Chapters 1 and 2

Engineering Mechanics - ME1102

Sunil Kumar Singh, and Rishi Raj

Courtesy: TMH
What is Mechanics?
• Mechanics is the science which describes and predicts
the conditions of rest or motion of bodies under the
action of forces.

• Categories of Mechanics:
- Rigid bodies
- Statics
- Dynamics
- Deformable bodies
- Fluids

• Mechanics is an applied science - it is not an abstract

or pure science but does not have the empiricism
found in other engineering sciences.

• Mechanics is the foundation of most engineering sciences

and is an indispensable prerequisite to their study.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 2
Fundamental Concepts
• Space - associated with the notion of the position of a point P given in
terms of three coordinates measured from a reference point or origin.

• Time - definition of an event requires specification of the time and

position at which it occurred.

• Mass - used to characterize and compare bodies, e.g., response to

earth’s gravitational attraction and resistance to changes in translational
motion.

• Force - represents the action of one body on another. A force is

characterized by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e.,
a force is a vector quantity.

In Newtonian Mechanics, space, time, and mass are absolute concepts,

independent of each other. Force, however, is not independent of the
other three. The force acting on a body is related to the mass of the body
and the variation of its velocity (space) with time.
rraj@iitp.ac.in 3
Six Fundamental Principles, already known to you
• Newton’s First Law: If the resultant force on a
particle is zero, the particle will remain at rest
or continue to move in a straight line.
• Newton’s Second Law: A particle will have
an acceleration proportional to a nonzero
• Parallelogram Law resultant applied force.
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ

• Newton’s Third Law: The forces of action and

reaction between two particles have the same
magnitude and line of action with opposite
sense.

• Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Two particles

are attracted with equal and opposite forces,
• Principle of Transmissibility 𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺 2 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔,
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= 2
𝑟 𝑅
rraj@iitp.ac.in 4
Systems of Units
• Kinetic Units: length, time, mass,
• International System of Units (SI):
and force.
The basic units are length, time, and
mass which are arbitrarily defined as the
• Three of the kinetic units, referred to
meter (m), second (s), and kilogram
as basic units, may be defined
(kg). Force is the derived unit,
arbitrarily. The fourth unit, referred
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
to as a derived unit, must have a m
definition compatible with Newton’s 1N = 1kg 1 2
s
2nd Law,
• U.S. Customary Units:
𝐹റ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ The basic units are length, time, and
force which are arbitrarily defined as the
foot (ft), second (s), and pound (lb).
Mass is the derived unit,
𝐹
𝑚=
Please mention proper units for 𝑎
all your answers to questions in 1 lb
1slug =
exams and quizzes. 1 ftΤs
rraj@iitp.ac.in 5
Method of Problem Solution
• Problem Statement: • Solution Check:
Includes given data, specification of - Test for errors in reasoning by
what is to be determined, and a figure verifying that the units of the
showing all quantities involved. computed results are correct,
- test for errors in computation by
• Free-Body Diagrams: substituting given data and computed
Create separate diagrams for each of results into previously unused
the bodies involved with a clear equations based on the six principles,
indication of all forces acting on - always apply experience and physical
each body. intuition to assess whether results seem
• Fundamental Principles: “reasonable”
The six fundamental principles are
applied to express the conditions of
rest or motion of each body. The
rules of algebra are applied to solve
the equations for the unknown
quantities.
rraj@iitp.ac.in 6
Thought Exercise
• If the loading of a bridge is known to be 75,000 N with a possible error of
100 N either way, it would be inappropriate to record reaction at one of the
bridge supports as 14,322 N. Why?
• % Uncertainty: 100/75000 = 0.13 %
• Absolute uncertainty: (0.13/100) x 14,322 ≈ 20 N
• Correct data recording: 14,320 ± 20 N
Summary:
• Some numerical statements are exact: Mary has 3 brothers, and 2 + 2 = 4.
• However, all measurements have some degree of uncertainty that may
come from a variety of sources. The process of evaluating the uncertainty
associated with a measurement result is often called uncertainty analysis or
error analysis.
• measurement = (best estimate ± uncertainty) units

rraj@iitp.ac.in 7
Numerical Accuracy
• The accuracy of a solution depends on 1) accuracy of the given
data, and 2) accuracy of the computations performed. The solution
cannot be more accurate than the less accurate of these two.

