Kandahar University

Engineering Faculty
Civil Department

Construction Materials & Method

Lecture 5: Materials

Athiqullah Hayat

March, 2023

Stone

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Table of Contents

► Introduction
► Rocks (Geological Classification)
► Rocks (Physical Classification)
► Rocks (Chemical Classification)
► Qualities of Good Building Stone
► Types and Uses of Stone
► Why Stone is Losing Popularity?
► Testing of Stones
► Stone Quarrying
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Introduction

▬ Hard solid, non-metallic

mineral matter of which rock
is made, especially as a
building material

▬ Stones are suitable for the

construction of structures
such as:

Ø Retaining wall,
abutments, dams,
barrages, roads, etc.

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Rocks (Geological Classification)

Rocks

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Intrusive Extrusive Clastic Chemical Foliated Non-Fol.

Sand
Gabbro Basalt Slate Quartzite
Stone Limestone
Granite Rhyolite Schist Marble
Shale

Rocks (Geological Classification)

6
Rocks (Physical Classification)

Rocks are classified on the basis of general structure:

1. Stratified Rocks: These rocks posses planes of stratification or cleavage.

They can be easily split up along these planes. E.g. Sedimentary rocks

3. Unstratified Rocks: The structure of theses rocks maybe crystalline

granular or compact granular

3. Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite

direction only

Rocks (Chemical Classification)

1. Silicious: Silica predominates (hard & durable)

§ Example: Granite, Quartzites, etc.

2. Argillaceous: Clay predominates (dense, compact and soft)

§ Example: Slates, Laterites, etc.

3. Calcareous: Calcium carbonate predominates (durability

depends upon surrounding atmosphere)
§ Example: Limestone, Marble, etc.

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Qualities of Good Building Stone

▬ Crushing Strength: for a good structural stone, the crushing strength

should be greater than 100 N/mm².

▬ Appearance: decent in appearance, capable of preserving their

colored uniformly for a long time.

ü A good building stone should be of uniform color and free form clay
holes, spots of other color, bands, etc.

▬ Durability: a good building stone should be durable. The various

factors contribute to

▬ Hardness: the coefficient of hardness should be greater than 17 (

obtained by test ) for a stone to be used in road work.
9

Qualities of Good Building Stone (Cont’d.)

▬ Water Absorption: for good stone , percentage absorption by

weight after 24 hrs. should not exceed 0.60.

▬ Toughness: ability to resist impact forces. Building stones should be

tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.

▬ Specific Gravity: the more the specific gravity of stone, the more
heavier and stronger the stone is.

ü Stones having higher specific gravity values should be used for

the construction of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbors.

ü Good building stone should be greater than 2.7 10

Qualities of Good Building Stone (Cont’d.)

▬ Resistance to fire: a good building stone be fire proof , sandstone,

Argillaceous stone Resistance fire quite well.

▬ Wearing Percentage: for a good building stone the percentage

wear should be equal to or less then 3 percent.

▬ Texture: a good building stone should have compact fine

crystalline structure should be free form cavities, cracks or patches
of stuff or loose material.

▬ Seasoning: stone should be well seasoned before putting into use.

A period of 6 to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper
seasoning. 11

Types and Uses of Stone

1. Rubble Stone: consists of irregular fragments from a quarry that have

one good face. The pieces are irregular in shape and sized usually in
pieces 12 in. (300 mm) by 24 in. (600 mm) that are cut and fitted by
a mason.

2. Rough Building Stone: sometimes called fieldstone, occurs in

naturally found rock masses. The stone is generally used in its natural
shape.

3. Dimension Stone: also referred to as cut stone, is cut to size at a

stone mill and shipped to site. Its surface may be rough or polished.

Used as veneer on interior and exterior walls, floors, copings, stair

treads, and for other similar applications. 12
Types and Uses of Stone (Cont’d.)

4. Flag Stone: is thin, flat stone from ½ to 4 in. (12 to 100 mm) in
thickness.

Laid over a concrete base are usually ¾ to 1 in. (18 to 25 mm) thick. If
laid over a sand or loam base, pieces 1¼ to 1½ in. (31 to 37 mm) thick
are required. Its surface may be left rough or polished.

