy over the weir
6. Cutoff
The primary purpose of cutoff is to increase the percolation path to prevent piping of the
foundation material and reduce percolation. Cutoffs also protect a structure from undermining if
excessive erosion should occur at the end of the structure.
7. Retaining wall and Wing wall
These walls are provided to anchor the structure into the abutment; to guide and confine the river
into a restricted channel for smooth entry of flow into the intake as well as to protect the area
from river overflow and submergence.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

2.5 Hydraulic design of the weir

2.5.1 General design consideration

2.5.1.1 Crest elevation
The crest elevation (or normal head pond level in the case of gated structures) is determined
primarily by the level of the area to be commanded, the length of feeder canal and its gradient,
and any head required for sediment control. For weirs, the crest level will also have to take
account of the afflux caused at high flows, and the impact this has on upstream flood protection.
The pond level, upstream of the canal head regulator will generally be obtained by adding the
working head to the designed full supply level in the canal. The working head will include the
head required for passing the design discharge (full supply discharge) into the canal and head
losses in the regulator.
Pond level = FSL of the canal + Working head
In under certain situation there is a limitation of pond level due to site condition, the full supply
level shall be fixed by subtracting the working head from pond level.

2.5.1.2 Length of the weir

The weir length has to be designed to allow the design flood to safely discharge over the weir
and is governed by the physical feature of the site. Width of the river could be the natural river
channel width, or it could be widened or contracted depending on the flow condition of the river
flood. The length of the weir for deep and confined river with stable banks should be
approximately equal to the actual width of the river at the design discharge. However for shallow
and meandering river, the minimum stable width of the river should be taken as the Lacey‘s
perimeter √ where Q is the design discharge (m3/s) and P is width of the weir (m)
For small and self contained river, the Lacey’s formula is not applicable as it yields highly
exaggerated parameter
As a general rule the crest length should be taken as the average wetted width during the flood.
In taking the average, the upstream and downstream of the proposed location should be
examined and the width at a stable location should be examined and the width at a stable location
measured.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

2.5.1.3 Shape of the weir

Sharp crested, broad crested and ogee are some of the weir crests shape. They differ in hydraulic
efficiency, economy and convenience in construction. For most small scale weirs ogee shape
may not be recommended while it is almost mandatory for medium scale.

2.5.2 Discharge over the weir

Water depth on the crest
The head-discharge equation for the flow over the weir crest:

Where
Qo = Design discharge of the weir
C = Coefficient of discharge (1.705 for broad crested type of weir)
Lo = Length of the overflow section of the weir
He = Specific energy over the crest of the weir
The approach velocity head, Ha has been computed using the following formula:

Where, Hd = design head (excluding the velocity head) over the weir crest
The approach velocity head can also be expressed in terms of approach velocity:

( )

( )
Where, h = height of the weir
The value of Hd and Ha can be computed by trial and error from the foregoing two equation of Ha
The upstream and downstream water and energy level become:
U/S HFL = Zo + h + Hd
U/S TEL = U/S HFL + Ha
D/S HFL = Zo + D3
D/S TEL = D/S HFL+ hd

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Where
Zo = Elevation of river bed at the weir axis
D3 = tail water depth corresponding to the design discharge
hd = velocity head in d/s side
2.5.3 Section of the weir body
Design of vertical drop weir (Bligh theory)
Section of the weir body
Horizontal broad crested weir with vertical drop has been designed on Bligh‘s theory. Bligh‘s
has given the following expression for the design of the weir wall (Garg, 2007).
The top width of weir:

√
Where,
G = specific gravity of floor material
The bottom width of the weir (B) should not be less than:

√
2.5.4 Water profile at the weir site
The water surface profile downstream of the weir is required to carry out stability analysis of the
weir; structural design of the weir; design of downstream retaining wall, and d/s protection
works. The water profile upstream of the weir is required to determine the height of the river
banks upstream of the weir and to find out whether the water surface profile is high enough to
deliver the required discharge into the off-taking canal.

2.5.4.1 Water profile downstream of the weir

Construction of the weir elevates the total energy line upstream of the structure. The difference
between the upstream and downstream energy grade line becomes very high. Therefore the
energy must be dissipated before it reaches the natural river course, otherwise it causes damage
to the banks and downstream of the apron. The flow over the weir is in a supercritical state.
Therefore the energy tends to dissipate through a hydraulic jump downstream of the weir. To
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

control location of the jump, the apron and stilling basin are designed to suit arrange of river
discharge.
Hydraulic jump on horizontal surface
On the horizontal apron downstream of a weir the following equation are valid.
√

( )

√
Where
F1 = the incoming Froude no
V1 = velocity at the weir toe = q/D1
q = discharge per metre width of the channel
HL = head loss (dissipated energy as a result of the jump)
dc = critical depth
D1 = pre-jump depth
D2 = sequent depth (conjugate depth)
D3 = Tail water depth

Figure 2-1 A typical water profile over the weirs

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

It should be noted that the friction loss on the weir is ignored, since the distance is short and
friction loss compared to the jump loss is very small. It also assumed that the jump loss occur
suddenly at the location of the jump.
The water depth at the weir toe can be determined by applying well-known Bernoulli‘s equation
between the weir crest and weir toe assuming that the jump forms on a horizontal surface and
friction loss is negligible.

The length of the jump can be estimated in terms of sequent depth for a given Froude number as
presented in Figure 2-2 (Chow, 1959)

Figure 2-2 Length of the jump in terms of sequent depth of jump in horizontal channel

2.5.4.2 Water profile upstream of the weir

There are several methods to determine the water profile upstream of the weir. The approximate
method is illustrated below. Refer standard hydraulic text book for standard step and other
method

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Approximate method
The approximate method is applicable method of determining the upstream water profile for
preliminary design purpose in a channel with uniform cross section and constant hydraulic
properties.
The water profile u/s of the weir can be computed by approximate method (Baban, 1995):
( )

Where Y = water rise at a distance X above normal water depth

X = distance from the crest of the weir to the point where y is to be determined
Δo = rise of water above normal depth of weir site (X = 0)
The method does not take into account the geometry and hydraulic properties of the channel

Figure 2-3 Backwater curve by approximate method

2.5.5 Tail water depth

The estimation of tail water depth at the weir site provides information on downstream flood
level that can be used for the design of downstream retaining wall, protection work and stability
analysis of the weir.
To determine the tail water depth, the rating curve at the location of the weir needs to be known.
The curve is usually constructed from river discharge and discharge measurement records.
Usually, this data is not available at the location of the weir; therefore a theoretical rating curve
should be constructed. If the stream flow record is not available at the weir site, the following
steps can be taken to draw a rating curve.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

1. Surveys should be carried out at the location of the weir to draw the cross-section of the river
2. The cross-section needs to be drawn to a suitable scale. Assume different water depths in the
river, and determine the water area and wetted perimeter corresponding to each depth.
2471
2470
Elevation (masl)

2469
2468
2467
2466
2465
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Distance (m)

Figure 2-4 Cross-section of the weir site for X-river

3. For each depth, determine the flow velocity and discharges by using manning equation.

Where Q = flow of the river (m3/s).

n = Manning roughness of the river at the weir site.
A = Area of the river at the given stage.
R = Hydraulic radius = A/P.
P = the wetted perimeter.
S = Longitudinal slope of the river at the weir site.

Table 2-2 Tabular value of stage and discharge at the weir site for x-river
Stage Elevation A P R DHYD S n vavg Q
m masl sqm m m m m/m m/s m3/s
0 2465.852 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.4 2466.252 1.42 4.73 0.3 0.32 0.0104 0.05 0.92 1.3
0.8 2466.652 3.31 5.74 0.58 0.68 0.0104 0.05 1.42 4.7
1.2 2467.052 5.27 6.55 0.8 1.06 0.0104 0.05 1.77 9.33
1.6 2467.452 7.37 8.11 0.91 1.24 0.0104 0.05 1.92 14.16
2 2467.852 10.09 10.28 0.98 1.32 0.0104 0.05 2.02 20.41
2.4 2468.252 14.25 17.62 0.81 0.96 0.0104 0.05 1.78 25.31

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

4. Plot the assumed depths and their corresponding discharge to present the rating curve

Figure 2-5 Stage-discharge curve of x- river at the weir site

2.5.6 Apron and cut-offs

Hydraulic structures such as dams and weirs may be founded on an imperious solid rock
foundation or on a pervious foundation. Whenever, such a structure is founded on a pervious
foundation, it is subjected to seepage of water beneath the structure, in addition to all other forces
to which it will be subjected when founded on a impervious rock foundation. The water seeping
below the body of the hydraulic structure endangers the stability of the structure and may cause
its failure either by piping or direct uplift. Hence seepage and uplift calculations are required to
determine the lengths of upstream and downstream cut-offs required (subject to scour
considerations) in relation to the length of the structure, and to determine the floor thicknesses
required at various places.

