S2.0-S2213138824003199-Main

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 69 (2024) 103923
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta
Review article
Life cycle assessment of green hydrogen production through electrolysis: A

literature review
Wagd Ajeeb a, * , Rui Costa Neto a , Patrícia Baptista b
a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research, IST-ID- Associação do Instituto Superior Técnico para a Investigação e Desenvolvimento, University of
Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This study reviews the electrolysis techniques for green-hydrogen (GH2) production, with primary focus on their
Green hydrogen environmental sustainability implications. Different stages of the GH2 value chain are characterized regarding
Electrolysis the life cycle analysis (LCA), presenting the methods, materials, energy sources, and efficiency. Qualified LCA
LCA
results would lead to proper decision-making, which depends on the input choices and data quality used.
Renewable energy
Therefore, the life cycle inventory and useful technical data for GH2 electrolysis production in LCA studies are
reviewed. Also, the recent developments regarding electrolysis techniques toward potentially enhancing their life
cycle are discussed. The results showed that solar and wind energies as the most promising sources for GH2
production, with lower Global Warming Potential (GWP) for wind turbine cases. The reported results of envi-
ronmental impacts (EIs) are lower for proton-exchange membrane (PEM) technology. There is still limited data
regarding comparing the various EIs (e.g. freshwater eutrophication) and accompanying costs. However, it is
recommended to consider the recent developments in H2 electrolysis production, mainly the efficiency, energy
consumption and lifetime along with the miniaturization. Also, future LCA studies may consider the final use of
produced GH2 (e.g. fuel cells), heat recovery and materials recycling stages for complete visibility towards
optimizing the efficiency and EIs.
such as solar photovoltaic (PV) and thermal solar, wind and hydropower
were expensive and incomparable with the cost of fossil fuels. Nowa-
Introduction
days, with the development of RES and the increased awareness of its
importance for the environment, society and economy, their prices have
Reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of industrial applications and
been significantly reduced [7]. For instance, in the past decade (2010 to
several types of transportation becomes a priority in the scientific
2021) the levelized cost of energy for PV solar decreased around 9 times
research community to reduce fossil fuel use. Therefore, several
(from 0.42 $/kWh to 0.05 $/kWh) [1]. The objective of achieving
renewable energy sources (RES) such as bioenergy, wind and solar en-
climate neutrality by 2030 by mitigating carbon dioxide emissions
ergy systems were developed which opened the door for the big need for
become important for European cities [8]. Also, integrated energy sys-
developing energy storage solutions linked to those clean energy sources
tems have been suggested for sustainable improvement with the use of
[1] and [2]. One important solution that has been suggested for the
advanced thermal systems and hydrogen technologies, especially after
beneficial use and storage of energy is the conversion of the produced
increasing the opportunities of using several RES systems [9]. Therefore,
electricity into valuable chemicals and fuels required for the industry. In
the time has come to combine RES technology with the hydrogen
this major, two important processes can be implemented: firstly, the
economy. The European Commission aimed to attain carbon neutrality
hydrogen generation from water electrolysis (WEL) [3]; secondly, the
by giving a boost to the clean production of hydrogen (H2) due to it is
methanol and methane synthesis [4,5]. Methanol has a wide range of
promising importance to be used in many industrial and sustainable
applications via the fuel cells (FCs), combustion, and the manufacture of
energy applications [10]. H2 is a promising energy vector because of its
some chemicals such as polymers, liquid fuels (gasoline, jet fuel, etc.) as
carbon-free combustion that doesn’t cause greenhouse gas emissions
well as in thermal applications (boilers, gas turbines, and internal
[11]. Therefore, H2 energy can be used for decarbonising several sectors
combustion engines and others) [6]. In the past, the costs of novel RES
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wagdajeeb@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (W. Ajeeb).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2024.103923
Received 11 April 2024; Received in revised form 30 May 2024; Accepted 24 July 2024
Available online 31 July 2024
2213-1388/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
W. Ajeeb et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 69 (2024) 103923
Nomenclature LC Life Cycle