5. Broken and Crushed Stone: includes irregular shapes and crushed

pieces of one type of stone that are graded for hardness and size.
Used as aggregate in concrete for surfacing roads and driveways and
as aggregate for surfacing fiberglass asphalt shingles and built-up
roofing.

6. Stone powder and stone dust: are used as fill in paints and asphalt
paving surfaces. 13

Types and Uses of Stone (Cont’d.)

Flagstone is thin, flat stone that can be laid Dimensional sandstone used in a random ashlar
over a concrete, sand, or loam base. pattern

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Why Stone Loses Popularity?

▬ Dressing of stone is tedious, laboring and time consuming

▬ Desired strength and quality not available at moderate rates,

especially in plain areas

▬ RCC and steel are alternatives to stones, and gives more

strength and flexibility

▬ Stone structure design can’t give freeness and flexibility to the

designer

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Testing of Stones

─ Following Tests:

Crushing test Crystallization Impact test

Resistance against acids Seepage

Attrition test Microscopic test Hardness

Water absorption test Freezing and thawing test

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Stone Quarrying

Quarrying Quarrying
Quarrying
with hand with
by blasting
tools machinery

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Soil

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Table of Contents

► Introduction
► Soil Profile
► Components of Soil
► Soil Classification
► Soil Complexity
► Problem vs. Non-Problem Soil

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Introduction

▬ Soil can be defined as the solid material on the Earth’s

surface that results from the interaction of weathering and
biological activity on the parent material or underlying hard
rock.

▬ The study of soils as naturally occurring phenomena is called

pedology (from the Greek word pedon, meaning soil or
earth).

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Soil Profile

▬ A soil profile is a vertical cross

section of a soil. It is divided TOPSOIL,
into a number of distinct upper or A
layers, referred to as horizons. Horizon

SUBSOIL,
▬ The horizons are normally middle or B
designated by symbols and Horizon
letters.

▬ The organic or O horizon can PARENT

form above the mineral soil MATERIAL,
commonly in forested areas, lower or C
resulting from the dead plant horizon
and animal remains. 21

Components of Soil

▬ Minerals and SOM make Air 20-30%

up the solid fraction,
whereas air and water
comprise the pore space
fraction
Organic
Mineral 45%
matter 1-5%
▬ A typical agricultural soil is
usually around 50% solid
particles and 50% pores.
(Adapted from Brady and
Water 20-
Weil, 2002)
30%

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Types of Soil

▬ Soils are classified by the sizes of their particles and their physical
properties.

A sieve analysis is performed to separate soils according to the size

of soil particles. Most soils are a mixture of the following five types of
soils:

1. Gravel: is a hard rock material with particles larger than ¼ in. (6.4 mm)
in diameter but smaller than 3 in. (76 mm).

2. Sand: consists of separate particles ranging from 0.002 in. to ¼ in.

(0.050 mm to 6.3 mm) in size that are too small to handle
individually.

Sand is neither plastic nor cohesive. It is permeable to water and, 23

therefore, has excellent drainage characteristics.

Types of Soil (Cont’d.)

3. Silt: is fine sand with particles smaller than 0.002 in.

4. Clay: is a very cohesive material with microscopic particles (less

than 0.002 mm)

ü Clay exhibits deformation when mixed with water. Relatively

impervious, it expands when it absorbs water and shrinks when
dry.

ü Clay is one of the least stable and most unpredictable soils for the
support of building foundations.

5. Organic matter: is partly decomposed animal and vegetable

matter. 24
Types of Soil (Cont’d.)

Non-Problem Soil Vs. Problem Soil

▬ Non-Problem Soil: are defined as those that are dense, coarse-

grained, and properly drained.

ü Excellent bearing capacity because they are not subject to

significant volume change.

ü Rock and gravel are generally considered non-problem soils.

▬ Problem Soil: are defined as those that do not provide adequate

bearing characteristics for new construction, or those that expand
and contract with the addition of water.

ü Problem soils include highly compressible or expansive clays,

highly plastic (liquid like) loose soils, and unconfined sands and
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silts.

Soil Classification

▬ Soils are classified by the

size of their particles and
their physical properties

▬ By sieve analysis we can

the size of soil particles
most soils are mixture of the
following five types

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Soil Classification (Cont’d.)