2.5.6.1 Exit gradient and piping

The exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient of the seepage flow under the base of the weir floor.
The rate of seepage increases with the increase in exit gradient, and such an increase would
cause ‗boiling‘ of surface soil, the soil being washed away by the percolating water. The flow
concentrates into the resulting depression thus removing more soil and creating progressive scour
backwards (i.e. upstream). This phenomenon is called ‗piping‘, and eventually undermines the
weir foundations.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

The piping phenomenon can be minimized by reducing the exit gradient, i.e. by increasing the
creep length. The creep length can be increased by increasing the impervious floor length and by
providing upstream and downstream cut-off piles.
2.5.6.2 Uplift pressures
The base of the impervious floor is subjected to uplift pressures as the water seeps through below
it. The uplift upstream of the weir is balanced by the weight of water standing above the floor in
the pond, whereas on the downstream side there may not be any such balancing water weight.
The impervious base floor may crack or rupture if its weight is not sufficient to resist the uplift
pressure. Any rupture thus developed in turn reduces the effective length of the impervious floor
(i.e. reduction in creep length), which increases the exit gradient.
The provision of increased creep lengths and sufficient floor thickness prevents this kind of
failure.

2.5.6.3 Scour depth

The river bed is scoured during flood and large scour holes may develop progressively adjacent
to the apron which may cause undermining of the weir structure. Such flood scour depth below
HFL corresponding to a regime width is called régime scour depth (or more precisely régime
hydraulic radius).
The regime scour depth, Rs is estimated by Lacey‘s formula as follow;
If the actual water waterway provided is less than or equal to the regime width,

( )

If the actual water waterway provided is greater than or equal to the regime width,

( )

Where
Rs = Regime scour depth measured from the high flood level (HFL)
q = the discharge per unit width of the channel
f = Lacey‘s silt factor corresponding to the bed material
√
Where d is the mean depth of the particle up to the scour depth

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

The value of Lacey‘s silt factor of bed material are shown in Table 2-3, where the bed materials
are built up with the alluvial deposits up to 2 mm size as there is a limitation for adopting
Lacey‘s silt values.

Table 2-3 Value of f for different soil

Sr. No Type of soil Size of particles (mm) Value of ‗f‖
1 Very fine silt 0.052 0.40
2 Fine silt 0.120 0.60
3 Medium Silt 0.233 0.85
4 Standard silt 0.323 1.00
5 Medium sand 0.508 1.25
6 Coarse sand 0.725 1.50
7 Fine sand 0.988 1.75
8 Heavy sand 1.290 2.00

The scour depth may be multiplied by a factor of safety of 1.25 and 1.5 for upstream and
downstream cut-off depth determination respectively.
Upstream scour depth = 1.25Rs and Upstream cut-off level = U/S HFL- 1.25 R
Downstream scour depth = 1.5Rs and Downstream cut-off level = D/S HFL -1.5 R
Weir failure due to scour can be prevented by extending the sheet pile cut-offs to a level
sufficiently below the régime scour depth across the full width of the river.
2.5.6.4 Length and thickness of apron by Bligh’s theory
The Bligh‘s theory assumes that the water upstream of the weir creeps to its downstream, along
the contact base of the structure with the soil. On other words, water creeps along the bottom of
the contour of the structure. The length of path thus traversed by water is called the length of the
creep. Further, it is assumed that in this theory, that loss of the head is proportional to the length
of the creep. The short coming of this method is that it does not discriminate between the
horizontal & vertical creep.
The exit gradient according to the creep flow theory proposed by Bligh is

Where;
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

L = total creep length = 2d1+b+2d2

d1 = the depths of the upstream cut-off piles
d2 = the downstream cut-off piles
b = horizontal floor length between the two piles
Hs = seepage head, is the difference in the water levels upstream and downstream of the weir.

Figure 2-6 Seepage flow hydraulic gradients

Safety against piping or undermining: According to Bligh, safety against piping can be
ensured by providing sufficient creep length, given by L = CH L, where C is Bligh‘s coefficient
for the soil. The hydraulic gradient, i.e. HL/L is equal to 1/C. Hence it may be stated that the
hydraulic gradient must be kept under a safe limit in order to ensure safety against piping.

Table 2-4 Recommended value of Bligh coefficient and safe hydraulic gradient
Type of soil Creep coefficient Safe hydraulic gradient
(C) (1/C)
Light sand and mud 18 1/18
Fine sand 15 1/15
Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
Boulder or shingles and gravel mix 5 to 9 1/5 to 1/9
sand

Safety again uplift: If h‘ is the uplift pressure head at a point under the floor, the pressure
intensity is
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Where ρ is the density of water

This is to be resisted by the weight of the floor, the thickness of which is t and the density of the
floor material ρm. Therefore,

Giving,
Where G is the relative density of the floor material (ρm/ρ)
Thus we can write
( )

Where h is the pressure head (ordinate of hydraulic gradient) measured above the top of the
floor. A safety factor of around 33% is usually adopted, thus giving the design thickness of the
floor as

Figure 2-7 Uplift pressure under impervious floor

The floor thickness has to be designed according to the above equation only for the downstream
floor. The water standing on the upstream floor more than counter balance the uplift caused by
the same water and hence, only a nominal floor thickness is required on the upstream side, so as
to resist wear, impact of flowing water, etc.
From pressure diagram the uplift pressure at point x will be

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams
( )

L= 2d1+b+2d2

Figure 2-8 Pressure distribution by Bligh theory

Total length of the floor

The total length of the floor (including twice the length of cut-off, if provided) as per Bligh‘s:

L = total creep length = 2d1+B+LD+2d2

Where
d1 and d2 are upstream and downstream cut-off depth respectively
B is the bottom width of the weir
Length of impervious floor (apron)
The length of downstream impervious floor (apron) as per Bligh‘s empirical formula:

The upstream impervious floor can be taken as the balance length:

LU = L- (LD+B+2d1+2d2)

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Length of protection work

Protection work upstream and downstream of solid apron should be provided to protect the river
bed from being eroded by the current leaving the solid apron. The most commonly used
protection is riprap in a form of dumped rock or precast concrete block or rock filled gabion
(wire container or welded bar enlargement).
The length of downstream protection work (LDP) as per Bligh‘s:

The length of upstream protection work as per Bligh‘s:

Alternatively the length of protection work can be worked out from Varsheny recommendation

Where
Dd = water depth corresponding to the design discharge just of the solid apron at downstream of
the weir
Du = water depth corresponding to the design discharge just of solid apron at the upstream side
of the weir
NB: Refer Lanes and Khosla‘s theory for seepage and uplift calculation from any standard
hydraulic/irrigation book.

2.6 Stability analysis of the weir

The stability design provides adequate structure dimensions so that for the foundation materials,
the structure will resist sliding, overturning, tension and limit foundation pressure below the
maximum allowable bearing pressure.
The major forces acting on the weir are:
1. Static water pressure
2. Uplift water pressure
3. Soil reaction at the weir base
4. Friction forces at the base which develop to balance the horizontal forces

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

5. Weight of the weir and water wedges

6. Silt pressure if is accumulated in front of the weir
7. Seismic force
8. Dynamic forces
The dynamic force which occurs at the first impact of the flow has an initial impact on the weir
however in structural analysis of weirs the dynamic forces is neglected, since water behind the
weir body is built up gradually, and the uplift pressure which will result from the arrival of new
wave doesn‘t develop instantly.
Water load
The external hydrostatic pressure, Pw, at depth z1 is expressed as

Where γw is the unit weight of water (KN/m3),

The resultant horizontal force, Pwh (KN/m) is determined as

acting at height z1/3 above plane considered.

A resultant vertical force Pwv (KN/m) must also be accounted for if the upstream face has a batter
or flare.
( )
and acts through the centroid of A1.
The pressure of any permanent tail water above the plane considered will similarly give rise to
the corresponding resultant forces P‘wh and P‘wh operative above the toe

( )
Self weight load
Structure self-weight is accounted for in terms of its resultant, Pm, which is considered to act
through the centroid of the cross-sectional area Ap of the weir profile:

γc is unit weight of material used for the construction of the weir (KN/m3)
Uplift load

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Uplift is the pressure underneath the structure caused by water pressure.

The uplift load, Pu is represented by the resultant effective vertical components of interstitial
pressure uw (KN/m)

Ah relative proportion of the horizontal plan area

If no pressure relief drain are provided or they cease to function owing to leaching and blockage

Where z1 the water head upstream side of the weir and z2 is the tail water depth
Referring to the two-dimensional profile, the nominal plan area is defined by section thickness,
i.e. Ah = T then the foregoing equation becomes

With pu acting through the centroid of the pressure diagram at a distance of y1 (m) from the heel
and

Alternatively the uplift area can be split into rectangular and triangular area and the uplift load
and centroid for each section can be determined separately.
Sediment load
The gradual accumulation of significant deposits of fine sediment, notably silts, against the face
of the weir generates a resultant horizontal force, Ps. The magnitude of Ps, which is additional to
water load, Pwh is a function of the sediment depth,z3, the submerged unit weight, γ‘s and the
active lateral pressure coefficient, Ka i.e.

and is active at z3/3

Where Øs is the angle of shearing resistance of the sediment (see Table 2-6)
The submerged unit weight,

Where γs is the sediment saturated unit weight

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Stability criteria
For the structure to remain stable the following criteria must be fulfilled:

1. The sum of stabilizing moment must exceed the sum of overturning moment of the structure
for safety against overturning.
∑
∑
2. The structure subject to differential lateral pressure must capably resist the tendency to slide
for safety against sliding.
∑
∑
3. The resultant of all forces acting on the structure should fall within the middle third of the
structure base so that tension will not develop at the base.
∑
| |
∑
4. The contact pressure (stress) at the toe or heel of the weir body should be less than the
allowable bearing pressure of the foundation material.