LCA Life Cycle Analysis
AC Alternating Current LCOH Levelized Cost of Hydrogen
AEM Anion Exchange Membrane NaOH sodium hydroxide
ADP abiotic depletion potential O2 Oxygen
ALE alkaline electrolysis ODP Ozone depletion potential
CAPEX Capital expenditure OH− hydroxide ions
DC Direct Current OPEX The annual operational expenditures
EIs Environmental Impacts PEM proton-exchange membrane
FEP freshwater eutrophication potential PEMEL proton-exchange membrane electrolyser
FC Fuel Cell PV Photovoltaic
GH2 Green Hydrogen RES Renewable energy sources
GWP Global warming potential SMR steam methane reforming
H2 Hydrogen SOEL Solid oxide electrolysis
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency TAP terrestrial acidification potential
IRP Ionizing radiation WD water depletion
KOH Potassium hydroxide WEL water electrolysis
in present industries and societies such as chemical and minerals pro- choices. However, their review paper focused on the cost and effi-
duction, and building sustainable energy needs [12,13] as well as ciencies of energy and exergy of hydrogen production, while briefly
transportation e.g. the FC of passenger vehicles [14]. H2 can be cat- mentioning the environmental impacts. Furthermore, Kanz et al. [31]
egorised based on the energy source used in the production process into: focused on reviewing the LCA hydrogen production studies (13 LCA
GH2 which uses RES, grey H2 which uses natural gas steam reforming studies) related to only PV solar energy source and analysing only the
process, and brown and black H2 which uses conventional fossil fuels GWP environmental impact and their harmonized values. Wilkinson
[15]. Producing GH2 by RES can be processed in several methods et al. [32] reviewed LCA studies published between 2015 and 2022,
including WEL and thermochemical-based biomass [16], while WEL is considering a diverse range of methods for producing hydrogen and
considered the most effective way [17,18]. different energy sources, with only a few LCA studies focusing on GH2
In the last years, studies have been conducted on the various pro- electrolysis production powered by wind and PV solar sources. Hasan
duction and use processes of GH2, including diverse technology, envi- et al. [33] reviewed the techno-economic development in WEL tech-
ronmental impact, economy, and social and political [19,20]. A report nologies (including the nanomaterials-based catalysts for hydrogen
by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) presented H2 production) used for GH2 production and shortly discussed the GWP
associated with RES considering the possible strategies and recom- environmental impact for GH2 production. Also, Li et al. [34] reviewed
mendations for enhancing its usage for decarbonization [21]. Later, hydrogen production technologies involving WEL, water thermochem-
another report by IRENA evaluated the global cost of GH2, mentioning ical cycles and methods-based biomass for large-scale applications,
the importance of H2 toward the 1.5 ◦ C pathway for climate goals and analysing the capital and operating cost, referring shortly to the envi-
the approaches to reduce the prices of GH2 [22]. A study by Gerloff [23] ronmental impact of GH2 production-based RES (with only two LCA
found that the environmental impact costs of GH2 production based RES studies) in comparison with other hydrogen production methods.
(e.g. wind turbines and hydropower) can be lower twice than the one The previous literature reveals a significant gap in the current body
based steam reforming method. Also, a review paper by Dawood et al. of knowledge. Only a handful of review articles have addressed the
[24] about H2 production indicated the pathways and combined tech- environmental impacts based on LCA studies of GH2 production pow-
nologies for energy taking into account the H2 storage, safety regulation, ered by renewable sustainable energy sources (previously introduced).
and utilization requirements. Hernandez-Gomez et al. [25] reviewed the There is a noticeable deficiency in the information provided about the
modelling of PEM electrolysers for their performance with RES. Brauns input materials and operational aspects of the electrolyser system.
and Turek [26] focused on reporting the studies on Alkaline electrolysis Furthermore, the discussions surrounding the life cycle inventories used
(ALEL) powered by RES mainly solar and wind. Moreover, Jianhua et al. and the potential for improving the resulting environmental impacts are
[27] highlighted in their review the development progress of hydrogen insufficient. The findings reported across various studies lack consis-
production through electrolysers, summarising the power supply to- tency, and there is a shortage of information on critical aspects such as
pologies based on the electrical interface modelling of the electrolyser. the flow of materials and energy during both the construction and
Nevertheless, most of the review studies and reports have generally operation phases of the hydrogen plant. Moreover, there is a pressing
discussed the various ways of H2 production processes, applications, need for a more focused approach towards GH2 electrolysis production,
storage and costs without focusing on the life cycle inventory inputs particularly when based on RES. This is crucial to fully leverage the
correlated to environmental impacts, efficiency increase and the system decarbonization benefits across wide range of application sectors.
materials. Therefore, the current study fills the mentioned research gaps by
On the other hand, the available review papers on the LCA and systematically reviewing updates on GH2 electrolysis production in LCA
environmental impacts of GH2 production via the WEL process are studies. It also explores recent advancements in electrolysis technologies
somewhat limited and can be summarized as follows. Bhandari et al. with the aim of enhancing their performance from an environmental
[28] reviewed LCA studies on different hydrogen production routes that sustainability perspective. Therefore, this study gathers recent infor-
were published between 2000 and 2012. Also, Koj et al. [29] reviewed mation and data from pertinent publications in field of GH2 electrolysis
32 LCA studies on Power-to-X (Power to Gas, Transport, Power, Liquids production. It considers various factors such as the type of WEL tech-
and Chemicals) published before 2019. Razi and Dincer [30] reviewed nology used, the type of RES employed, life cycle inventories (including
studies concerning the use of only solar energy as a renewable source for input materials), the locations of production and consumption, the
GH2 production and different choices were discussed such as solar storage system, and the environmental impacts. The aim is to provide an
thermal energy, photonic method, PV electrical energy, as well as hybrid updated guide and a reference database that can aid in the optimal
2
establishment and selection of parts and processes for an efficient GH2 Green electricity production and distribution
plant.
The importance of using sustainable green energy comes from the
Methodology fact that fossil fuels are being rapidly consumed and their extraction
from the ground is becoming more expensive with time. In addition to
The strategy of conducting the current systematic review is presented the negative impacts of the emissions of fossil fuels on the environment
here, following the generalized principles for systematic analysis and and global warming, which are quickly turning points that will lead to
reviewing studies found in the literature [35–37]. The steps of the severe consequences for humankind and the planet [38,39]. Therefore,
approach of selecting the relevant studies (articles, books, conference it becomes crucial to promote RES such as solar, wind and bioenergy
papers etc.) reviewed and analysed are presented in Fig. 1. that can offer clean replacements for fossil fuels, since these primary
The keywords to search for the publications were selected as follows: sources of renewables are infinite and widely available. Presently, most
(“solar” OR “wind” OR “renewable energy”) AND (“electrolysis” OR of the produced H2 in the world (around 95 %) is based on fossil fuels
“electrolyser” OR “hydrogen production” OR “green hydrogen”) AND [40]. Moreover, the general electricity mix from the grid can be used to
(“Life cycle Analysis” OR “LCA” OR “environmental impacts”). The provide electricity under the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) as an
search was conducted based on the database of Scopus, Google Scholar advanced solution for H2 production [41], especially if the local elec-
and MDPI website until 13 November 2023 (from 2016 to 2024) tricity markets concepts were included [42]. The energy provided under
considering the title, abstracts and keywords for all journals and con- PPA conditions has been considered among the ways of producing GH2
ference papers, letters, books, etc. The systematic search for relevant by the grid-connected to WEL [43]. This process allows for a continuous
publications is described in Fig. 1, where the factor “n” represents the operation of the electrolyzes enhancing the total efficiency of the
number of publications for each stage. The first search found a total of hydrogen plant by increasing the working hours and lowering the costs
606 publications employing several methods and filters to show the [21]. Under certain conditions, the grid connected to the WEL process
relevant publications for the current review paper. Then, the publica- can have more beneficial economics compared to the energy source of
tions were screened by reading their titles and abstracts, followed by stand-alone solar PV panels [44]. Different types of RES exist and can be
reading the entire publication selecting the most relevant papers to the used for GH2 production, while solar and wind sources are usually
current study objectives. Also, the cross-references of the selected pub- preferred due to the multiple advantages of integrating those two
lications were reviewed providing additional relevant sources to the sources with an H2 production system, compared to other RES (such as
current review paper. hydropower, geothermal, bioenergy) that are more suitable to be used
for the grid base load without having to balance their input sources [45].
GH2 value chain GH2 production is suggested as an optimal solution for the use of RES
where a gap between the demand and production of electricity often
In general, the GH2 value chain can be described as presented in happens with a lack of available storage capacities. GH2 provides a
Fig. 2 in four stages: green electricity production, followed by GH2 chemical storage technique for electricity for use after [46]. However,
production, followed by storage and compression of H2 and ending with the grid connecting method to provide the power for GH2 production is
distribution and final use. significantly affected by the location, where the price of electricity
changes by country. PV solar energy provides the electricity needed for
H2 production in WEL that can separate H2 from oxygen, as described in
Fig. 3. In addition, recent research has explored the potential of using
electrolysers, specifically Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electro-
lysers, in conjunction with thermal solar energy plants as an electricity
supply. This approach, which may use a Parabolic Trough Collector, has
demonstrated promising performance [47]. Several parameters may
affect the performance of solar energy such as the sun irradiation
strength, and surrounding environmental conditions of wetness, dust,
wind, and temperature [48]. Also, the optimising analysis can be applied
for the connection of PV solar to GH2 production project considering the
sizes of PV solar plant and the WEL project toward lowering the pro-
duction costs [49]. In addition, although the production of grey
hydrogen may still require lower cost (1.3 €/kg.H2) compared to GH2 (e.
g. by 3.5 €/kg.H2 using PEM) based solar energy, GH2 costs are expected
to drop until 2030 (e.g. to 2.5 €/kg.H2 based solar energy) [50].
On the other hand, wind energy is considered an important renew-
able source for GH2 production as it can work during the daytime and at
night when it is not possible to use solar energy [51,52]. Fig. 4 shows a
H2 production plant based on wind turbines. Whereas the generated
electricity current is DC, an AC/DC converter is needed which has an
efficiency of around 90 %. In some cases, it is possible to hybridise solar
and wind energy and maximise the total production of RES and thus
increase the GH2 production levels [53].
GH2 production through electrolysis
The production of H2 is the main process of the GH2 value chain

where it should ensure decarbonized H2 production. Different ways and
technologies have already been specified for GH2 production. Also, some
parameters are important for selecting the H2 production technology
Fig. 1. Diagram of the systematic literature review strategy. such as the scale of production (large or small) and the location of the
3
Fig. 2. Diagram for the value chain of GH2.
electrolyser efficiency and reducing costs [55]. So far, with the devel-
opment of WEL technology, several types have been introduced by re-
searchers and commonly used in the industry, mainly proton-exchange
membrane electrolyser (PEMEL), ALEL, and solid oxide (SOEL) elec-
trolyser [56]. Those methods are diverse regarding the operating con-
ditions of temperature and pressure, the type of electrolyte, and the ionic
factor existent e.g. OH− or H+. The configuration of the processes of the
three electrolyser types is described in Fig. 5.
Alkaline water electrolyser