• The use of hand calculators and computers generally makes the

accuracy of the computations much greater than the accuracy of the
data. Hence, the solution accuracy is usually limited by the data
accuracy.

• As a general rule for engineering problems, the data are seldom

known with an accuracy greater than 0.2%. Therefore, it is usually
appropriate to record parameters beginning with “1” with four
significant digits and with three digits in all other cases, i.e., 40.2
kg and 15.58 kg.
• If a chemical engineer measures the density of a liquid to be 1.2356 g/cm³, they would
record it as 1.236 g/cm³, keeping four digits as it starts with “1”.
• If an electrical engineer measures a resistance of 47.6789 ohms in a circuit, they would
record it as 47.7 ohms, keeping three digits as it doesn’t start with “1”.
rraj@iitp.ac.in 8
Significant digits
• The number of significant figures/digits in a result is simply the number of
figures that are known with some degree of reliability. The number 13.2 is said
to have 3 significant figures. The number 13.20 is said to have 4 significant
figures.

the trailing zero is significant because it indicates

rraj@iitp.ac.in
the precision of the measurement. 9
Significant digits
• The number of significant figures/digits in a result is simply the number of
figures that are known with some degree of reliability. The number 13.2 is said
to have 3 significant figures. The number 13.20 is said to have 4 significant
figures.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 10
 Chapter 2:
Statics of Particles

Courtesy: TMH
Application: Chapter 2
The tension in the cable supporting
this person can be found using the
concepts in this chapter

The use of word ‘particle’ does not

imply that we will limit discussion to
small objects. It simply means that
the size and shape of the body
under consideration will not
significantly affect the solution of
the problem treated in this chapter.
rraj@iitp.ac.in 12
Introduction: Chapter 2
• The objective for the current chapter is to investigate the effects of forces
on particles:
- replacing multiple forces acting on a particle with a single
equivalent or resultant force,
- relations between forces acting on a particle that is in a
state of equilibrium.

• The focus on particles does not imply a restriction to miniscule bodies.

Rather, the study is restricted to analyses in which the size and shape of
the bodies is not significant so that all forces may be assumed to be
applied at a single point.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 13
Force on a Particle. Resultant of Two
Forces
• Force: action of one body on another;
characterized by its point of application,
magnitude, line of action, and sense.

• Experimental evidence shows that the

combined effect of two forces may be
represented by a single resultant force.

• The resultant is equivalent to the diagonal of

a parallelogram which contains the two
forces in adjacent legs.

• Force is a vector quantity.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 14
Vectors
• Vector: Parameters possessing magnitude and direction
which add according to the parallelogram law. Examples:
displacements, velocities, accelerations.
• Scalar: Parameters possessing magnitude but not
direction. Examples: mass, volume, temperature

• Vector classifications:
- Fixed or bound vectors have well defined points of
application that cannot be changed without affecting
an analysis.
- Force on a particle
- Free vectors may be freely moved in space without
changing their effect on an analysis.
- Couple
- Sliding vectors may be applied anywhere along their
line of action without affecting an analysis.
rraj@iitp.ac.in
- Force on rigid bodies
15
Addition of Vectors
• Trapezoid rule for vector addition

• Triangle rule for vector addition

• Law of cosines,
C
B 𝑅2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 − 2𝑃𝑄cos𝐵
R=P+Q
C

• Law of sines,
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
= =
𝑃 𝑅 𝑄
B

• Vector addition is commutative,

P+Q=Q+P

• Vector subtraction
P − Q = P + (−Q)

rraj@iitp.ac.in 16
Resultant of Several Concurrent
Forces
• Concurrent forces: set of forces which
all pass through the same point.