∑
( )

Where
μ = coefficient of friction
ex = the eccentricity
Pall = allowable pressure of the foundation material (see Table 2-7)
B = width of the weir base
The coefficient of friction, between concrete and cohesive and non cohesive soils is given below

Table 2-5 Coefficient of friction between concrete and cohesive and non cohesive soil
Type of material μ
Non cohesive soils
Sand 0.56
Non cohesive soils
Gravel 0.60
Rubble/stone 0.70
Clay 0.2
Cohesive soils
Sandy clay 0.3

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Table 2-6 Internal angle of friction for different type of soil

Soil type Internal angle of friction Ø
Gravel 400 – 55o
Sandy-gravel 35o – 50o
Sandy-loose 28o – 34o
-dense 34o – 45o
Silt, silly sand-loose 20o – 22o
-dense 25o – 30o

Table 2-7 Allowable bearing pressure of different material

Soil type Allowable bearing pressure (KN/m2)
Soft clays and silts. <80
Firm clays and firm sandy clays. 100
Stiff clays and stiff sandy clays. 200
Very stiff boulder clays. 350
Loose well graded sands and gravel/sand mixtures. 100
Compact well graded sands and gravel/sand mixture. 200
Loose uniform sands. <100
Compact uniform sands. 150

2.7 Under-sluice

The hydraulic design of under-sluice/scouring sluice will consider that the discharge over the
under sluice portion be capable of passing the highest of the following:
 Two times the canal discharge to ensure good scouring capacity; and
 10-20% of the maximum flood discharge at high flood
The under sluice portion should not be too wide to keep the approach velocities sufficiently
lower than the critical velocities to cause maximum settling of suspended silt load within the
pond. It needs to be checked that the gate opening is never less than two times the maximum size
of sediment the river is capable of moving.

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The floor level of the under sluice is kept as low as possible to create pool condition for silt
settlement and exclusion.
The hydraulic design is largely related to considerations of the range of upstream and
downstream water levels as the river flow varies and the type of control used for regulation.
The sluice gate is underflow gates if the water passes underneath the structure. Hydraulically the
underflow gates function as orifice and thus the flow through them is computed using orifice
flow equation:
√
Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge ≈ 0.61
A = Area of the gate opening (m2)
h = head available at the gate and equal to the measure of difference in water surface elevation,
upstream and downstream from the gate if the bottom of the gate is submerged on the
downstream side whereas for free flow it is a measure of water surface elevation to the center of
gate opening.
When stop-log is used for regulation, hydraulically the flow over the under-sluice act as a weir
and the flow through the structure are determined from the formula for flow over rectangular
weir:

Where
Qu = Discharge of the under-sluice portion (m3/s)
C = Coefficient of discharge = 1.705
Lu = Width of the under-sluice portion (m)
H = Total head over the crest (m)

2.8 Canal head regulator

Canal head regulator regulates the supply of water into the off-taking canal and control the entry
of silt and other material to the off-taking canal. Head regulator also exclude high flood entering
into the off-taking canal.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

The weir creates sufficient head to supply the main irrigation canal with the design discharge.
The canal head regulator is usually gated to control the amount of flow into the canal. Most
common types of head regulators are
a) Open intake (submerged not submerged): This consist of intake mouth, which acts an orifice
or weir, a transition and main canal. The intake is usually designed as an orifice.
b) Closed or culvert intake: The characteristics of the flow in culverts are very complicated since
the flow is controlled by many factors. In designing a culver for the intake, it is convenient to
assume that the pipe is fully flowing with both end submerged and to include all the head losses
in the orifice coefficient. To obtain the full flow condition, the pipe inlet must be submerged to a
depth not less the sum of the velocity head and head loss in the pipe.
The discharge through the regulator is computed by the orifice formula:
√
C = discharge coefficient
A = Area of the gate opening
H = head over the opening

2.9 Retaining wall

Retaining walls are provided to anchor the structure into the abutment; to guide and confine the
river into a restricted channel for smooth entry of flow into the intake as well as to protect the
area from river overflow and submergence and to provide stability of earth and any other
material.
2.9.1 Type of retaining wall
Based on the method of achieving stability, retaining walls may be categorized into the
following:
Gravity wall
 The stability of the wall depends on their weight
 Made of plain concrete or stone masonry
 Trapezoidal in section with the base projecting beyond the face and back of wall
 No tensile stress in any portion of wall.
 Economically used for walls less than 6 m high
Cantilever walls
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 Made of Reinforced Concrete material

 Inverted 'T' - shape in section with each projecting portion acting as a cantilever
 Utilizes cantilever action to retain mass behind wall
 Economically used for walls of height 6.0 to 7.5 m high
Counter fort retaining walls
 Made of Reinforced Concrete material
 Consists of cantilever wall with vertical brackets known as counter forts placed behind
face wall.
 Ordinarily used for walls height greater than 6.0 m
Buttressed wall
 Same as counterfort except that the vertical brackets are on the opposite side of the
backfill.
 Not commonly used because of the exposed brackets (buttresses).

Figure 2-9 Geometry of different type of retaining

2.9.2 Dimension of retaining wall

The height of retaining wall (crest elevation) is determined in accordance with upstream and
downstream water elevation by incrementing an appropriate freeboard value.

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The usual practice in the design of the retaining wall is to assign tentative dimensions and check
for the overall stability of the structure. Accordingly the dimensions of retaining wall are
determined as per the recommendation given below for gravity retaining wall and thereafter the
stability analysis will be carried to check whether the dimension is sufficient from stability
consideration.

2.9.3 Stability analysis of retaining wall

Retaining wall is designed first to carry the earth pressure at the back of the wall. The force that
should be considered in the design of retaining wall include earth pressure; dead weight
including the weight of the wall and portion of the soil mass that is considered to act on the
retaining structure; surcharge including live load if any; water pressure if any; and contact
pressure under the base of the structure.
The following condition must be satisfied for the stability of masonry retaining wall:
1. The development of tensile force in the masonry retaining wall always should be avoided.
2. The maximum compressive stress developed at the base of the structure should not be
greater than the permissible limits of the stress for the masonry materials.
3. In order to make the structure safe against sliding from its base, the value of horizontal
pressure (P) should always be less than the resisting force offered by the structure
4. To avoid the possibilities of overturning of the wall, the magnitude of resisting moment
about toe of the structure should always be greater than the overturning moment about the
same point.

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3 CANAL SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1 Types of canal

A system of irrigation canals, also known as a ‗canal network‘, transports water from its source
to the fields, and is made up of many canals.
Irrigation canal can be classified in a number ways;
1. Classification based on alignment:
(i.) Contour canal: Contour canal follows a contour, except for giving the required longitudinal
slope to the canal. A contour canal irrigates only on one side because the area on the other
side is higher. As a drainage flow is always at right angle to the contour, such a canal would
definitely have to cross a natural drain and stream, necessitating the construction of cross-
drainage structure.
(ii.) Watershed (ridge) canal: The canal which is aligned along any natural watershed (ridge line)
is called watershed canal or ridge canal. Along a canal on the ridge, ensures gravity
irrigation on both sides of the canal. Moreover, since the drainage flow away from the ridge,
no drainage can cross a canal aligned on the ridge. Thus, a canal aligned on a watershed
saves the cost of construction of cross-drainage works.
(iii.) Side slope canal: Canal aligned at right angles to the contours but not on a watershed or
valley. Since such a canal runs parallel to the natural drainage flow, it usually doesn‘t
intercept the drainage channels, thus, avoiding the cross-drainage structures.
2. Classification based on size:
(i.) Primary canal (main canal) is a canal which conveys water from the source to the command
area. This canal usually terminates at the end of the command area or may split into several
secondary canals somewhere in the command. In some instances, the flow in a primary
canal may be supplemented from another source. The canal delivering this supplemental
flow is known as a feeder canal.
(ii.) Secondary canal is the canal which conveys water from the primary canal (main canal) to
the tertiary units or, in small schemes, directly to the farmers' fields through an outlet
structure.

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(iii.) Tertiary canal is a canal which feeds a tertiary unit and conveys water from the secondary
canal to the quaternaries. Tertiaries may also convey water directly to the fields in a small
system.
(iv.) Quaternary canal is channels which conveys water to field channel or directly to the farmers.
(v.) Field channels are channels which convey water to farmers' fields from the quaternary canal.
In the case of hill irrigation project, they may be filled directly from the secondary or tertiary
canal.