▬ liquid limit (LL), Plastic limit (PL), Plastic index (PI), & Shrink limit

As moisture content increases, soils move from a solid to a plastic or 27

liquid state.

Soil Complexity

Chemical
Composition

Physical Location
Soil Complexity
Characteristics Variations

Depth Variations 28
 Brick

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Table of Contents

► Introduction to Brick
► History of Brick
► Types of Brick
► Classification of Bricks Based on Quality
► Properties of a Brick
► Materials Used for Bricks
► How Bricks are Made?
► Brick Masonry
► Advantage and Disadvantage of Brick
► Mortar
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Introduction

▬ The term "brick" is used to denote a building unit made of shaped

clay,

▬ In modern times it refers to any stone or clay-based building unit

that is joined with cementitious mortar when used in construction.

▬ Brick is a block of clay hardened by drying in the sun or burning in

a kiln.

▬ In the history of professional construction practices, brick is one of

the oldest of all building materials. It is also arguably the most
durable

ü Since there are brick walls, foundations, pillars, and road surfaces 31
constructed thousands of years ago that are still intact.

History of Brick

▬ Bricks are one of the oldest types of building blocks, they are an
ideal building material because they are cheap to make, very
durable and require little maintenance.

▬ Man has used brick for building purposes for thousands of years.

▬ Brick was discovered around 7000 BC in Turkey.

▬ The greatest breakthrough came with the invention of the fired

brick in about 3500 BC.

▬ Romans preferred to make their bricks in spring; and stored them

for two years before selling or using them. 32
Types of Brick

▬ There are multiple types of brick to use for masonry, with their
own advantages and drawbacks.

▬ Bricks can be of many types depending on:

ü Quality

ü Building process

ü Manufacturing method
ü Raw material
ü Using location
ü Weather-resisting capability
ü Purpose of using
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ü Region

Classification of Bricks Based on Quality

1st Class Brick:

▬ These are thoroughly burnt, deep

red, cherry or copper color.
▬ Smooth surface
▬ Rectangular, sharp, and straight
edges
▬ Free from flaws, cracks and stones
▬ A metallic or ringing sound is made
when struck against each other
▬ Used in exposed face work for
good appearing, flooring and
reinforced brick work 34
Classification of Bricks Based on Quality

2nd Class Brick:

▬ Small cracks and distortions are
permitted
3rd Class Brick:
▬ Underburned
▬ The shape and surface are irregular
and rough
▬ The color is soft and light red
colored.
▬ Used in temporary building
structures
4th Class Brick:
▬ Overburnt and badly distorted in
shape and size
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▬ Used for foundation and floors in
lime concrete

Properties of Brick

Knowing brick’s properties help us to determine which type best suits

our needs.

1. Physical Properties (shape, size, color, density)

2. Mechanical Properties (compressive strength, flexure strength)

3. Thermal Characteristics (insulation property)

4. Durability (absorption value, front resistance, efflorescence)

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Materials Used for Bricks

37

How Bricks are Made?

▬ Bricks can be made in a variety of ways, often from a clay-based

material, molded into shape, and then fixed in form with heat or
other drying processes.

▬ The oldest bricks used natural clay and were dried in the sun.

Ø Over time, techniques were developed to make bricks stronger and

more resilient to weight, heat, weather, and erosion.

Ø Clay can be mixed with concrete, ash, or various chemicals to

change the composition of brick to achieve desired qualities.
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Brick Masonry

Firing of Bricks:

Today, bricks are usually burned in either a periodic kiln or a

continuous tunnel kiln.

1. The periodic kiln:

A fixed structure that is loaded with bricks, fired, cooled, and
unloaded.

2. Continuous tunnel kiln:

For higher productivity, bricks are passed continuously through a
long tunnel kiln on special railcars to emerge at the far end fully
burned.
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Brick Masonry (Cont’d.)

Brick Sizes:

▬ Truly, there is no standard size for brick because bricks may be sized
for special usages.

▬ The normal dimensions of a brick in KDR are 70 mm in height, 110 mm

in width and 220 mm in length

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Brick Masonry (Cont’d.)

Brick Classifications:

The most common bricks used in building construction are classified as

facing brick, building brick, or hollow brick.