A set of concurrent forces applied to a

particle may be replaced by a single
resultant force which is the vector sum of
the applied forces.

• Vector force components: two or more force

vectors which, together, have the same effect
as a single force vector.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 17
Sample Problem 2.1
SOLUTION:
• Graphical solution - construct a
parallelogram with sides in the same
direction as P and Q and lengths in
proportion. Graphically evaluate the
resultant which is equivalent in direction
and proportional in magnitude to the
diagonal.
The two forces act on a bolt at
A. Determine their resultant. • Trigonometric solution - use the triangle
rule for vector addition in conjunction
with the law of cosines and law of sines
to find the resultant.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 18
Sample Problem 2.1
• Graphical solution - A parallelogram with sides
equal to P and Q is drawn to scale. The
magnitude and direction of the resultant or of
the diagonal to the parallelogram are measured,

𝑅 = 98 N 𝛼 = 35°

• Graphical solution - A triangle is drawn with P

and Q head-to-tail and to scale. The magnitude
and direction of the resultant or of the third side
of the triangle are measured,

𝑅 = 98 N 𝛼 = 35°

rraj@iitp.ac.in 19
Sample Problem 2.1
• Trigonometric solution - Apply the triangle rule.
From the Law of Cosines,
𝑅2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 − 2𝑃𝑄 cos 𝐵
= 40N 2 + 60N 2

𝑅 = 97.7N
From the Law of Sines,
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
=
𝑄 𝑅
𝑄
sin 𝐴 = sin 𝐵
𝑅
60N
= sin 1 55°
97.73N
𝐴 = 15.04°
𝛼 = 20° + 𝐴

𝛼 = 35.0°

rraj@iitp.ac.in 20
Sample Problem 2.2
SOLUTION:
• Find a graphical solution by applying
the Parallelogram Rule for vector
addition. The parallelogram has sides
in the directions of the two ropes and a
diagonal in the direction of the barge
A barge is pulled by two axis and length proportional to 5 kN.
tugboats. If the resultant of
the forces exerted by the • Find a trigonometric solution by
tugboats is a 5-kN force applying the Triangle Rule for vector
directed along the axis of the addition. With the magnitude and
barge, determine the tension in direction of the resultant known and
each of the ropes for  = 45o. the directions of the other two sides
parallel to the ropes given, apply the
Law of Sines to find the rope tensions.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 21
Sample Problem 2.2

• Graphical solution - Parallelogram Rule

with known resultant direction and
magnitude, known directions for sides.

5 kN T1 = 3.7 kN
𝑇1 = 3700lbf
T2 = 2.6 kN
𝑇2 = 2600lbf

• Trigonometric solution - Triangle Rule

with Law of Sines
5 kN 𝑇1 𝑇2 5kN
= =
sin45° sin30° sin105°

T𝑇11 ==3660lbf
3.66 kN T2 = 2.59 kN
𝑇2 = 2590lbf

rraj@iitp.ac.in 22
What if…?
• At what value of  would the tension in rope
2 be a minimum?
Hint: Use the triangle rule and think about
how changing  changes the magnitude of T2.
After considering this, discuss your ideas with
a neighbor.

• The minimum tension in rope 2 occurs when

T1 and T2 are perpendicular.
5 kN
𝑇2 = 5kN sin30° 𝑇2 = 2.5kN

𝑇1 = 5kN cos30° 𝑇1 = 4.33kN

𝛼 = 90° − 30° 𝛼 = 60°

rraj@iitp.ac.in 23
Rectangular Components of a Force:
Unit Vectors
• It is possible to resolve a force vector into perpendicular
components so that the resulting parallelogram is a
rectangle. Fx and Fy are referred to as rectangular vector
components and
F = Fx + Fy
• Define perpendicular unit vectors i and j which are
parallel to the x and y axes.