Figure 3-1 Layout of irrigation system with five level hierarchy of canal

3.2 Planning and layout of irrigation system

The purpose of canal system design is to provide water, adequate in quantity and command to all
farms within the area serviced. The system should be convenient to operate & should blend with
the pattern of farming.
The distribution system of an irrigation scheme is defined as the network of canals (or pipes) and
associated structures which convey water from the source works to the cropped areas in a
controlled way. Many schemes have a drainage system, complementary to the distribution
system, for removal of surplus water, particularly excess rainfall and canal escape flows. The
objectives of the distribution system operation are to deliver the right amount of water to the
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

right place, at the right time to meet crop needs. Ideally, water should be distributed equitably
among farmers according to their needs.
Layout is defined as the arrangement of canals, drains and structures required to achieve the
water distribution objectives and to remove surplus water. The objective of layout planning is to
establish the optimum arrangements, positions and levels of channels and structures to ensure
satisfactory distribution and drainage at an acceptable cost, while taking account of the physical,
technical and social constraints.
The planning and layout of an irrigation system/canal design is dictated by the area to be
irrigated and the source of supply. It is influenced also particularly by agricultural, engineering
and economic characteristics of the area. In addition, existing land use practices and the socio-
economic conditions of the area need to be considered.
It is also true that for efficient water management practice and economical implementation of
any irrigation scheme, the judicious design of the layout system is an imperative. A modern
irrigation scheme will have a network of irrigation canals, drainage channels, access roads, flood
protection & in certain circumstances, cattle corridors.
General Alignment and layout procedure/principle
The following are the general alignment and layout procedures to be followed
 Survey maps shall be prepared to different scales according to the size of the project:-produced
preferably to a scale of 1:1000 or 1:2000 - 1:2500 for small scale projects and 1:2000 or
1:5000 - 1:10,000 for medium scales showing the contours, spot levels & important land
features for the whole project area.
 Alignments of all canal grades (main, secondary, tertiaries etc) shall be marked on the map.
 Align main canal as a contour canal wherever possible and secondary and tertiary are to be
aligned as watershed or side slope canals.
 The main canal should be generally carried on a contour alignment, until either it commands
the full area to be irrigated or it attains the top of a watershed. From such a point, it should be
aligned down to the watershed ceasing to be a contour canal.
 Secondary canals and tertiaries should take-off from a canal or near the points where the canal
crosses watershed.
 Taking in mind of the economic considerations, deep cuttings or high embankments should be
generally avoided by suitable detouring, after comparing the overall costs of the alternative
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alignments. Carrying of a canal in high embankment involves risk of secondary from

percolation. Similarly careful judgment shall be exercised in fixing the points of crossing of
drainage.
 The alignments of canals shall consist of straight lines with circular curves. Each of the curves
should be usually 3 to 7 times the water surface width. In this case the lower & higher limits
are to the canal capacities of low & high discharges respectively
 Tertiary canals are to be spaced suitably depending upon the configuration of the area.
 It should be tried that alignment of a canal crosses least number of drainages as possible as it
could be.
 Tertiary units are required to divide the command area into blocks of fields, so as to facilitate
the possibility of irrigating the land evenly.
 In case of small scale irrigation projects the flow in tertiary canals shall be 15 to 30 l/s;
whereas, a tertiary unit could be irrigated from a single tertiary canal or numbers of tertiary
canals not exceeding from capacity of 15 to 30 l/s each.
 In case of medium scale projects, the flow capacity of tertiary canals & extent area coverage of
tertiary units of tertiary units could be larger. This range in flow capacity could be from 30 l/s
to 0.5 m3/s.
 The area to be under the tertiary unit is to be determined by topographical and land
consolidation considerations. The tertiary units are to be subdivided into farm areas. The
irrigation of each of the farm area will be done through field channels taking off from the
tertiary units through a division box. Construction of field channels in case of small scale
irrigation projects and distribution of water is to be done by farmers, whereas in medium scale
irrigation projects this could be effected by contractors and organized water users association
or government organizations respectively.
 Fix up irrigation block sizes on the basis of the farmers experience in irrigation development
practices, scale of the project envisaged, topography and boundary line of the cultivable
command area and also determine the irrigable area corresponding to the tertiary unit sizes
recommended based on Ethiopia's irrigation practices as shown in Table 3-1.
 Determine the number of tertiary field canals and their off take points from the main
conveyance.

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 A canal should divert from a supply source at a position of sufficient elevation to reach the
land to be under irrigation by providing proper gradients & using most economic route. At
turnouts, the canal water surface must be high enough to permit irrigation of the land located at
far end and the higher patch of the lower area.
 Find out those reaches which require lining (if any), and choose practical & economical ones.
 Maintain as far as possible, the full supply water level in the lined and unlined lengths within
the same reach.

Table 3-1Recommended tertiary unit sizes

Scale of Command Area Flow length
Type of Canal
the Project (ha) m3/s (m)
Secondary 30-50 0.3-0.5 550-600
Small Tertiary 10-30 0.20-0.30 350-400
Field 5-10 < 0.2 80-100
Secondary 50-100 0.5-1.2 1000-1500
Medium Tertiary 20-50 0.3-0.5 500-750
Field 10-20 < 0.3 100-120

3.3 Canal section design

3.3.1 Procedure for canal section design

The steps required to complete the design of the canal section are briefly discussed below.
1. Collect existing data such as topographical maps, canal alignment, longitudinal and cross-
sections (if the system is existing).
2. Assess the field crop water requirements.
3. Decide on the peak demand, which the canal system will be designed to meet. In most
schemes this will be the highest value of FCWR. However, in some cases, perhaps where
water supplies are short, a deliberate decision may be taken not to supply the peak demand,
so that more area may be commanded. Note that this may result in lower crop yields, but
greater overall production, depending on crop sensitivity.
4. Determine the canal capacities.
5. Determine the location of structures for each canal.
6. Determine design discharges & water levels

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7. Determine canal slopes and dimensions using appropriate formulae.

8. Determine bed levels and bank top levels and prepare longitudinal profiles and cross-
sections.
Moreover, during detail design (in case of medium scale projects) or during construction times
(for both small & medium cases), the following additional procedures may need to be
followed:-
9. Stake out the alignment in the field and adjust the line of the canal and the location of
structures, if necessary.
10. Prepare a final strip plan and geotechnical report of the adjusted alignment of the system.
11. Check the design in light of the revised alignments.
12. Produce new final longitudinal & cross-sections.
3.3.2 Longitudinal section
3.3.2.1 General
The longitudinal section of a canal is intended to convey the following information:
(i.) Natural features
 distances along the canal line
 the ground levels and profile along the canal line
 the presence of features crossing the canal line such as roads, streams, rivers, other
canals etc.
 the presence of problem area such as landslides, fault zones, swamps, sandy soils, etc.
(ii.) Design data of the canal
 the design discharge
 the bed levels, bank top levels and design water levels
 the longitudinal slope
 the section dimensions, principally bed width, depth of flow and freeboard
 the cross section type (referenced to typical cross-sections, showing features such as
bank width, side slopes, etc.)
 the positions of canal structures
 the presence of lining
 the radius of bends

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3.3.2.2 Canal slopes

Canal slope generally refers to the water surface slopes. In most distribution systems, uniform
flow is assumed to apply and the water surface, and canal bed slopes are taken to be the same for
design purposes. In practice, back water effects occur, due to flow conditions being different
from design, changes in canal longitudinal or cross-sectional profiles.
The canal slope of a primary canal depends partly on the difference in level available between
the intake and the highest level of the command area to be considered, whereas the canal slope of
secondary or a tertiary will depend on the topography of the command area, principally the land
gradient and soil characteristics.
Canal slopes are designed to effect non-silting and non-scouring conditions. To minimize
construction costs, the canal should follow the terrain slope as much as possible within the
limitations of maximum slope to avoid erosion and minimum slope to limit sedimentation, and/or
the growth of weeds. To minimize sedimentation, the canal slopes should be selected so that they
increase in the downstream direction, as capacity decreases.
The soil material condition along the alignment determines the allowable velocity to prevent
erosion. Farmers' canals are irregular and bed-slopes are often stepper than is theoretically
allowable. When considering improvements to farmers‘, bed slope requires careful
consideration.
3.3.2.3 Route selection
Route selection of a canal depends on:
 Topography of an area,
 Geological conditions along the alignment of a canal,
 Canal type, &
 Type & size of the irrigation project.
Primary canals in steep regions follow contours and pass through ridges, valleys, deep gullies,
natural drains, and slide zones and vertical to moderately sloped terrain. In selecting the
alignment of the primary canal, it is establish to establish the geological features along the
alignment, and define the stable and unstable portions. If the alignment has to pass such feature,
appropriate solutions need to be adopted.

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The principal difficulties are:

 Landslides (mass landslides, slips, settlement areas etc.)
 Broken deep gullies and soil erosion.
 Potential debris and storm water runoff into the canal from the uphill side.
 Zones of fractured rocks, vertical cliffs, unstable steep slopes and over burden.
Severe bends should be avoided, and the canal is best kept in cut rather than in fill.
In the plain area, the primary and secondary canal alignments depend mainly on topography.
Usually the primary canals follow the contour from a diversion structure to the command area.
Secondary canals follow generally ridge lines.
In the steep regions, the route problems generally arise in the primary canal, whereas, in the plain
regions the tertiary & quaternary (medium scale) systems often pose the problems, principally in
connection with disputes among farmers & difficulties with internal drainage.
To cope with the later problem, drainage system should be designed along the tertiary &
quaternary canals system if considered necessary.
Ground cross falls may also constrain the alignment and levels of canals running along the edge
of the plain. Earthworks costs rise if cross slope exceeds 1:10. Unless the loss of command
further down the canal route is significant, it may be preferable to drop the alignment on to the
flatter ground.
Cross-drainage works also needs consideration selecting the canal routes. For large rivers the
canal line may have to be adjusted over a long distance to permit sufficient vertical separation
between the canal and river beds, depending on the type of structure to be adopted.
Other factors to be considered are:
 Avoiding good agricultural land if alternative alignments exist;
 Avoiding housing and villages.