ALEL technology to generate H2 is considered an old technology first
presented by Troostwijk and Diemann [58]. The general configuration
Fig. 3. Green H2 production-based PV solar. (For interpretation of the refer- of the ALEL can be shown in Fig. 5. This type of electrolyser contains two
ences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of electrodes separated by the diaphragm and inserted in an electrolyte
this article.)
solution of alkaline. The hydroxide ions (OH− ) initially generate from
the cathode and then transfer through the diaphragm layer to the anode,
producing H2 at the cathode first [59]. Then the hydroxide ions cause
the oxidization of water molecules releasing oxygen and H2 gases. The
characteristics of the ALEL type can be specified by the operation of low
temperatures between 30 and 80˚C, and the used materials such as the
electrolyte solution [60], asbestos material for the diaphragm and the
nickel electrodes [61,62]. This technique still has some reported dis-
advantages such as low current densities (below 400 mA/cm2), low
operating pressure and low dynamic, corrosive liquid electrolyte and
low energy efficiency [63]. In addition, the development of ALEL
technology (especially energy efficiency) is going on by impending new
materials for the membranes based on polymers that have good anionic
Fig. 4. Green H2 production-based wind energy. (For interpretation of the
conductivity [64].
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.) Proton-exchange membrane
This Eelectrolyser is a recent technology started by Grubb in the
consumption. As it was stated, decarbonised H2 can be produced by 1950s. It uses membranes made of solid polysulfonated such as Nafion
different RES where the generated green electricity is used in a WEL and Fumapem for the electrolyte described as a proton conductor [65].
system to generate oxygen and H2 from water. WEL has been one of the The protons (H+) first generate at the Anode then transfer to the cathode
oldest and most common techniques to produce H2 since the beginning via the membrane, then the electrons and proton rejoin at the cathode
of the 19th century [54]. The electrolyser usually contains some con- producing the H2. Several advantages have been reported for PEM
nected cells of cathode and anodes that receive the DC voltage power electrolysers such as their compact and simple design, the possibility to
resulting in H2 on the cathode side and oxygen on the anode side. Also, work under high pressure and temperature, high purity of the produced
some types of electrolytes and electrocatalysts can be used in the WEL hydrogen, high current densities and quick response [40,65]. On the
process to increase the speed of the reaction, thus enhancing the other hand, the PEM electrolyser is still considered to need more costs
4
Fig. 5. The process of three different WEL methods,