• Vector components may be expressed as products of

the unit vectors with the scalar magnitudes of the
vector components.

F = Fxi + Fyj

Fx and Fy are referred to as the scalar components of F.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 24
Addition of Forces by Summing
Components
• To find the resultant of 3 (or more)
concurrent forces,
R= P+ Q+S
• Resolve each force into rectangular components,
then add the components in each direction:
𝑅𝑥 i + 𝑅𝑦 j = 𝑃𝑥 i + 𝑃𝑦 j + 𝑄𝑥 i + 𝑄𝑦 j + 𝑆𝑥 i + 𝑆𝑦 j
= 𝑃𝑥 + 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑆𝑥 i + 𝑃𝑦 + 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑆𝑦 j

• The scalar components of the resultant vector are

equal to the sum of the corresponding scalar
components of the given forces.
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 + 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑆𝑥 = σ 𝐹𝑥 𝑅𝑦 = 𝑃𝑦 + 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑆𝑦 = ෍ 𝐹𝑦

• To find the resultant magnitude and direction,

𝑅𝑦
𝑅= 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 𝜃= tan−1
𝑅𝑥

rraj@iitp.ac.in 25
Sample Problem 2.3
SOLUTION:
• Resolve each force into rectangular
components.

• Determine the components of the

resultant by adding the corresponding
force components in the x and y
directions.
Four forces act on bolt A as shown. • Calculate the magnitude and direction
Determine the resultant of the forces of the resultant.
on the bolt.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 26
Sample Problem 2.3
SOLUTION:
• Resolve each force into rectangular components.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
𝐅1 150 +129.9 +75.0
𝐅2 80 −27.4 +75.2
𝐅3 110 0 −110.0
𝐅4 100 +96.6 −25.9

𝑅𝑥 = +199.1 𝑅𝑦 = +14.3

• Determine the components of the resultant by

adding the corresponding force components.
• Calculate the magnitude and direction.
𝐑 = 𝑅𝑥 𝐢 + 𝑅𝑦 𝐣𝐑 = (199.1N)𝐢 + (14.3N)𝐣
14.3N
tan 𝛼 = 𝛼 = 4.1°
199.1N
rraj@iitp.ac.in 27
Equilibrium of a Particle
• When the resultant of all forces acting on a particle is zero, the particle
is in equilibrium.
• Newton’s First Law: If the resultant force on a particle is zero, the particle will
remain at rest or will continue at constant speed in a straight line.
F4 = 400 N
F1 = 300 N
100 N
F2 = 173.2 N

F1 = 300 N
F4 = 400 N
F3 = 200 N
F3 = 200 N
100 N
F2 = 173.2 N
• Particle acted upon by • Particle acted upon by three or more forces:
two forces: - graphical solution yields a closed polygon
- equal magnitude - algebraic solution
- same line of action R = ෍F = 0
- opposite sense
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
rraj@iitp.ac.in 28
Free-Body Diagrams

Space Diagram: A sketch showing Free Body Diagram: A sketch showing

the physical conditions of the only the forces on the selected particle.
problem, usually provided with This must be created by you.
the problem statement, or
represented by the actual
physical situation.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 29
Sample Problem 2.4
SOLUTION:
• Construct a free body diagram for the
particle at the junction of the rope and
cable.
• Apply the conditions for equilibrium by
creating a closed polygon from the
forces applied to the particle.
• Apply trigonometric relations to
determine the unknown force
In a ship-unloading operation, a magnitudes.
3500-N automobile is supported by
a cable. A rope is tied to the cable
and pulled to center the automobile
over its intended position. What is
the tension in the rope?

rraj@iitp.ac.in 30
Sample Problem 2.4
SOLUTION:
• Construct a free body diagram for the
particle at A, and the associated polygon.

• Apply the conditions for equilibrium and

solve for the unknown force magnitudes.