3.4 Design of unlined earth canals

Ideally, unlined canals are designed to be non-silting (when conveying sediment laden water),
and to be non-scouring when carrying silt free water. These requirements impose limitations on
the choice of water surface slopes, and also affect the shape of the cross section.
Unlined trapezoidal shaped canals are the most common and economic solution in most
irrigation schemes in whatever terrain situation. Ideally, canal sections should be chosen so that

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the construction and maintenance costs are minimized, while erosion and sedimentation
problems are contained.

3.4.1 Hydraulic Design formulae

There are many different formulae which can be used for sizing canals. Whereas, in Ethiopian
situations, three common canal design formulae chosen. These formulae and the situations why
they are recommended are summarized in Table 3-2.

Table 3-2Hydraulic design formulae for unlined and lined canal

No. Situations Formulae Recommended
1. Water flowing without sediment in unlined canals. For sizing: Manning equation
The canal design is governed by the need to prevent For limiting slope: Tractive force
erosion, which depends on the parent material of the equation and USSCS method (if data
canal. available)
2. Water carrying sediment in unlined canals. Both For sizing:
non-scouring and non-silting criteria need to be a) at conditions of steep terrain -
applied. Contour canals tens to be governed by non- manning equation
silting criteria, whereas "ridge" canals are governed b) flat terrain - (small canals) -
by non scouring criteria since they generally run manning equation
down the slope. c) flat terrain - (large canals) –
Lacey formulae
d) For sediment transport:
Engelund and Hansen equation
3. Water carrying sediment in unlined canals. Where For sizing- Kennedy formulae in
the route of the canals is fully on alluvial soils and combination with continuity, chezy and
canals carry appreciable silt & sand load. This inturn other equations.
affects the velocity of flow in the canal considerably. For sediment transport: Engelund and
Hence the manning or Chezy's equations do not Hansen equation.
consider the condition of picking up of silt material
from canal bed & sides in case the water is silt free
when entering to the canal.

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4. Water carrying sediment in lined canals. The design For sizing: Manning equation
is governed by the need to ensure the sediment load For sediment transport: Engelund and
that can be transported. Hansen equations.

Manning’s equation
The manning equation is recommended for the design of unlined canals (flat terrain) up to 5
m3/s; for steep canals of non-erodible type and channels conveying clear water and also for lined
canals.
The equation is:

√
Where
V = velocity (m/s)
Q = discharge (m3/s)
A = area of the flow (m2)
R = hydraulic radius (m)
= A/P
P = the wetted perimeter (m)
S = water surface slope
n = roughness coefficient

( )

( ) ( ) ( )

√( ) √
( )
√
b = bed width of the canal
d = water depth of the canal
Side slope = 1: Z (V: H)
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T = top width
The principle decisions to be made are:
 The choice of roughness coefficient,
 The choice of slope
 The section shape
(I.) Roughness
The choice of roughness coefficient is best made from measurements of existing, similar
channel. However such data are rarely available. The best way in choosing roughness coefficient
is to measure existing similar channels. However, such data is hardly attainable, and in practice a
choice has to be made based on experience. In theory the coefficient will depend on:
 The shape & size of canal surface particles;
 The canal surface irregularities (e.g. due to poor canal construction resulting in changes
in wetted perimeter and cross section);
 Vegetation on canal bed and side slopes;
 Variations in channel cross-sections, i.e. whether gradual, varying frequently or
occasionally,
 Relative effect of obstructions in the canal, whether negligible, minor or severe,
 Degree of meandering, whether, minor, appreciable or strongly developed.

Table 3-3 Recommended value of manning’s “n”

Canal Location Canal type Condition Coefficient "n"
Well maintained 0.025
Primary
Poorly maintained 0.028
On plain Well maintained 0.025
Secondary
terrain Poorly maintained 0.03
Well maintained 0.03
Tertiary
Poorly maintained 0.035
Straight and uniform well
0.025
maintained
On hills All types 0.035
Poorly maintained
0.03
Stony bed sides

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(II.) Slope
The choice of slope in a channel designed using manning's equation will depends on the non-
scouring and non-silting limitations. The minimum slope shall be set to provide reasonable
minimum velocity to prevent weed growth and to transport the anticipated sediment load. To
provide a degree of flexibility, the usual practice is to allow a choice in the range set by the
above limiting conditions. Therefore, for determining channel bed slopes, the velocities should
be checked and the maximum grade designed velocity shall not exceed the limits given in Table
3-4.

Table 3-4 Permissible velocities for various soil textures

Type of soil Maximum velocity permissible ( m/s)
Bare channels 0.405
Sand & silt 0.60
Loam, sandy loam, silt loam 0.63
Clay loam 0.65
Clay 0.7
Vegetated channels poor vegetation 0.9
Fair vegetation 1.2
Good vegetation 1.5

(III.) Canal cross-section

The cross-section of a canal defines the shape and size, including the hydraulic section, service
roads, bank widths, side drains, free board, side slopes, bank slopes, etc.
The most economical section of unlined canals is theoretically a semi-circle. In practice, almost
all unlined canals are (nominally) trapezoidal due to easiness of construction. The ideal hydraulic
shape for a trapezoidal canal leads to deep and narrow section. Such sections are only possible
for small capacities (up to about 0.5 m3/s). Unlined canals with high discharges are generally
wide and shallow with large bed width/depth ratios. These are necessary to keep within the
maximum allowable velocity limitations. Wider canals also facilitate better water distribution
due to lower variations in water level with changing discharge.

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In hilly areas, wide sections are not usually feasible particularly for primary canals, and a narrow
section has to be used. However, this is not usually so critical since canal capacities are generally
small.
The shape of the trapezoid is determined by:
 bed width;
 depth of flow;
 the side slopes;
The side slope of the canal depends mainly on the material in which it is cut and of which its
banks are made. To limit excavation & expropriation (land acquisition) costs, side slope are
usually designed to be as steep as possible according to the soils, and whether the canal is in cut
or in fill. For erodible soils, the slopes should be checked against criterion of the maximum
allowable velocity or by the principle of tractive force. Other factors including the method of
construction, depth of canal & the level of ground water table are among others to be considered
in canal slope selection.
Based on similar countries experience referred in the literatures of similar conditions of terrain
conditions (Nepal & India) to Ethiopia, recommended side slopes are presented in Table 3-5.
Recommendation on bed width to depth ratios for canals design using Manning's equation are
given in Table 3-6.

Table 3-5 Recommended canal side slope

Side slopes (Vertical: Horizontal)
Soil type Canal in cut Canal in fill
Rock congloromate (loose to hard) 1:0.5 to vertical -
Heavy clay, stiff clay, hard clay 1:0.25 to 1:1.5 1:0.5 to 1:1
Loam, loesses, stiff peat 1:1 to 1:1.5 1:1.5 to 1:1.2
Sandy clay, cohesive sandy soil, sandy loam 1:1.5 to 1:2 1:1.5 to 1:1.2
Silty sand, sandy earth 1:2 to 1:2.5 1:2 to 1:2.5
Soft peat, loose sandy earth, porous earth 1:2.5 to 1:3 1:2.5 to 1.3
Gravelly earth, stiff or loose conglomerate 1:0.5 to 1:1 1:1 to 1:1.5
Gravel and boulder mixed with earth (soft & loose) 1:1.5 to 1:2 1:1.5 to 1:2

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Note: These values may be affected by the water table condition and moisture condition. Values
in the table above are given assuming low moisture content & water-table below canal bed. The
slopes need to be flattened if these conditions are unachievable.

Table 3-6 Recommended B/D ratio for unlined channels

Location Canal type Q range (m3/s) B/D ratio

Plain terrain Primary < 5.0 3

Secondary 1 to 5.0 3
<1 2
Tertiary < 0.5 1
< 0.1 1
Hilly terrain All > 3.0 2.5
1.0 to 3.0 2.0
0.5 to 3.0 1.5
< 0.5 1.0

When a bed width to depth ratio (K) is used, the Manning formula can be simplified as:
( )

* √ +

Where K = b/d
Z = side slope
For given K & Z, these equations become:
( )
[ √ ]

( ⁄ )

√ ⁄

Once K4 has fixed, it is relatively easy to solve the equation for varying values of S & D.

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Example
Determine the section of an earthen canal (width and depth) in a hilly terrain conveying a
discharge of 100 l/s. The soil along the alignment of the canal is loam soil. The longitudinal
slope of the canal is 0.001.
Solution
The value of n for a canal in a hilly terrain, n= 0.025 (From Table 3-3)
The maximum allowable velocity of water for Loam soil is 0.63m/s. (from table 3-4).
Free board = 0.3 m (from table3-7)
The recommended b/d ration for discharge of 0.1 m3/s in a hilly terrain is 1.0 from Table 3-6.
Hence b/d = 1 and therefore K=1
The suggested side slope for loam type of soil is 1:1 to 1:5 from Table 3-5. Let us take a side
slope of 1:1.
Z=1
From the foregoing equations;
( )

* √ + * √ + [ √ ]

( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )

⁄ ⁄

√
The formula for the depth from this equation becomes;

( ) ( ) 0.3m water level

√ √

Water depth of the canal = d = 0.35 m 0.35m

b/d = 1 thus, b =d = 0.35 m
Bottom width of the canal = b = 0.35 m 0.35m

< 0.63m/s (max allowable velocity)

Therefore, b=0.35m, d=0.35+FB=0.35+0.3=0.65m.