adapted from [57].
compared with ALEL [66], due to the expensive materials used which Solid oxide electrolyser
are mostly palladium/platinum and ruthenium/iridium for the cathode SOEL is a more recent technology (than PEM and ALEL) that uses
and anode, respectively [55,67]. oxygen as the ionic agent, where it was first proposed by Dönitz and
Erdle in the 1980s [68]. This technology has attracted researchers due to
Table 1
Selected research on H2 production using RES.
References Energy source Location WEL technology Storage The final use of H2 Remarks
Yates et al. 2020 PV Townville PEM and ALEL − H2 gas Off-grid connection.
[44] Regions with high solar resources are preferable.
Chen et al. 2021 PV, Wind Kramer Junction ALELs Battery, H2 tank Providing a constant Off-grid
[75] and Norderney and FC load of 100 MW H2 − based energy storage system is more
economical.
Zhang et al., Wind, Nuclear PEM H2 tank and FC Real time electricity Off-grid connection.
2022 [76] demand A small modular reactor is more suitable to
couple with RES.
Scolaro and Wind Rostock PEM H2 tank and FC Offshore Wind to H2 On-grid.
Kittner 2022 Germany market Carbon abatement cost of “green” H2 ranges
[51] between 187 €/tonCO2e and 265 €/tonCO2e.
Marocco et al. PV, Wind Norway PEM Battery, H2 tank Micro-grid Off-grid.
2022 [53] Diesel and FC Case of both batteries and H2 with LCOE of 0.41
€/kWh
Heras and PV, Wind Spain PEM MgH2 Metal Generate Electricity Off-grid
martin 2021 hybrids Decrease costs over the next decade by 70 %.
[77]
Verleysen et al. Wind Galicia Spain ALEL Ammonia for Producing Ammonia Off-grid.
2020 [52] storage and Temperature control enhances the production of
transport NH3 reactor by up to 22.5 %
Marocco et al. PV Italy ALEL and PEM Battery, H2 tank Generate Electricity Off-grid.
2021 [78] and FC The renewable power option was cheaper than
the use of diesel by around 0.30 €/kWh.
Siddiqui and PV Toronto, Canada PEM Ammonia for Generate Electricity On-grid.
Dencir 2020 storage Energy efficiency is between 15.7 % and 15.8 %
[79] in the year.
Xu et al. 2020 PV wind China, Gansu ALEL H2 tank and FC Generate Electricity Off-grid
[80] Using PV and wind power with FCs can achieve
an LCOE of 0.226 $/kWh for the optimal WEL
system.
Ozturk and PV Turkey, Istanbul, PEM Ammonia for Producing Ammonia Off-grid
Dincer 2021 storage The total energy efficiency for the system is
[81] 26.08 %.
Nizami et al. Solar PV Central Java, PEM Methanol storage Producing methanol by On-grid
2022 [82] Indonesia CO2 hydrogenation The total energy efficiency with the heat
integration process is 55.16 %.
Kushnir et al. Electricity mix Sweden PEM tanks Steel production Improvement was found in the H2 direct
2020 [83] grid reduction of advanced steel.
Zhang et al. Wind and solar Shanghai, China biomass tanks H2 fuelling station Enchantment in the efficiency by 22 % for the
2022 [84] electrolysis proposed WEL process.
including PEM
Razmi et al. Parabolic − PEM H2 tank and FC Generate Electricity The system can generate 9 MW, 14.9 MW, and
[47] trough 20.1 MW of power during off-peak, mid-peak,
collector and on-peak periods, respectively.
Razmi et al. Heliostat solar − SOEL Solid oxide FC Generate Electricity The peak demand management, resulted in a
[73] field payback period of less than two years.
5
the advanced production efficiency as the thermodynamic process is results showed benefits in the environmental categories of Human
operated at high temperatures [69]. In this process, steam water goes to Health, Climate Change and Resources while degrades in the Ecosystems
the cathode where the H2 and Oxide ions are generated, then oxide ions Quality category. The results indicated the important advantages of
transfer through the electrolyte layer (the electrolyte material is usually implementing produced H2 for FC application in order to enhance
the yttria-stabilized zirconia) to the anode releasing oxygen and elec- environmental benefits, especially reliance on PV energy sources. Also,
trons. However, the main challenge in this process (involving SOELs) is Wang et al. [88] analysed H2 production and the use of H2 as a fuel ship
to develop materials with enhanced properties for high-temperature (PEM FC) for a case study in China. Several approaches to H2 production
conditions, besides decreasing the operation temperature levels to be were considered including WEL. Also, Burkhardt et al. [89] evaluated
between 500 ◦ C and 700 ◦ C to make this technology more commer- the environmental performance of the H2 cycle considering the pro-
cialised and applicable [70]. Those challenges of using SOELs are mainly duction, compression with cooling (until 900 bar), storage in tanks
related to instability, degradation conditions of the materials and the (carbon fibre tank with a capacity of 360 kg H2), dispenser (700 bar) and
needed high temperatures [71], making this process not suitable for usage in H2 refuelling station for mobility applications in Berline. The
joining with intermittent energy sources such as RES but it is more overall efficiency was found about 58.3 %, and the electrolyser effi-
capable of being used in nuclear [72]. Recently, a study by Razmi et al. ciency was about 73.8 %. The results showed that the total greenhouse
[73] proposed a GH2 production system using a heliostat solar field, gas (GHG) emissions were shared as 41 %, from the wind turbine, 19 %
SOEL, and solid oxide FC. The system efficiently produces hydrogen at a from the WEL system, 12 % for the compressor, 27 % for the storage and
rate of 7.76 tons per day and employs strategic hydrogen storage for 1 % for the dispenser. A study by Lubecki et al. [90] tested a model for
peak demand management, resulting in a payback period of less than analysing the environmental impact and GWP of energy consumption
two years. This underscores the proposed system’s economic feasibility for driving power electric buses and producing H2 powered by wind,
and operational efficiency. It should be mentioned, that achieving solar and waste. The results showed that the renovation of bus fleets
minor-temperature operation for electrolysers (mainly SOEL) will result with H2 and electric paths will enhance the environmental benefits. On
in less energy losses by heat and use cheaper materials, thus decreasing the other hand, Kim et al. [91] analyzed the production of renewable
the capital costs [74]. The latter will help bring SOEL technology closer urea via the H2 obtained from ALEL technology. The results presented
to implementation with RES such as PV solar and wind. Therefore, the ALEL as a good method to economically and environmentally produce
upcoming sections focus more on the PEM and ALEL technologies as clean H2 that enhances renewable urea production.
more suitable for GH2 production based on green electricity (particu- However, there aren’t enough LCA studies with clear data used for
larly PV solar and wind RES). the total value chain of GH2 production to the final application use. The
In addition, research examples for GH2 production-based RES (green information about the inputs and outputs in the LCA of electrolysis H2
electricity) are summarised in Table 1, indicating some details of the production in those studies is not complete and further details and pa-
value chain and the WEL technology. It is shown in Table 1 that studies rameters are still required. Thus, LCA studies focused on H2 production
used to a large extent PEM or ALEL technologies for H2 production. via WEL technologies are presented in the following sections.
Furthermore, the chosen location of a hydrogen production plant
appeared to have a significant role in the costs required and the overall LCA studies for H2 electrolysis production comparing 3 technologies
performance as the availability of RES and ambient conditions can vary
[44,85,86]. On the other hand, several storage and end-use strategies for As previously stated, the WEL process can be performed with three
the produced hydrogen were followed by the studies in Table 1 that vary main technologies that may differ in methods, construction materials
from storing hydrogen in tanks, H2 fuelling stations, production of and operation conditions which may result in different environmental
ammonia and steel, and regenerating electricity. However, the charac- impacts. Gerloff [92] analysed the use of wind and solar energy sources
teristics of each stage of GH2 production (green electricity production, for H2 production by three approaches of ALEL, PEM, and SOEL elec-
GH2 production, storage and compression and final use) significantly trolysis systems in Germany location. It was concluded that the CO2-eq
affect the total performance (in technical, economic and environmental was reduced by using the energy source sharing of wind and solar. From
aspects) of a hydrogen production plant. the environmental point of view and not the cost side, it was recom-
mended to use ALEL technology for the studied scenarios in 2019 and
Life cycle assessment of GH2 production 2030, while the PEMEl technology is recommended for the scenario in
2050 and the RES use. Also, Zhang et al.[93] analysed four categories of
LCA helps to understand the total performance and the possible energy sources to supply WEL systems (PEM and ALEL electrolysis for