Law of Sines:
𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝑇𝐴𝐶 3500N
= =
sin120° sin2° sin58°
3500 N
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 3570 N 𝑻𝑨𝑩 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟕 𝐤𝐍

𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 144 N

3500 N

rraj@iitp.ac.in 31
Sample Problem 2.6
7m 1.5 m
SOLUTION:
4m • Decide what the appropriate “body” is
and draw a free body diagram
4m
• The condition for equilibrium states
that the sum of forces equals 0, or:

It is desired to determine the drag force R = ෍T = 0

at a given speed on a prototype sailboat

෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
hull. A model is placed in a test channel
and three cables are used to align its • The two equations mean we can solve
bow on the channel centerline. For a for, at most, two unknowns. Since
given speed, the tension is 200 N in there are 4 forces involved (tensions in
cable AB and 300 N in cable AE. 3 cables and the drag force), it is easier
Determine the drag force exerted on the to resolve all forces into components
hull and the tension in cable AC. and apply the equilibrium conditions

rraj@iitp.ac.in 32
Sample Problem 2.6
7m 1.5 m
SOLUTION:
4m • The correct free body diagram is shown
and the unknown angles are:
4m
7m 1.5 m
tan𝛼 = = 1.75 tan𝛽 = = 0.375
4m 4m
𝛼 = 60.26° 𝛽 = 20.56°

TAB = 200 N • Equilibrium condition requires that the

resultant force (or the sum of all forces)
be zero:
R = T𝐴𝐵 + T𝐴𝐶 + T𝐴𝐸 + F𝐷 = 0
TAE = 300 N
• Write each force vector above in
component form.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 33
Sample Problem 2.6
• Resolve the three forces into two
(200 N) cos 60.26o j component equations.

−(200 N) sin 60.26o i

− (300 N) j

T𝐴𝐵 = − 200 N sin60.26° i + 200 N cos60.26°j

= − 173.66 N i + 99.21N j
T𝐴𝐶 = 𝑇𝐴𝐶 sin20.56°i + 𝑇𝐴𝐶 cos20.56°j
= 0.3512𝑇𝐴𝐶 i + 0.9363𝑇𝐴𝐶 j
T𝐴𝐸 = − 300 N j
F𝐷 = 𝐹𝐷 i

rraj@iitp.ac.in 34
Sample Problem 2.6
Factor unit vectors:
−173.66 + 0.3512𝑇𝐴𝐶 + 𝐹𝐷 i + 99.21 + 0.9363𝑇𝐴𝐶 − 300 j = 0

This equation is satisfied only if each component of the resultant is

equal to zero

෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 : −173.66 + 0.3512𝑇𝐴𝐶 + 𝐹𝐷 = 0

෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 : 99.21 + 0.9363𝑇𝐴𝐶 − 300 = 0

FD = 98.35 N
𝑇𝐴𝐶 = +214.45 N 𝐹𝐷 = +98.35 N TAC = 214.45 N

TAE = 300 N

TAB = 200 N

rraj@iitp.ac.in 35
Rectangular Components of a Force
in Space
If angles with some of the axes are given:

• The vector F is • Resolve F into • Resolve Fh into

contained in the horizontal and vertical rectangular components
plane OBAC. components.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹ℎ cos𝜑
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑦 = 𝐹sin𝜃𝑦 cos𝜑
𝐹𝑧 = 𝐹ℎ sin𝜑
𝐹ℎ = 𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑦
= 𝐹sin𝜃𝑦 sin𝜑

rraj@iitp.ac.in 36
Rectangular Components of a Force
in Space
If the direction cosines are given:

• With the angles between F and the axes,

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹cos𝜃𝑥 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹cos𝜃𝑦 𝐹𝑧 = 𝐹cos𝜃𝑧
F = 𝐹𝑥 i + 𝐹𝑦 j + 𝐹𝑧 k
= 𝐹 cos𝜃𝑥 i + cos𝜃𝑦 j + cos𝜃𝑧 k
= 𝐹𝝀
𝝀 = cos𝜃𝑥 i + cos𝜃𝑦 j + cos𝜃𝑧 k