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In designing canal cross-sections in hill areas the following points should be borne in mind:
 Canal should be in cut wherever possible, or at least with design water level below
ground level. Fill section should be where absolutely necessary. If the excess material is
used for banks, these should be adequately compacted. Surplus material should not be
dumped, but placed in a site carefully chosen to avoid any likehood of instability
 For deep cuts, berms should be provided at a minimum of every 2 m depth & 5 m depth
for small and medium scale projects respectively.
 Canal banks should be designed with a suitable seepage gradient, if the canal is not lined
or in rock.
 For main canals, an access track way should be provided along the whole length,
typically 2-3 m wide. A path way of 1 m width is commonly provided along distribution
canals.

Canal in cut (WL< O.G.L)

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Canal in fill (B.L > O.G.L)

Freeboard of a canal
Freeboard is the difference in elevation between the canal bank top and design water level.
Freeboard is intended to allow for:
 water level being above design water level (e.g. in emergencies),
 deterioration of the canal embankment
Water levels may rise above design levels due to unplanned/uncoordinated gate closures, wave
action or inflow of run-off into the canals. Freeboard should be sufficient to prevent waves or
fluctuations in water surface overflowing the sides.
Freeboard in primary canals & secondary canals are related to the design discharge of the canal.
Recommended value of freeboard for primary and secondary canal is given in Table3-7. For
tertiary and lower order canal, 0.15 m is recommended.

Table 3-7 Recommended canal freeboard

Scale of the project Canal discharge, Q (m3/s) Free board (m)
Small <0.5 0.3
0.5 to 1.0 0.4
Medium 1.0 to 3.0 0.5
3.0 to 5.0 0.6
5.0 to 10.0 0.7
10.0 to 30.0 0.8
>30.0 1.0

Canal Losses
In principle, irrigation canals are to be partly excavated in natural ground and partly constructed
above the natural ground to hold the required quantity of irrigation water.
The canal section is never made 100% water tight. Thus, the water seeps into the ground and also
evaporates from the canal surface to the atmosphere. In general terms, irrigation water, when
taken in the canal system for conveying it to the fields, is liable to be lost in various ways. The
two major water loss ways are through evaporation, and seepage.
 Losses Due to Evaporation

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In most of the cases (except very hot ones) evaporation loss is insignificant. The range of canal
water loss through evaporation is estimated to be from 0.25% to 1% of the total canal water. The
factors that determine the rate of loss of water in the process of evaporation include:
 Temperature of the region,
 Prevailing wind velocity of the area,
 Humidity, and
 Area of water surface exposed to the atmosphere.
Generally it could be inferred that the loss due to evaporation is directly dependent on the
climatic conditions of a region. It is also directly dependent on the exposed water surface area &
inversely dependent on the depth of water in the canal.
 Due to Seepage
Seepage losses are primarily dependent on the type of soil from which the canal is constructed.
These losses are expressed in m3/s per million square meters of wetted perimeter. In our
country's case, the following guidelines may be adopted.

Table 3-8 Seepage canal losses values for different soil canal routes
Soil type Seepage losses m3/s per
km2 of canal surface
Impervious clay loam 0.8 - 1.20
Medium clay loam 1.20 - 1.70
Clay loam or silty soil 1.70 - 2.70
Gravelly clay loam or sandy clay or gravely cemented with clay 2.70 - 3.50
Sandy loam 3.50 - 5.20
Sandy soil 5.20 - 6.40
Sandy soil with gravel 6.40 - 8.60
Previous gravelly soil 8.60 - 10.40
Gravel with some earth 10.40 - 20.80

Generally used formula to compute losses through seepage is total losses through seepage in
reach (m3/s) = S x P x L/106

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Example on seepage losses calculation

Given: Reach length L = 1.5 km on sandy soil,
Bed width, b = 5.0 m
Water depth, d = 1.5 m
Side slopes, Z = 1:2
Solution
Wetted perimeter,
√ √
Area of wetted perimeter along the canal
= P x L = 11.75x1500 = 17560m2
For sandy soils, seepage loss (Table 3-8) is in the range between 5.2 to 6.4m3/s per Mm2 (assume
5.8) then; the loss = 17560 x 5.8/106 = 0.1 m3/s.
Radius of bend
The radius of curvature of a canal will be different in the hills and plains due to the topographical
conditions and soil types. The smallest acceptable radius (of the canal centerline) for an unlined
canal in the hills (except in rock, hard conglomerate or very stiff clay is taken as seven (7) times
WS width. In rock, hard conglomerate or very stiff clay, the minimum radius is three times the
WS width.
Recommended radii of hydraulically determined canals are summarized in Table 3-9.

Table 3-9 Recommended radius of bends

Location Soil type Radius
On plain terrain Alluvial, erodible R = 25Ws
cohesive R = 10Ws
On steep terrain Rock, conglomerate or stiff clay R = 3Ws
Other soils R = 7Ws

Curves radii are required to be determined for roads and canals equally. Service roads are
provided on the banks of primary & secondary canals and may determine canal radii. The radius
of service roads depends upon the type of vehicles or equipment to be used on the roads. It is
recommended to adopt 15 m curve radius & 20 m curve radius for 4 & 5 m wide service roads
respectively.
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Embankments
If a canal is in cut the size of the embankment is often determined by the amount of spoil to be
disposed of. The width of top of the bank depends on the type of soil from which the canal is to
be constructed, flow capacity, canal type (earth, lined/or both), the seepage gradient & the width
of service road to be provided.
It is usual to specify minimum heights and widths for the embankments so that a reasonable road
is formed. Where the spoil is in excess of this minimum amount of material required, and cannot
be used elsewhere, the embankment may be either raised or widened. The disadvantage of
widening the embankment is that a greater reservation is required and where space is restricted
this may be important.
Bank widths of 3 to 6 m are required where service roads are provided for small & medium
canals with surface roads. It is better to provide, the bank widths of 2 to 3 m along the main canal
& 1 m within the distribution canals of steep area canals.
Where embankments are in fill with canal water level above natural ground level, the seepage
gradient needs to be considered for the stability of the embankment. In such cases the bank width
should be sufficiently wide to retain the seepage gradient below the toe of the outer face of the
bank.
Seepage gradients vary from 1:3 for clay soils to about 1:7 for alluvial soils. Table 3-10 shows
the recommended values of seepage gradients to different soil types. Similarly Table 3-11 shows
the recommended minimum embankment widths for canals of different capacities.

Table 3-10 Recommended seepage gradients for different soil types

Soil Type Gradient
(Vertical: Horizontal)
Clays 1:3
Loams 1:4
Coarse sands 1:6
Fine sandy, silty materials 1:7

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Table 3-11 Recommended Minimum Embankment Widths

Without inspection With inspection
Design discharge m3/s Road (m) Road (m)
On steep canals On plain areas Steep Plain
Q < 1.0 0.75 1 - 3.0
1.0< Q <5.0 1.5 1.5 - 4.0
5.0 < Q< 10.0 2.0 2.0 - 5.0
10.0 < Q<1 5.0 - 3.0 - 5.0

Canal embankment may be damaged by rainfall due to direct impact on bare-slopes or by surface
runoff. Gullies or other forms of erosion will occur if the slopes are not grassed. Newly
excavated canals in hilly are easily eroded due to steep slopes, and gullies are formed rapidly
when rainfall is severe. The banks on the downhill sides are also subject to sever erosion if the
surface is not covered by turfs, or other covering materials. Similar problems occur in a canal in
plain terrain although the magnitude is less.

3.5 Design of lined canal

Irrigation canal may be lined for a number of reasons:

 To prevent seepage losses in porous soils,
 To protect steep canal from being scoured & eroded,
 To prevent the growth of aquatic plants in canals,
 Reduction in maintenance requirements,
 Reduction in land acquisition needs,
 To permit increased curvature,
 To provide stability in unstable (hill) zones,
 To gain economic section by reducing earthwork quantities, and
 To prevent water logging of adjacent lands, and etc.

3.5.1 Type of lining

Lining is expensive and thus should only be provided where necessary.

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Different conditions require different type of lining. The availability of materials also dictates the
choices. There are four broad classification of lining:
 Hard surface lining, such as concrete, (in-situ or precast), brick, burnt clay tile, shortcrete,
asphalt and masonry.
 Buried & protected membrane linings, such as sprayed in place asphalt, synthetic rubber
and plastic film.
 Earth linings, such as thick or thin compacted earth or soil cement.
 Dry linings, of limited use in preventing seepage losses, but used where surcharge
pressures create unstable soil conditions. Dry stone and brick pitching (with appropriate
filter bedding) is often used.
Recommended linings that could be used in Ethiopian condition are given in Table 3-12. The use
of these linings will depend very much on the availability of local material in the vicinity of the
anticipated project.