development of the system. The LC assessment can be done considering temperature and pressure lower than 100 ◦ C and 30 bars) for H2 pro-
the characterization of inventory data of a well-validated software and duction, wind energy, PV solar, Swiss (CH) electricity network and
other collected data of the actual application. In this, the manufacture of average electricity network of Europe. The environmental indicators,
WEL technologies and used materials play a main role in improving the such as GWP, freshwater eutrophication potential (FEP), terrestrial
LC, along with the operation inputs (energy, heat, distilled water etc.) to acidification potential (TAP) and ozone depletion potential (ODP), were
the H2 production process and their sources. Therefore, it is provided reduced by about 50 % when the lifetime of the WEL system was
here an overview of life cycle studies selected and the environmental enhanced from 30 to 60 years. Another study by Delpierre et al. [94]
effects of WEL technologies used for producing H2 based on RES. conducted an LCA study for H2 production using wind energy with two
different WEL systems (ALEL and PEM) at a location in the Netherlands.
LCA studies for H2 from production to end use The results showed that the use of ALEL and PEM electrolysis in the
studied H2 production system led to similar environmental effects with
A careful analysis of the total LC of the hydrogen value chain from deviations up to 7 % for large scale. The authors referred to the
energy to gas until the end-use provides complete visibility for importance of the energy source of the electricity for the electrolysis
improving efficiency and optimizing EIs. Concas et al. [87] evaluated system as the most impactful factor on the environment by 90 %. The
the value chain of H2 produced by electrolysis technology (mainly by results also reported that ALEL and PEM electrolysis systems with 30
PEM) connected to RES of wind and PV plants using SimaPro software years of lifetime can achieve less GWP by 9 % compared with the system
for 4 scenarios, considering the H2 storage and drive for applications in of 20 years of lifetime. The differences are found to be insignificant
FCs and biomethane production. The conversion efficiency (energy to when similarly varying the lifetime of a PEM plant. Moreover, Zhao et al.
gas) is considered between 58 % and 80 %, which it reduces by [95] analysed the LC of three hydrogen electrolysis technologies, (SOEL,
increasing the stack energy capacity because of the ohmic losses. The PEM, and ALEL), and EIs results by PEM technology were higher
6
compared to the use of SOEL and ALEL by 22 and 63 CO2-eq/FU, the potential of using the waste glycerol photo-reforming method for
respectively. The sensitivity analysis indicated that the most effective GH2 production. Furthermore, Weidner et al. [103] studied several op-
approach to reducing potential impacts would be to reduce critical tions to produce around 500 Mt/yr of H2 (green and blue H2) including
materials use on the current status of electrolysis technologies. the use of solar and wind energy sources. The found climate change
A study by Henriksen et al. [96] analyzed the production of H2 impacts were higher by around 3.3 to 5.4 times than the allocated
through PEM and SOEL electrolysis technologies beside other pathways- planetary boundary. Metal manufacturing applications based on RES
based fossil technologies methods. The results demonstrated emissions may significantly contribute to the environmental effects of GH2 pro-
between 3.9 and 20 kg CO2-eq /kg H2 for fossil technologies. The WEL duction, which refers to the importance of enhancing the recycling and
technology-based U.S electricity grid resulted in 31 kg for PEM and 25 mining practice of metallic elements. Also, Rivera et al. [104] evaluated
kg CO2-eq /kg H2 for SOEL electrolyser, while with the use of renewable the environmental impacts of producing H2 through a PEM electrolyser-
electricity, the emissions were between 2 and 3 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 for based solar energy source to be used as a cooking fuel instead of con-
PEM and SOEL, with 90 % less than the grid electricity. Furthermore, ventional cooking fuels (e.g. liquefied petroleum gas and firewood). The
Zhang et al. [97] conducted LCA for H2 production via ALEL, PEM, and results reported that the produced GH2 can decrease GWP to 0.04 kg CO2
SOEL-based wind energy regarding the GWP, acidification potential, eq./MJ.
ODP, and eutrophication potential. It was found that onshore wind Some input materials of PEM electrolyser used in life cycle inventory
connected to PEM technology exhibited a minimal GWP of 0.094 kg data found in the literature for the GH2 are summarised in Table 3. It
CO2-eq. However, the results of found studies regarding the comparison should be mentioned that information about the exact amounts of each
of the three electrolyses technologies based on RES regarding the GWP input material (the mass in Kg) used for the construction of the PEM
indicator are summarized in Table 2. electrolyser is not provided in many of the found studies.
In general, analysing the data provided in Table 2, the GWP impact It can be noted from Table 4 that there are common conventional
results of WEL present good agreement. H2 electrolysis powered by wind materials used for the components of the PEM electrolyser system in the
has a lower GWP impact than the ones used PV solar energy sources. previous LCA studies, particularly for the membrane and electrodes.
Also, the predictions for future scenarios of using WEL technologies
showed a significant improvement in minimizing the GWP impacts of LCA studies for H2 electrolysis production-based ALEL
the system. PEM technology appeared in some studies [93,96,97] to
have lower GWP impacts compared to ALEL and SOEL technologies. ALEs used abundant and low-cost materials in their construction
such as iron, nickel and steel [105]. Also, It become a proven method
LCA studies for H2 electrolysis production-based PEM with optimised operation costs, capable of large capacity plants and the
possible use of raw water in the process [106]. As stated previously,
More LCA studies focusing on H2 electrolysis production-based PEM ALEL technology has been commonly used for H2 production among the
can be found in the literature. Zhang et al. [99] analysed the LC of three three WEL methods, thus more information and data about LCA are
approaches to H2 production based on solar energy sources, namely by available. Therefore, recent studies (LCAs) of H2 production via ALEL, in
PEM linked with photothermal energy, PEM coupling PV energy and the addition to the materials and energy consumptions that have been used
thermochemical method linked with solar photothermal energy. The as inputs, are presented and summarised in Table 4 and Table 5 for the
results indicated the best performance for PEM coupled with the PV ALEL electrolysis plant. A study by, Sadeghi et al. [107] studied the LC
solar approach, and the change of the lifetime of the WEL system-based evaluation of H2 production using solar energy sources. Also, the study
PV solar between 9 and 27 years wasn’t significant and led to lower than considered some traditional methods of H2 production involving steam
±0.1 kg CO2 eq/kg H2 variation. Also, Schropp et al. [100] studied the methane reforming and coal gasification to be compared with methods
LCA of H2 production engaged with PEM. The study found that engaged with PV and solar thermal electrolysis. The results reported that
improving the lifetime and the efficiency of the WEL system may the lifetime of H2 products using solar PV electrolysis and solar thermal
contribute slightly to reducing EIs (such as GWP and resource depletion plants can be increased from 25 years to 35 years. Also, the reduction in
potential of water RDP) of the H2 production process, while the signif- greenhouse gas (GHG) costs can be around 0.78$ and 1.37$/kg CO2
icant way to minimise the EIs and GHG is by using fully RES for the when PV and solar thermal electrolysis are used, respectively. Addi-
electricity. Moreover, Bareißa [101] studied the LCA of H2 production tionally, the GWP factor can be decreased by around 24 % for using PV
by PEM electrolysis technology and found that using PEM coupled with solar and around 26 % for solar thermal. In addition, Koj et al.[108]
RES can reduce CO2 emissions by 75 %. On the other hand, Rumayor compared the LC performance for H2 production by ALELs for 6 MW
et al. [102] referred to H2 production based on solar PV and wind as the capacity in Austria, Spain and Germany. The results showed that EIs are
most promising environmental contributors. The study recommended strongly influenced by the operation needs mainly the location elec-
the use of sunlight coupled with photo-reforming (using compound tricity mix supply, with less contribution from the construction of the
parabolic collectors) and wind energy photo-reforming (using light- plant parts. The scenario of the Austria location showed the minimum
emitting diodes), for sustainable production of H2. The latter shows environmental impacts. In addition, Ghandehariun and Kumar [109]