•  is a unit vector along the line of action of F

and cos 𝜃𝑥 , cos 𝜃𝑦 , and cos 𝜃𝑧 are the direction
cosines for F.
rraj@iitp.ac.in 37
Rectangular Components of a
Force in Space
If two points on the line of action
are given:
Direction of the force is defined by
the location of two points,
𝑀 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 and 𝑁 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2

𝑀𝑁 = vector joining 𝑀 and 𝑁 = 𝑑𝑥 i + 𝑑𝑦 j + 𝑑𝑧 k

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑀𝑁 1
F = 𝐹λ, λ = = 𝑑𝑥 i + 𝑑𝑦 j + 𝑑𝑧 k
𝑀𝑁 𝑑

𝐹𝑑𝑥 𝐹𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑑𝑧

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑧 =
rraj@iitp.ac.in
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 38
Sample Problem 2.7
SOLUTION:
• Based on the relative locations of the
points A and B, determine the unit
vector pointing from A towards B.

• Apply the unit vector to determine the

components of the force acting on A.

• Noting that the components of the unit

vector are the direction cosines for the
The tension in the guy wire is 2500 N. vector, calculate the corresponding
Determine: angles.
a) components Fx, Fy, Fz of the force
acting on the bolt at A,
b) the angles x, y, z defining the
direction of the force (the direction
cosines)
rraj@iitp.ac.in 39
Sample Problem 2.7
SOLUTION:
• Determine the unit vector pointing from A
towards B.
𝐴𝐵 = −40m i + 80m j + 30m k
𝐴𝐵 = −40m 2 + 80m 2 + 30m 2

= 94.3 m

−40 80 30
λ= i+ j+ k
94.3 94.3 94.3
= −0.424i + 0.848j + 0.318k

• Determine the components of the force.

F = 𝐹λ
= 2500 N −0.424i + 0.848j + 0.318k
= −1060N i + 2120 N j + 795 N k

rraj@iitp.ac.in 40
Sample Problem 2.7
• Noting that the components of the unit vector are
the direction cosines for the vector, calculate the
corresponding angles.

λ = cos𝜃𝑥 i + cos𝜃𝑦 j + cos𝜃𝑧 k

= −0.424i + 0.848j + 0.318k
𝜃𝑥 = 115. 1∘
𝜃𝑦 = 32. 0∘
𝜃𝑧 = 71. 5∘
How can we quickly check if we have not committed any calculation mistake?

cos2 𝜃𝑥 + cos2 𝜃𝑦 + cos2 𝜃𝑧 = 1

rraj@iitp.ac.in 41
What if…?
SOLUTION:
FBA • Since the force in the guy wire must be
the same throughout its length, the force
at B (and acting toward A) must be the
same magnitude but opposite in
FAB direction to the force at A.

F𝐵𝐴 = −F𝐴𝐵
= 1060N i + −2120 N j + −795 N k
What are the components of the
force in the wire at point B? Can
you find it without doing any
calculations?
Give this some thought and discuss
this with a neighbor.

rraj@iitp.ac.in 42
Solve the below problem
SOLUTION:

Determine the x and y

components of each of the =180.5 i -207.1 j
forces. Also find the resultant
of the three forces. R = 274.7 N

α = -48.92⁰

rraj@iitp.ac.in
abhatta@iitp.ac.in 43
Solve the below problem
SOLUTION:

250 N
145 N

255 N

Determine the x and y

components of each of the
forces. Also find the resultant
of the three forces.
rraj@iitp.ac.in
abhatta@iitp.ac.in 44
Solve the below problem
SOLUTION:

145 N
250 N

255 N

Determine the x and y

components of each of the forces.
Also find the resultant of the
three forces.
rraj@iitp.ac.in
abhatta@iitp.ac.in 45
Suggested Problems for Practice

• 2.1, 2.5, 2.9, 2.20, 2.30, 2.36, 2.66, 2.69, 2.83,

2.91, 2.107, 2.109, 2.123, 2.136

rraj@iitp.ac.in 46
 SUMMARY

rraj@iitp.ac.in 47
 Chapter 2 STATICS OF PARTICLES

Forces are vector quantities; they add according to the

parallelogram law. The magnitude and direction of the
resultant R of two forces P and Q can be determined either
graphically or by trigonometry.