1. Facing bricks (also called face brick) are intended for both structural
and nonstructural uses where appearance is important.

2. Building bricks are used where appearance does not matter, such as
in backup Wythe's of masonry that will be concealed in the finished
work.

3. Hollow bricks, defined according to ASTM C652, may be up to 60

percent void and are used primarily to enable the insertion and
grouting of steel reinforcing bars in single Wythe's of brickwork. 41

Brick Masonry (Cont’d.)

4. Paving Bricks: (ASTM C902)

Used for the paving of walks, drives, and patios and must
conform to special requirements not only for freeze-thaw
resistance, but water absorption and abrasion resistance as well.

5. Firebricks: (ASTM C64)

Used for the lining of fireplaces or furnaces. These are made from
special clays, called fireclays, which produce bricks with
refractory qualities (resistance to very high temperatures).
Firebricks are laid in very thin joints of fireclay mortar.
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Brick Masonry (Cont’d.)

Choosing Bricks:
Three important qualities a designer must consider in choosing bricks for
a particular building:

1. Molding
2. Process
3. Color & Size

▬ In addition to influencing durability, a brick’s compressive strength is

also of obvious importance when used in the construction of
structural walls and piers.

▬ According to ASTM standards, minimum compressive strengths for

building bricks and face bricks range from 1500 to 3000 psi.
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▬ In high-strength applications, brick strength may exceed 20,000 psi.

Brick Masonry (Cont’d.)

Masonry Unit Positions

Terms used to describe

brick positions in a wall.

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 Brick Masonry (Cont’d.)

Laying Brick Masonry Walls:

Brick bonding locks multi-wythe walls into a structural unit, resulting in

distinctive surface patterns.

45

Laying Brick
Masonry Walls:

The procedure for

laying a brick wall.

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Advantages of Bricks

▬ Aesthetic: Bricks offer a variety of natural colors and textures

▬ Strength: Bricks offer compressive strength, good enough for ordinary

construction

▬ Porosity: The ability to release and absorb moisture helps regulate

temperatures and humidity inside structures

▬ Fire protection: When prepared properly, brick can resist fire at

maximum protection ratings for up to 8 hours

▬ Economical: Raw materials are easily available

▬ Insulation: Bricks absorb and release heat slowly for excellent thermal
insulation compared to other materials

▬ Wear-resistance: Strong composition resists wear and tear that is 47

common in other materials

Disadvantages of Bricks

▬ Time consuming construction

▬ Cannot be used in high seismic zones

▬ Since bricks absorb water easily, therefore, it causes fluorescence

when not exposed to air

▬ Very Less tensile strength

▬ Rough surfaces of bricks may cause mold growth if not properly

cleaned

▬ Cleaning brick surfaces is a hard job

▬ Color of low quality brick changes when exposed to sun for a long
period of time 48
Mortar

▬ A vital part of masonry as the masonry units themselves.

▬ Serves to cushion the masonry units, giving them full bearing

despite their surface irregularities.

▬ Seals between the units to keep water and wind from penetrating.

▬ Adheres the units to one

another to bond them into a
monolithic structural unit;
and, inevitably, it is
important to the
appearance of the finished
masonry wall. 49

Mortar (Cont’d.)

Mortar Ingredients:

▬ The most characteristic type of mortar is cement–lime mortar, made

of Portland cement, hydrated lime, an inert aggregate, and water.

▬ The aggregate and or sand, must be clean and must be screened

to eliminate particles that are too coarse or too fine; ASTM C144
(American Society for Testing and Material) establishes standards for
mortar sand.

▬ The Portland cement is the bonding agent in the mortar.

▬ Only Portland cement Types I, II, and III are recommended for use in
masonry mortars. 50
Mortar (Cont’d.)

Mortar Functions:

▬ Seals between masonry

units

▬ Adheres / bonds
masonry units

▬ Provides for full bearing

▬ Aesthetics
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Tiles

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Table of Contents

► Introduction
► History of Tiles
► Manufacturing of Tiles
► Types of Tiles
► Usage of Tiles

53

Introduction

▬ Manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic,

stone, metal, or even glass, generally used for:

ü Covering roofs

ü Floors
ü Walls
ü Showers
ü Other objects such as tabletops

▬ Tiles are available in many sizes, shapes, colors and textures.