studied the LC evaluation of H2 production-based wind energy sources at
Table 2 a location in Western Canada. The results indicated that the total
GWP in kg CO2-eq/kg H2 of three WEL technologies. greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be reduced to around 94 % by
Reference ALEL PEM SOEL using wind energy sources for H2 production (to around 0.68 kg CO2
eq./kg H2) instead of the steam methane reforming (SMR) method. In
[94] 0.74 0.77
their study, ALEL was used with a lifetime between 16 and 24 years and
−
[92] 2.89 2.93 3.83
[93] 1.24 (wind) 0.16 (wind) − the variation of wind speed and other parts efficiencies were considered,
2.64 (solar) 1.0 (solar) showing low change of the GWP results by ±0.1 kg CO2 eq/kg H2.
[96] − 1.8 (wind) 2.2 (wind) However, some input materials of ALEL electrolyser used in life cycle
2.8 (solar) 2.9 (solar)
inventory data found in the literature for the GH2 production are sum-
[98] 0.122 (wind) 0.14 (wind) 0.16 (wind)
0.53 (solar) 0.61 (solar) 0.68 (solar) marised in Table 4.
[97] 0.114 (wind 0.094 (wind 0.211 (wind Similar to LCA studies related to PEM, Table 4 shows common con-
onshore) onshore) onshore) ventional materials used for the components of the ALEL electrolyser
0.923 (wind 0.895 (wind 1.49 (wind offshore) system. However, investigating the possibility of using advanced ma-
offshore) offshore)
terials (such as nanomaterials) to increase the energy efficiency of PEM
7
Table 3
Electrolyser construction materials for the PEM electrolyser in LCA studies.
Electrodes Layers on the electrodes Membrane Bipolar plate Other materials References
Anode: Iridium- - Carbon paper on the cathode and titanium foam or Nafion - -Titanium (commonly) Aluminum, Copper, Bareißa [101],
based felt on the anode side ([101]). (commonly) - Graphite 81 % and Vinyl Platinum, Steel, Concrete. Zhang et al.
Cathode: - Activated carbon layers [99]. ester 19 %.([104]) Frame steel and Gasket of [99],
platinum- - Anode gas layer diffusor of Titanium. Cathode gas Rubber. Rivera et al.
based layer diffusor of Woven carbon fibr. ([104]). [104],
- Iridium oxide and Nafio layer. Carbon felt layer. Delpierre et al.
Pouros transport layer of Pt-coated Ti-felt ([95]). [94] and
Zhao et al. [95]
Table 4
Electrolyser construction materials for the ALEL plant in LCA studies.
Electrodes Diaphragm Power Corrosion- Gasket Electrolyte Tanks, pipes, cell frames Reference
Electronics resistant and containers
Nickel Zircon Aluminium and Polyphenylene Polytetrafluor ethylene 25 wt% KOH Steel [110]
copper sulfide (PTFE) 0.0037 for 1 kg
H2
Nickel − Aluminium and − PTFE 20–40 wt% Steel [92]
copper KOH
Raney nickel Zircon Aluminium and Polyphenylene PTFE 25 % KOH Steel [111]
copper sulfide
nickel Zircon Aluminium and Polyphenylene PTFE 25 % KOH Steel [108]
copper sulfide 10-year usage.
Nickel perforated 0.3 mm Zircon − Polyphenylene − − Stainless Steel [95]
and Coating of Ni-S sulfide
Nickel − Aluminium and − Tetrafluoroethylene 20–40 wt% Steel [94]
copper KOH
Raney nickel − Aluminium and Polyphenylene PTFE 30 wt% KOH Steel [97]
copper sulfide
nickel Zeolite Aluminium and Polymer − Low and high-alloyed [89]
copper steel
and ALEL electrolysers (to consume less energy) or reducing the amount plant found in related LCA studies.
of material used (miniaturization) would lead to a reduction in the It can be noticed from Table 6 that results of EIs vary from one
resulting environmental impacts of the overall hydrogen production research to another, for example ODP vary from 0.0022 to 4.5 mg CFC-
system. 11 eq. The latter can be due to several factors related to the used inputs
On the other side, the operation phase consumes mainly the elec- inventory data such as the energy source, location, and materials of the
tricity and water which are the main two inventory inputs of the life components. Also, most of the found studies have used the GWP indi-
cycle of GH2 production. Several factors may influence the electricity cator besides other indicators that can be different from one study to
consumption (that has the major influence on the resulting environ- another such as WD and TAP. Furthermore, the reported average effi-
mental impacts) in the electrolyser system such as the efficiency (power ciency of the WEL technology (between 60–80 %, Table 6) refers to the
to H2 gas efficiency of the electrolyser), the operation conditions (tem- possibility of implementing a heat recovery process to utilise up to 20 %
perature and pressure) and other characteristics of the electrolyser of the remaining energy wasted as heat to the environment, which re-
technology (Current density, lifetime, etc.). In addition, other con- quires further investigation to enhance the overall energy efficiency and
sumptions are needed in the operation phase over the lifetime of the resulting EIs of the hydrogen production plant.
project such as cleaning with steam, maintenance and components
replacement. Therefore, some life cycle inventory and input related to Technical scope for LC enhancement in GH2 electrolysis
the operation phase for the GH2 electrolysis production of the ALEL and production
PEM plants are summarised in Table 5. Also, the assessment methods
employed in the LCA studies are depicted in Table 5, to provide valuable The importance of electrolysis technology for GH2 production be-
guide for the methodologies implemented in the LCA of GH2 production. comes clear, and the trend towards achieving lower costs and higher
It’s worth noting that certain methods, such as the International Refer- hydrogen production performance for electrolyser technologies, H2
ence Life Cycle Data (ILCD), are frequently utilized, adhering to the storage and usage is increasing [113], which is also beneficial in
recommendations of the European Commission [56]. The ILCD 2011 lowering the resulting environmental impacts from this process. Some
Midpoint and ReCiPe methods, which are accessible in SimaPro and important indicators can be used as a reference guide to evaluate the
GaBi, are suitable LCA computational methods. GH2 plant such as efficiency from electricity to H2, energy efficiency,
Regarding the environmental impacts, electrolysis technology-based grid interaction, cost of H2, and emissions [114]. Some studies have
RES is considered clean and environment-friendly, but there are still indicated the possible enhancement of the technical performance and
indirect environmental effects caused by the construction process and costs of PEM and ALEL electrolysis technologies [56,115,116]. There-
the elements’ production of the electrolysis plan besides transportation fore, optimising the electrolyser performance during the operation stage
and storage energy consumption. So far, LCA studies have reported will positively reflect on enhancing the hydrogen production rate and
several environmental indicators to evaluate the WEL plant such as GWP the electricity consumption of the system, enhancing the total life cycle.
represented as CO2eq, Eutrophication, TAP, abiotic depletion potential In this context, several important concepts and approaches can be
(ADP), FEP, ODP, water depletion (WD), and Ionizing radiation (IRP). implemented to further optimize the hydrogen electrolysis production
Therefore, Table 6 summarizes some found EI results for the electrolysis system, thereby increasing its profitability and efficiency. These
8
Table 5
Operation materials for the WEL plant in LCA studies.
Water Cleaning Electricity Efficiency Replacement operating time Operating Software/ Reference
conditions method
9–10 l for 1 steam Wind turbine 1.5 to 70–80 % at the 1 to 3 times Over 20 years H2 is produced at − [110]
kg H2 2.0 MW, coupled stack level ALEL, replacement for the with 8000 h/y a pressure of 5 to
with converter. and 60–67 % at the electrodes and 30 bar
59–66 kWh/kg H2 total plant. diaphragm.
consumption
8.9 l water for − 1 MW capacity. stack efficiency The stack was replaced 20 years with Pressure below Umberto+/ [92]
1 kg H2 51.8 kWh/kg H2 ALEL of up to 67 % 3 times during the 20 8000 h/y 30 bar, ILCD 2.0
years temperature midpoint 2018
60–80˚C
10 l for 1 kg steam and 6 MW capacity Efficiency ALEL 72 the stacks and the KOH 9 years with a Operating GaBi 6 /ILCD [111]
H2 nitrogen % replaced after 10 years total of 80000 h temperature midpoint
(no Replacement for 9 60–80˚C
years)
10 L steam and 6 MW electricity Electricity-to- H2 The stack was replaced 20 years 33 bar and 85˚C GaBi 6 /ILCD [108]
deionized nitrogen mix efficiency ALEL after 10 years. 8300 h/y 118 kg H2/h midpoint
water for 1 65.7 %
kg H2
9.5 L water steam 3 MW wind turbine System efficiency The stack was replaced 20 years 60–90˚C. ReCiPe 2016 [95]
for 1 kg H2 in Denmark ALEL 65 % after 10 years 85,000 h/y Current density
0.4 A/cm2.
19 ton/m2 over a
lifetime.
10 L water for steam Stack capacity − ALEL − 20–25 years − OpenLCA/ [94]
1 kg H2 2–4.5 MW. 80,000 h/y 20 bars ILCD 2011
50 kWh/kg H2 Current density
below 1 A/cm2
10 L water for − 5 MW wind turbine System efficiency − 20 to 30 years 90 kg H2/h CML 2001 [97]
1 kg H2 ALEL 70 % −
3
10 L water for steam 2 MW wind turbine 58 % System ALEL After 10 years, stack 20 years 60 Nm /h ReCiPe 2008 [89]
1 kg H2 durability of 8 to 15 −