R
P

A Q
 Any given force acting on a particle can be resolved into
two or more components, i.e.., it can be replaced by two
or more forces which have the same effect on the particle.
A force F can be resolved
into two components P
and Q by drawing a
parallelogram which has
F for its diagonal; the
Q components P and Q
F are then represented by
the two adjacent sides
of the parallelogram
A and can be determined
either graphically or by
P trigonometry.
A force F is said to have been resolved into two rectangular
components if its components are directed along the coordinate
axes. Introducing the unit vectors i and j along the x and y axes,

F = Fx i + Fy j
y
Fx = F cos  Fy = F sin 

Fy
Fy = Fy j tan  =
Fx
F
j 2 2
 F= Fx + Fy
x
i Fx = Fx i
When three or more coplanar forces act on a particle, the
rectangular components of their resultant R can be obtained
by adding algebraically the corresponding components of the
given forces.

Rx =  Rx Ry =  Ry

The magnitude and direction of R can be determined from

Ry
tan  = R= Rx2
+ Ry2
Rx
 y y

B B

Fy Fy y A
F A
D
F D
O O
x Fx x Fx x
Fz Fz
E E
C C
z z
y
A force F in three-dimensional space B
can be resolved into components
Fy F
Fx = F cos x Fy = F cos y A
D
O
Fz = F cos z z Fx x

E
z Fz C
 y  (Magnitude = 1)

The cosines of
Fy j
x , y , and z
cos y j F=F are known as the
direction cosines of
the force F. Using
Fx i the unit vectors i , j,
cos z k
x and k, we write
Fz k
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
z cos x i

or

F = F (cosx i + cosy j + cosz k )

 y  (Magnitude = 1)
cos y j
Fy j  = cosx i + cosy j
cos z k + cosz k
F=F
Since the magnitude
Fx i of  is unity, we have

x cos2x + cos2y
Fz k + cos2z = 1
z cos x i In addition,

2 2 2
F= Fx + Fy + Fz
Fx Fy Fz
cosx = cosy = cosz =
F F F
 y
N (x2, y2, z2) A force vector F
in three-dimensions
F dy = y2 - y1 is defined by its
magnitude F and
 two points M and
dz = z2 - z1
<0 N along its line of
M (x1, y1, z1) dx = x2 - x1
action. The vector
x MN joining points
z  and N is
MN = dx i + dy j + dz k

The unit vector  along the line of action of the force is

MN 1
 = = ( dx i + dy j + dz k )
MN d
 y
2 2 2
N (x2, y2, z2) d= dx + dy + dz

dy = y2 - y1
A force F is
dz = z2 - z1 defined as the
dx = x2 - x1 <0 product of F and
M (x1, y1, z1)
. Therefore,
x
z
F
F=F = ( d x i + dy j + dz k )
d
From this it follows that

Fdx Fdy Fdz

Fx = Fy = d Fz =
d d
When two or more forces act on a particle in three-
dimensions, the rectangular components of their resultant
R is obtained by adding the corresponding components of
the given forces.

Rx =  Fx
Ry =  Fy
Rz =  Fz

The particle is in equilibrium when the resultant of all

forces acting on it is zero.
To solve a problem involving a particle in equilibrium,
draw a free-body diagram showing all the forces acting
on the particle. The conditions which must be satisfied for
particle equilibrium are

 Fx = 0  Fy = 0  Fz = 0

In two-dimensions , only two of these equations are needed

 Fx = 0  Fy = 0