3-12 Recommended Linings

Location of Application Lining type
canals

Steep land Bank stability Dry stone

Seepage Stone masonry, buried membrane
Seepage and bank stability Stone masonry
Scour/Erosion prevention Stone masonry
Providing sharp curvature Dry stone pitching, stone masonry
Sealing fractured rock zones Shotcrete (if equipment available), concrete
On plain area Bank stability due to high None-reduce side slopes
groundwater table or poor
soils
Seepage Brick masonry, stone masonry concrete,
buried membrane, thick earth
Seepage and bank stability Buried membrane on reduced side slope
due to poor soils brick/stone masonry

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Scour/ erosion protection Brick/stone masonry, concrete, dry

stone/brick pitching
Providing sharp curvature Dry stone/brick pitching, brick, stone
masonry

I. Stone/Brick Masonry
Stone masonry has better wearing qualities than brick masonry and is preferred where local stone
is available. With carefully pointed joints, good water tightness can be achieved.
Typical thickness of stone/brick masonry is 0.2 to 0.4 m. 1:4 cement mortar is commonly used.
II. Concrete
Concrete linings can be laid in situ or be precast. Concrete lining provides effective hydraulic
sections, but are generally an expensive to construct.
The success of in-situ concrete depends largely on the sub-grade materials and the need to
provide a stable foundation. Sub-grades should therefore be compacted, and if there is any
danger that the sub-grade will swell or shrink under changing moisture conditions, alternative
linings should be used. Problems are especially likely where canals are constructed in fill. In-situ
linings may be laid by hand or by paver. Compaction of the concrete on the sides of the canal can
be difficult.
Joints for concrete shrinkage and sub-grade movement need to be provided to counteract
cracking. Cracking may be avoided by providing reinforcement, but this tends to make the lining
uneconomical.
Typical thickness of in situ concrete lining ranges from 75 mm to 150 mm.
Precast concrete are usually laid as rectangular slabs with rebated edges. The joints are filled
with mortar or bituminous mastic. They provide greater flexibility than in-situ concrete and can
withstand more movement, although the joints will crack. They generally require more labour to
cast and lay them, but the thickness can be reduced usually to 50 mm to 100 mm. The sub-grade
on which the slabs are to be laid requires careful preparation. They are often used in conjunction
with a buried membrane to ensure water tightness.
Normal steel reinforcement has these days been widely accepted and 0.25 to 0.3% of concrete
adds practically nothing to the structural strength of uncracked lining. But it has been found that
reinforcement reduces the width of shrinkage cracks, thereby reducing seepage and prevents
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possible faulting of the cracked slabs where unstable sub grades are encountered. Transverse
expansion and contraction joints can be avoided by providing longitudinal steel with
reinforcement of about of 0.5% and transverse steel reinforcement of about 0.25% of the cross-
sectional area of concrete.
III. Dry Stone/Brick Lining (Pitching)
This is used not to prevent seepage, rather to protect erosion and bank stability. It requires to be
placed on gravel/sand filter backing, to prevent fine materials being washed out from the
underlying sub grade. The typical thickness is 0.2 to 0.3 m.
IV. Shotcrete
Shotcrete is a specially proportioned concrete mixture, which is applied using pneumatic
equipment to force the mix on to and into the surface being lined. They are used for bank
stability and seepage prevention in fractured rock zones of steep terrains canals. The plant used
for the application of shortcrete is reasonably small and portable.
Thickness to be used is 25 to 50 mm. For steep side slopes (steeper than 1:1.5), it may be
required to provide a wire mesh reinforcement to prevent the fresh concrete from slumping.
V. Earth Lining
Earth lining are principally used to prevent seepage, since they offer no savings in canal section,
nor does it provide stability.
Suitable material for earth linings are inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, sandy clays,
silty clays and lean clays.
Where suitable materials are locally available, earth lining is the cheapest form of lining for
seepage limitation. Earth linings are usually compacted and are classified thick linings (0.3-1.0
m) or thin linings (0.15 to 0.3 m). Thick compacted earth linings are preferred for several
reasons, including easier construction, better erosion resistance and better to damage during
maintenance. In practice, thick linings have been shown to be more economical than thin linings
in the long term, due to difference in the cost of maintenance. Thin lining are also susceptible to
damage caused by wetting and drying (e.g. in canals operating on rotation). For these reasons
thin earth linings are not recommended.
VI. Buried Membrane Linings
They are used only to reduce seepage, since as with earth linings, they offer no other advantages.
There are a number of membranes which are commonly used for lining canals. These include:

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 low density polyethylene

 high density polyethylene
 PVC
 butyl /rubber
Thickness ranges from 0.2 m to 2 mm, depending on material and application. Since these
linings are vulnerable to damage they are covered with compacted earth for protection of depth
0.3 to 0.5 m.
The major advantage of buried membrane lining compared with concrete lining are:
 no special sub-grade preparations required (e.g. compaction)
 no specialized plant required
 material cost are usually lower.
The disadvantages, apart no saving in channel section over an unlined canal, are:
 the life of the lining is lower
 removal of cover material through scour, gullying or maintenance operation makes the
lining susceptible to damage, and;
 the membrane forms a weak plan in the embankment along which slips may occur (in
some instance channel slide slopes have to be flattened to provide adequate stability)
3.5.2 Hydraulic design of lined canal
There are a number of formulae which may be used to design the hydraulic section of lined
canal. For sizing lined canals with hard surfaces Manning‘s equation is recommended.
Canals which are earth lined or which use buried membrane linings should be sized using the
criteria for unlined channels, as described in previous section.
Lined canals may be required to transport sediment laden or clear water. In general, the velocity
should be as high as possible, within the limits of the type of lining chosen. This should ensure
that sediment is not deposited in the canal, although quantitative checks will confirm if this so. If
the sediment carrying capacity is inadequate, removal facilities will be required.

Maximum velocities and roughness coefficients

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The maximum average velocity which linings of particular types can withstand are given in
Table 3-13 alongside recommended values of roughness coefficient ―n‖ for use in Manning‘s
equation.

Table 3-13 Recommended values of maximum velocity & roughness coefficient

Lining type Max. velocity (m/s) Roughness "n"
Dry stone 1.0 0.025
Dry brick 1.0 0.02
Dressed masonry 2.0 0.018
Brick 1.5 0.017
Random Rubble 1.5 0.020
Unreinforced concrete 2.5 0.015
concrete 2.5 0.017
Buried membrane and Earth Design as unlined canals
Note
1. Roughness coefficient related to channels in clean conditions. If sediment deposits likely,
allowances for increased bed roughness should be made, using composite roughness
equation.
2. Maximum velocity depends on the cover material for the buried membrane
Froude Number
Channels with hard surface linings may carry super-critical flows, if the canals are steep and fast
flowing. At Froude number between 0.55 and 1.4 the flow pattern in the canal will be unstable
and may have standing waves, which may cause damage to the canal side slopes.
Froude (Fr) number for sub-critical flow should be maintained below 0.55, while for super-
critical flows Fr should be maintained above 1.4.
For rectangular channels Fr is computed using equation,

Where, V - Average velocity (m/s)

g - Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
d - Flow depth (m)

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For trapezoidal channels,

√
( ⁄ )

Where, A - flow area (m2)

Ws -water surface width (m) others as above
Note that when super-critical flow does occur, the channel should be designed as chute.
Canal cross-section
The cost of a hard surface lining generally amounts to a large proportion of the total canal
construction cost. The lining perimeter should therefore be minimized. In theory a semi circle
provides the largest area of flow for least perimeter, but this is generally unsuitable shape for in-
situ lining, although precast linings of small canals are sometimes built to this shape.
Most in-situ canal linings are built with a trapezoidal section. However, small canals, particularly
in hilly areas, are built to a rectangular section using stone masonry. This will reduces the top
width required.
For small capacity canals in hill areas, piped canals may be a more cost effective solution than
lining, particularly for small lengths where head loss can be accepted, and if the hill slope is not
completely stable.
(a) Side Slopes
For earth lined canals, the side slope will be chosen according to the characteristics of the lining
material. However it should not be steeper than 1:2.
For buried membrane linings, the side slope will be the slope at which the cover material is able
to stand. However, the lining does tend to form a potential sliding surface for the cover material,
and if the soils being lined have a low angle of repose; it is recommended that the lining be laid
at a flatter slope than the finished cover material. This means that the thickness of the cover
material may vary.
Hard surface linings are normally laid on slopes of 1:1.5 or 1:1 (for small canals). For dry
materials, a slope of 1:2 is recommended. These recommendations are summarized in Table 3-
14.
(b) Bed Width/Depth Ratio

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Canals using earth or buried membrane linings will be designed as unlined canals.
For hard surface linings, the objective is to minimize the lining perimeter, since lining is the
greatest proportion of the canal cost. In practice, however, higher ratios are adopted for
convenience of construction and maintenance.
Some of the values recommended are presented in Table 3-15.