years
19.5 L water steam 3 MW wind turbine Efficiency PEM 60 The stack replaced after 20 years 50––100˚C. ReCiPe 2016 [95]
for 1 kg H2 in Denmark % 10 years 50,000 h/y Current density
1.8 A/cm2.
40 ton/m2 over a
lifetime.
10 L water for steam Stack capacity 1 − PEM − 20 years Current density OpenLCA/ [94]
1 kg H2 MW. 60,000–80,000 h/ 1–3 A/cm2 ILCD 2011
50 kWh/kg H2 y
10 L water for steam PV solar Stack efficiency The stack was replaced 20 years 13.8 bar GaBi V6.110/ [104]
1 kg H2 PEM 63.6 % after 10 years − hydrogen ReCiPe method
production rate a
1.14
Nm3/h
10 L water for steam electricity mix, 75 cell efficiency PEM The stack replaced after 20 years 30 bar and 60 ◦ C SimaPro/ [101]
1 kg H2 % from RES. is 70 %. 10 years. 40000–60000 h/y current density of ReCiPe
The total system 1.5 A/cm2 Midpoint
efficiency is 60 %.
performance. In this, a review paper by Brauns et al. [26] argues that the
Table 6
traditional ALELs have a low finite partial load because of the reduced
Environmental impacts of electrolysis plant-based RES from various LCA studies
purity of the gas at low energy levels of some RES. Also, it was observed
per kg of H2.
that the PV solar panels that provide DC can be directly connected to
Reference WEL GWP TAP FEP ODP ADP WD ALELs providing stable power and performance, while the electricity
kg CO2 g SO2 g PO4- mg CFC- g Sb m3
eq eq eq 11 eq eq
generated by wind turbines needs to be connected with appropriate
electricity converters that increase the losses and the cost of the circuit.
[92] ALEL 2.89 2.1 4.5
On the other hand, if the H2 production via ALEL was provided with
− − −
[93] ALEL 1.2 23 2.3 0.023 0.32 −
[94] ALEL 0.74 4.1 − 0.0066 0.39 0.88 good H2 storage and suitable FCs, stability in the energy grid could be
[99] PEM 9.37 − 2.91 0.00319 0.29 − achieved considering the optimization of the electrolysis voltage to keep
[109] ALEL 0.68 − − − − − a high operating efficiency. Here, it should be noted that the common
[112] ALEL 0.033 0.2 0.1 0.0022 0.2 − ALELs usually work under stable conditions, thus it is recommended to
use extra power storage supplements such as batteries and ultra-
enhancements are discussed in the following subsections. capacitors. Also, H2 may transfer to the oxygen bath, in a potentially bad
case, in the electrolyser when it is operated near the lower operating
limit (such as open circuit voltage), leading to mixing H2 with oxygen
Electricity supply during the electrolyser operation and inflammation may happen in the system if >2 % of H2 is mixed <98
% of pure oxygen [117].
The stable supply of electricity at an appropriate power level to the Also, study by Ursua et al. [118] mentioned the importance of adding
electrolyser system during its operational lifetime can lead to high
9
a battery and controlling the operation of the ALELs (e.g. 10 min based catalyst coating of platinum-free for AEM in ALE with several thick-
on some parameters such as the materials of the electrodes, size, and cell nesses and advanced performance and stability were demonstrated with
number) at the lower operating limit. This may allow to decrease in the a reduction of the used catalyst load compared to conventional catalyst
stopping number by 62 % with the PV solar source and by 63 % with the materials. Furthermore, Khalil and Dincer [130] investigated the use of
wind energy source, thus increasing the power efficiency of the H2 coated 3D-printed electrodes for ALEL, and the highest hydrogen pro-
production system by around 6.3 % with the PV solar source and 7.6 % duction rate was found for nickel-copper electrodes coated by Nickel
with the wind energy source. conductive paint, with values of about 2.48 × 10-10 kg/s during the
Furthermore, an emerging area of development lies in the integra- initial operation 15 min and reduced to 1.38 × 10-10 kg/s after 30 min of
tion of microgrid electricity technology with hydrogen storage, pre- the operation. Recently, a capillary membrane consisting of porous
senting a promising approach. Through this method, devising an polyether sulfone was tested for ALE and demonstrated a promising
optimal scheduling strategy for efficient utilization of the WEL system performance reaching 98 % energy efficiency with only 40.4 kWh/kg H2
linked to the microgrid electricity proves to be more cost-effective power consumption [131], which was set under the goal of the IRENA
[119]. This approach not only enhances the daily revenue of the WEL for 2050 to reduce the power consumption in hydrogen production to
system but is particularly beneficial during periods when the GH2 pro- less than 42 kWh/kg [132]. The provided capillary membrane prevents
duction is lower than that of electricity sales [119]. the forming of bubbles that cause energy losses on the surfaces of the
electrodes in the electrolysis process and directly converts the water to
Energy efficiency of the WEL system bulk hydrogen and oxygen [133]. The negative impacts of bubble cre-
ation in electrolysis systems were previously discussed and several ap-
The conventional energy efficiency of a WEL system generally falls proaches were investigated to avoid the resulting power losses including
within the range of 54 % to 68 %. However, this efficiency can be the capillary porous hydrophobic materials that can extract the pro-
significantly improved, reaching up to 76 %, through the implementa- duced [134].
tion of cogeneration of power and heat scenarios. Moreover, with the
incorporation of heat recovery techniques, the overall energy efficiency Waste treatment and heat recovery
of the GH2 production system can be elevated to as high as 90 % [120].
Focusing on ALEL technology, an existing type with high-pressure An alternative strategy for enhancing the hydrogen electrolysis
operation (pressurized) showed a promising performance, especially production system could be realised through potential cogeneration
for applications that require compressed hydrogen [121,122]. Never- scenarios of power and heat within WEL systems, coupled with the
theless, there is still continuous research to develop ALEL technology to numerous applications of hydrogen. For example, the possibility of
overcome the negative characteristics such as enhancing the current recovering the waste heat from hydrogen electrolysis production could
density, working pressure, electrocatalysts, lifetime and energy effi- be interesting for applications involved in heat and energy plants com-
ciency [63,123]. Also, the optimization of the operating conditions bination for a certain time during the electrolyser operation. The latter
significantly contributes to the advancement of ALEL that can be ach- enables reducing the energy rejected by heat to the ambient by around
ieved using high current density (above 1 A cm− 2), zero-gap design, less 30 % and reducing the total costs and EIs of the total electrolysis system
membrane thickness (Zirfon), higher temperature and operating pres- [135]. The recovery of the waste heat is a reasonable way to optimise the
sure that was found to be preferably below 8 bar [124]. The develop- life cycle of hydrogen production that can be implemented in both high
ment of ALEL performance requires deep attention to the design of the (above 200 ◦ C in SOEL) and low-temperature electrolysers (ALEL and
electrodes, particularly the electrocatalysts, where several aspects affect PEM), [136,137].
the performance such as charge transmission, mass transport, electro- Another waste treatment that can be followed is to use the produced
chemical erosion and gas bubbles [125]. oxygen (each 1 kg of H2 is accompanied by the production of 8 kg of O2)
Furthermore, a study by Burton et al. [126] referred to some possible in the WEL system for some industrial processes such as co-combustion
approaches presented in the literature to improve the efficiency of WEL and oxidation treatment [138], where O2 has been considered as an
supplied by solar energy, such as using magnetic fields to increase the H2 emission to the air in previous LCA studies of hydrogen production.
desorption at the surface of electrodes; using light energy that can However, the waste treatment stage may involve a wide range of stra-
induce the electric field for H2 production; using ultrasonic field that can tegies to reuse the valuable materials (e.g. noble metals) of the different
affect the gas bubble dynamic and enhances the performance of the electrolysers [139], which also leads to reducing the costs and EIs.
electrode and the electrolyte; and pulsating electric field that may Therefore, the evaluation of the life end, taking into account the reus-
enhance gas bubbles releasing from the surface of the electrodes and ability of some components and recycling of other parts, is an important
affect the development of the electrodynamic diffusion layer (EDL). additive for minimizing the costs, and environmental impacts and
increasing the shelf-life.
Advanced materials
GH2 storage
Advanced materials were recommended to enhance the performance
of electrolyser systems. Materials-based series of polymers were inves- Advanced methods of H2 storage are required to increase the effi-
tigated by Marinkas et al. [64] to develop anion exchange membranes ciency of the total hydrogen production value chain [140]. Where H2