▬ Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from

lightweight materials. 54
History of Tiles

▬ The making and decorating of

tiles has on for thousands of years

▬ The romans gave us the word tile

from the Latin word tegula which
meant terracotta roof tiles

▬ Blue faience tiles lined the

underground corridors of the step
pyramid (2686 - 2613BC) of
Pharaoh Djoser in Saqqara in
Egypt.
55

History of Tiles (cont’d.)

▬ Tiles in Mesopotamia

▬ Ornamental glazed bricks with bulls and dragons covered the walls
and towers of the Ishtar gate(605-562 BC) built on the city of Babylon.

56
History of Tiles (cont’d.)

▬ From the 6th century BC, Etruscans & Romans used decorative terra
roof tiles with great effect on their temples.

▬ The Chinese applied colored glazes to their roof tiles and shaped
them in the from of fantastic beasts like dragons to ward off evil.

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Tile Manufacturing

1. Selecting crushing, and mixing natural clays

2. Preparation with water, of (clay) pastes for forming or molding

the body in the plastic state

3. Forming operation using primitive wood molds that provided the

green pieces with its dimensions

4. Natural drying

5. A first firing that provided the product with mechanical strength,

its definitive geometry and surface color
58
Tile Manufacturing (Cont’d.)

6. Application of engobes and glazes onto fired product to mask

the color of the ceramic body.

7. Application of decorations and other surface treatments.

8. A further firing processes in which the ceramic tile was fired

again to provide all its parts with their final state, maturing all
elements applied onto the surface of the body or biscuit.

59

Tile Manufacturing (Cont’d.)

Preparation of Clay Flow Chart

Forming
(Pressing or Extrusion)

Firing Drying

First Firing

Glaze Preparation &

Unglazed Glaze Preparation & Glazing
Glazing

Second Firing Firing

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Double Fired Glazed Tiles Single Fired Glazed Tiles

Types of Tiles

1. Ceramic Tile: ceramic tile represents a versatile and popular choice for
tile in home improvement projects

2. Porcelain Tile: a finer example of clay ceramic tile, & Made of a higher
ratio of silica and quartz, and baked or fired at a higher temperature

ü More durable and expensive

3. Granite Tile: granite is another natural rock tile used both in

countertops as well as in flooring.

ü Granite is significantly harder than marble and therefore less prone to chips
and cracks.
ü Being relatively waterproof, granite is also a fantastic choice for wet areas
or countertops.
61

Types of Tiles (Cont’d.)

4. Metal Tile: Metal counter tops offer superior durability and a chic and
modern kitchen aesthetic & etc.

5. Limestone Tile: Limestone is another type of natural stone tile “to

achieve a truly rustic style filled with natural stones”

6. Marble Tile: Often considered one of the more expensive natural stone
tile materials

ü An elegant and bold choice, as it exudes a level of elegance and

panache that is hard to replicate with other materials
ü Deeply veined with natural mineral lines
ü Created under immense heat and pressure and can take the heat and
pressures of daily life extremely well
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 Usage of Tile

¢ Tiles are often used for covering

floor, walls, ceiling, roof and
pebble

I. Roof Tiles: Roof tiles are designed

mainly to keep out rain

ü Made from clay or modern

materials (concrete, and plastic)

ü Types: (Flat tiles, Mission or barrel

tiles, interlocking roof tiles

63

Usage of Tile (Cont’d.)

II. Floor Tiles: These are commonly made of ceramic or stone

Recent technological advances have resulted in rubber or glass

tiles for floors as well.

ü Floor tiles are typically set into mortar consisting of sand, cement and
often a latex additive for extra adhesion.

ü The spaces between the tiles are nowadays filled with sanded or un-
sanded floor grout, but traditionally mortar was used.

64
Usage of Tile (Cont’d.)

III. Wall Tiles: use for covering walls

of home generally using for
bathroom and kitchen.

IV. Celling Tiles: Celling tiles are

type of tiles used for covering
celling of rooms.

ü Ceiling tiles are lightweight tiles

used inside buildings.

ü Ceiling tiles also provide a

barrier to the spread of smoke
and fire

Thank You !

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