Table 3-14 Side slopes for lined canals

Lining type Side slope Remarks
Earth 1:2 to 1:3 Depends on soils
Buried membrane 1:3 Lining will be laid at 1:3. Cover material slopes may
be steeper, depending on materials
Shortcrete 1:1.5
Concrete 1:1.5 1:1 slopes may be used on small channels (depth <
1:1 0.75m)
Brick /stone masonry 1:1.5 to Steep slopes may be adopted for small canals but
vertical need to be designed as structural earth retaining
members
Dry stone/ brick 1:2
masonry

Table 3-15 Recommended B/d Ratio for Hard Surface

Discharge (m3/s) Bed width to depth ratio
< 0.5 1:1
0.5 < 1.0 1:1.25
1.0 - .5 1:1.5
> .5 1:2
(c) Free Board
For earth & buried membrane lined canals the recommendations for unlined channels are
applicable. But, for hard surface linings, a lining freeboard is included and then an additional
allowance of earth freeboard is included on top. The lining freeboard is typically about half of
the total freeboard. Recommended values of freeboard in relation to the lined canal capacity are
given in Table 3-16.

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Table 3-16 Recommended freeboard values for hard surface lined canals
Status Discharge m3/s Total Freeboard (m) Lining Freeboard
(m)
Small scale projects < 0.1 0.2 0.1
0.1 - 0.5 0.3 0.15
0.5 - 1.0 0.4 0.2
Medium scale 1.0 - 2.0 0.5 0.2
projects 2.0 - 3.0 0.55 0.25
3.0 - 5.0 0.60 0.3
Medium to large scale 5.0 - 10.0 0.70 0.35
projects 10 - 30 0.8 0.4
> 30 1.0 0.5

(d) Embankments
In principle, bank top widths for lined canals are not different from those for unlined canals.
Clearly, there is no need to design canals with impermeable linings against a seepage gradient,
and this may allow narrow banks. However, in some cases the construction techniques may
depend on width. For example; if a concrete paving machine is to be used, a minimum bank top
width (road) will be required for the paver to run on and to be serviced with concrete. This width
could be 3 to 4 m for small scale (canals) projects, up to 5 or 6 m for medium scale (larger
canals) projects.
With this expectation noted, the bank top widths should follow recommendations for unlined
canals. A berm of 0.2 to 0.5 m is sometimes provided at lining top level for conveniences of
construction. However, it is not always essential..
At the connection between the lining and earth embankment, the joint should be strengthened by
embedding the edge of lining inside the bank to a reasonable length (0.15 m to 0.3 m depending
on canal size).
For canals in fill, the material placed in the embankments need to be specially compacted to
support concrete linings

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Canals of steep slopes, masonry lining is usual, and the masonry edge should be embedded into
the hill slope from a depth of 0.5 m to 1.0 m depending on the canal size. On the downhill the
lined section is embedded in the earthen bank by 0.3 to 0.5 m.
Grassing or turfing is provided just above the lining to protect against soil erosion & gully
formation. Catch drains to divert rain water are provided on the uphill side of the hill canal.
These catch drains are connected to the nearest natural drains.
Similarly, recommendation on service roads and side drains for unlined canals also apply to lined
canals.
(e) Lining Thickness
The lining thickness depends on the type of lining and size of the canal. Table 3-17 summarizes
lining thickness for different materials and applications.

Table 3-17 Canal Lining Thickness

Type of Lining Canal Capacity (m3/s) Thickness of Lining (mm)
Concrete <3 80
3 - 10 100
10 - 25 120
> 25 150
Shotcrete All 50
Brick masonry All 150
Stone masonry All 300
Dry brick All 150
Dry stone <5 200
>5 300
Earth Varies with depth 300 to 1000
Buried membrane All 1-2

(f) Radius of Curvatures

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Earth lined canals and buried membrane lined canals should follow the guidelines set out for
unlined channels.
Lined canals can a much tighter radius of curvature since they are protected against bank erosion.
As with unlined canals, radii may be determined by the radii of the associated service roads.
Where there are no constraints, a radius of 3 x surface width is recommended. If it is necessary to
use a tighter bend, special measures should be considered, particularly for fast flowing canals.
(g) Back Pressures on Lining
The stability of hard surface lining needs to be carefully checked if there is a danger of
groundwater pressure behind the lining. If the canal is drowned in such cases, the lining will fail.
Groundwater tables rise during the wet season and account should be taken of this when carrying
out investigations of the water table in the dry season.
If there is a danger of water pressure occurring behind the lining, under drainage needs to be
provided.
The key factors in assessing the possibility of the failure are:
 the position of the water table, and its seasonal variation
 the permeability of the sub-grade,
 the likelihood of drawdown in the canal
The permeability of the soil is important, since if the canal construction material is poorly
drained, a temporary water pressure may exist, even if the water table is low, when the canal is
suddenly emptied. For permabilities greater than 10-6 m/s (clean sands/gravel) there should be no
problem, since the soils are relatively quick to drain. For permeabilities less than this (clayey
sands, silty/sandy/clayey mixture, clays) the provision of under-drainage needs to be considered.
(Although it is noted that if the soils are clayey there should be no need of lining for seepage
control).
Drainage can be provided in several ways:
 by providing longitudinal drains under the lining discharging to natural drainage channels
or at suitable points into the canal via valves
 by providing pressure relief valves in the bottom and/or sides of the canals at frequent
intervals, typically 5m spacing
 by providing weepholes at frequent intervals in the bed side of the canal
Typical Cross Sections
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Typical cross-section for a variety of canals and different linings are presented in Figures 3-3to
3-7.

Figure 3-2 Masonry canal lining for small canals

Figure 3-3 Masonry canal lining (in area with back water pressure problem)

Figure 3-4 Masonry-upside unstable

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Figure 3-5 Masonry-Terraced ground, downhill side unstable

Figure 3-6 Concrete lined canal in cut and fill

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

REFERENCE

1. Rozgar Baban: Design of diversion weirs, 1995.

2. MacDonalds & partners Ltd: Design manual for Irrigation project in Nepal
3. MoWR: Design guideline on diversion structure, 2001
4. MoWR: Design guideline on Irrigation system, 2001
5. Hydraulic design manual of Texas Department of transportation, 2004
6. ERA Drainage Design Manual, 2001
7. V.Te. Chow Open channel hydraulics, 1959
8. Santos Kumar Garg, Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structure, 2007.
9. P Novak and et al, Hydraulic structures Fourth edition, 2007.

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ANNEXES

Annex-1 Hydrology

Rainfall

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Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Regions A1 & A4
Figure 5-9

400,0

350,0

300,0

250,0 2 Year
Intensity, mm/hr

5 Year
10 Year
200,0 25 year
50 Year
100 Year
150,0

100,0

50,0

0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Duration, min.

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Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Regions A2 & A3
Figure 5-10
400

350

300

250 2 Year
Intensity, mm/hr

5 Year
10 Year
200 25 year
50 Year
100 Year
150

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Duration, min.

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Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Regions B, C & D
Figure 5-11
400.0

350.0

300.0

250.0
2 Year
Intensity, mm/hr

5 Year
200.0
10 Year
25 year

150.0 50 Year
100 Year

100.0

50.0

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

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Duration, min.
 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Bahir Dar & Lake Tana
Figure 5-12
400,0

350,0

300,0

250,0 2 Year
Intensity, mm/hr

5 Year
10 Year
200,0 25 year
50 Year
100 Year
150,0

100,0

50,0

0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Duration, min.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Manning’s roughness coefficient for natural stream and excavated channel

Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

EXCAVATED OR DREDGED
a. Earth, straight and uniform
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense Weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.025 0.030 0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy sides 0.025 0.035 0.045
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Backhoe-excavated or dredged
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2 Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
NATURAL STREAMS
1 Minor streams (top width at flood stage < 30 m)
a. Streams on Plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rims or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
5. Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective
slopes and sections 0.040 0.048 0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
8 Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.100 0.150
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
b. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks
usually steep, trees and brush along banks
submerged at high stages
1. Bottom: gravel, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
2 Flood Plains
a. Pasture, no brush
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1. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035 89
2. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

b. Cultivated area
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. Same as above, but with heavy growth of
spouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees,
little undergrowth, flood stage below 0.080 0.100 0.120
branches
5. Same as above, but with flood stage
reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
3 Major Streams (top width at flood stage > 30 m).
The n value is less than that for minor streams of
similar description, because banks offer less
effective resistance.
0.025 -- 0.060
a. Regular section with no boulders or brush
0.035 -- 0.100
b. Irregular and rough section
4 Various Open Channel Surfaces
0.012- 0.020
a. Concrete
b. Gravel bottom with:
0.020
Concrete
0.023
Mortared stone
0.033
Riprap
c. Natural Stream Channels
0.030
Clean, straight stream
0.040
Clean, winding stream
0.050
Winding with weeds and pools
0.100
With heavy brush and timber
d. Flood Plains
0.035
Pasture
0.040
Field Crops
0.050
Light Brush and Weeds
0.070
Dense Brush
0.100
Dense Trees

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Graphical Peak discharge estimation method

Q = Peak discharge (m3/s)

qu = Unit peak discharge (m3/s/Km2/mm)
A = Drainage area (Km2)
Q = Runoff volume (mm)

Rain fall type Ia/P Co C1 C2

II 0.1 2.5532 -0.6151 -0.164
0.3 2.4653 -0.6226 -0.1166
0.35 2.419 -0.6159 -0.0882
0.4 2.3641 -0.5986 -0.0562
0.45 2.2924 -0.5701 -0.0228
0.5 2.2028 -0.516 -0.0126

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