(AEM) to enhance ALEL technology towards membranes with high storage plays a significant role in organizing the relationship between
anionic conductivity, strength and thermal and chemical stability. A the production and the demands of the end users. Due to the variable
LCA study by Schropp et al. [127] discovered that both the advanced electricity generation of renewable during the daily or monthly time, it
AEM electrolyser and the conventional PEM electrolyser exhibit com- becomes significant to use efficient methods and techniques of storing
parable efficiencies and environmental performance. Even though, it is and delivering the produced GH2. The produced hydrogen can be stored
noteworthy that while the PEM electrolyser needs less materials, the following several methods that are classified mainly into physical
AEM electrolyser requires less critical raw materials due to the absence methods (such as pressurised gas technology, liquid with low tempera-
of platinum metals in the AEM case. In another case, low-cost materials ture and storing hydrogen underground) and chemical (such as solid
of manganese oxide (Na0.44MnO2) were investigated as a solid-state storage and liquid ammonia storage technologies) methods [141]. Also,
redox method for the production of hydrogen and O2 in ALE to obtain there are several ways to store H2 based on their amount, for example,
high levels of hydrogen purity and energy efficiency without the need tanks, salt caverns [142], and the gas grid itself for the large-scales
for any membrane [128]. Also, Hnat et al. [129] investigated a new [143], while metal hydrides can be used to store H2 for small scales
10
[144]. Even though it is crucial to seek out materials with high efficiency the plant and the final incomes on the investment, which was also
and superior storage capacity for hydrogen, it remains a formidable indicated in [147]. Some factors significantly affect the costs of GH2
challenge in the field [145]. Furthermore, a H2 distribution network can mainly the power sources, WEL technology, location and weather,
be coupled with a multi-power distribution network to reduce the costs construction and materials costs, and the amount of H2 produced in the
and enhance the RES consumption, based on a H2 thermal storage sys- lifetime. PV solar and wind energy sources for electrolysis H2 production
tem associated with parts such as a heat pump, ALEL, H2 storage tank, both showed good capability and low costs especially in remote regions,
and refrigerator [146]. while more requirements are still needed for the solar thermal.
Improvements in the energy efficiency of the electrolyser and the In addition, GH2 exhibited good confidence to be the environmen-
overall performance of the hydrogen production system generally result tally applicable replacement for fossil fuels because of its features in
in a reduction in the levelized cost of the hydrogen produced. However, large power mass density and decarbonized transformation. In general,
further investigations are still necessary to assess the environmental ALEL technology was commonly selected for high-capacity GH2 projects
impacts associated with the materials, approaches, and methods newly based on PV solar, on the other side PEM technology is considered the
introduced into these systems. However, key findings and recommen- best suited to provide better purity of GH2 and is more compatible with
dations from pertinent studies aimed at improving the performance of RES (more details for PEM advantages can be found in [148]). Moreover,
both ALEL and PEM electrolysis technologies are summarised in Table 7. the reported WEL methods showed significant advantages for imple-
mentation such as the existing infrastructure, production of O2 beside
Discussion the GH2, and reaching the goal for zero emissions. Studies stated that
future research on H2 production by WEL should focus on challenges
This paper has defined and discussed the main stages of the value such as increasing the production rate and efficiency, minimizing the
chain of GH2 production, mainly the green electricity sources, GH2 cost of materials, optimizing the required temperatures and pressures,
production process, storage and distribution to the end use. Also, studies increasing the lifetime of the cell and enhancing the current densities. So
regarding the LCA of the green H2 production process were analysed. far, research investigated the use of advanced materials (e.g. catalysts)
Presented LCA studies have considered the evaluation of EIs such as to enhance the performance of WEL technologies, but the accompanying
GWP. In LCA of GH2 production, careful attention should be given to the economic and environmental aspects are still missing for the market and
assumptions for accurate study e.g. the land conditions and costs, life- industrial employment. GH2 is still having challenges related to the high
time of the components and total plant, construction time and diffi- cost of WEL production, establishing the hydrogen infrastructure, stor-
culties, and accurate inputs regarding the raw and processed materials. age and transportation, and stability of the regulatory framework. There
A sensitive analysis for each part of the value chain allows us to define is a continuous need to enhance efficiency, performance, and reliability
the optimised operation conditions and materials for better efficiency of through the value chain stages and increase the total lifetime.
However, the most conducted LCA studies for GH2 production didn’t
properly consider a critical stage of the LCA which is the waste treatment
Table 7 of the deposal materials (a stage mentioned by ISO [149]). Moreover,
Remarks on ALEL and PEM electrolysis technologies. the evaluation of the life end, taking into account the reusability of some
Reference Remarks components and recycling of other parts is an important additive for
Saba et al. [116] The costs of implementing ALEL and PEM are reduced with
minimizing the costs, and environmental impacts and increasing the
the increase of the capacity of the plant and are significantly shelf-life. Providing waste treatment scenarios of the input materials and
reduced up to 3 times for ALEL and 5 times for PEM for future energy forms (e.g. waste heat) at the end life of the system allows for a
scenarios (2030). reduction of the total cost of the system and may reduce the final
Brauns et al. [26] ALEL has a low finite partial load. By connecting ALEL with
emissions by finding a proper utilising scenario leading to a reduction in
suitable H2 storage and FCs, the stability and total efficiency
of the plant can be enhanced. the EIs.
Ursúa et al. [117] It is important to avoid the electrolyser operation close to the Following the literature review overhead, it is clear that while there
lower operating which may cause a combination of H2 with are several promising processes and successful implementation, the
oxygen, thus inflammation.
development in green energy production and material science always
Ursua et al. [118] Adding a battery with control for the operation of ALEL
decreases the stopping number and increases the efficiency of
presents new techniques and higher efficiency devices to be addressed
the system by 6.3 % with PV and 7.6 % with wind energy for future implementation (discussed in section 5 of this paper “Tech-
sources. nical scope for LC enhancement in GH2 electrolysis production”). The
Buttler and PEM electrolyser is still considered to need more costs (by technology development (e.g. energy efficiency), availability and
Spliethoff [66] around 60 %) compared with ALEL due to the expensive
lowering cost of green energy production in comparison with fossil fuel
materials used.
Schmidt et al. [56] Capital costs of WEL technologies can be reduced up to 24 % should be considered and updated in future LCA studies.
according to the development in this field, mainly by
increasing the scale and the lifetime of the system (up to Conclusions
90,000 h).
Xiuying et al. [115] The cost is reduced by 20 % when ALEL is used instead of
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found in the literature about producing GH2. The main conclusions are
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(above 1 A cm− 2), zero-gap design, less membrane thickness
(Zirfon), higher temperature and operating pressure below 8 1. Hydrogen produced via WEL is currently considered an optimal
bar.
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Khalil and Dincer Using the 3D-printed coating method for electrodes in ALEL
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higher expensive PEM technology.
11
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 69 (2024) 103923

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

Life cycle assessment of green hydrogen production through electrolysis: A

Nomenclature LC Life Cycle

GH2 production through electrolysis

The production of H2 is the main process of the GH2 value chain

Fig. 2. Diagram for the value chain of GH2.

Alkaline water electrolyser

Fig. 5. The process of three different WEL methods,

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