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 Social Categorization and Intercultural Communication
The Influence of Culture on Perception
Summary
Join the Debate: Why Does Appearance Matter?
Case Study: Perception of the Veil by Muslim Women
Further Readings and Video
5 Value Orientations and Behaviour
Introduction
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations
Schwartz’s Cultural Taxonomy
Intercultural Communication Ethics
Summary
Join the Debate: Should Same-Sex Marriage Be Accepted across
the World?
Case Study: Freedom of Expression and Hate Speech
Further Readings and Video
6 Identities and Subgroups
Introduction
Definitions of Identities at the Individual and Collective Levels
Identity Development and Identity Negotiation
Subgroups and Identities
Identities and Intercultural Communication
Summary
Join the Debate: Is Identity What We Have or What We
Perform?
Case Study: Using National Identity to Brand Australia
Further Readings and Video
7 Verbal Communication and Culture
Introduction
The Components and Characteristics of Verbal Codes
Language, Thoughts and Behaviour
Cultural Variations in Verbal Communication
Language and the Discursive Construction of Identity
Summary
Join the Debate: Do ‘The Limits of My Language Mean the
Limits of My World’?
Case Study: Culture Jamming
Further Readings and Video
8 Nonverbal Communication and Culture

8
 Introduction
Characteristics and Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Types of Nonverbal Communication
Influence of Culture on Nonverbal Communication
Summary
Join the Debate: Can We Lie with Our Body Language?
Case Study: Nonverbal Behaviour in Politics – The Case of
Vladimir Putin
Further Readings and Video
9 Immigration and Acculturation
Introduction
Immigration and Cultural Diversity
Culture Shock and Acculturation
Strategies of Cross-Cultural Adaptation
Summary
Join the Debate: To What Extent Should Immigrants Be
Encouraged to Maintain their Heritage Culture?
Case Study: Refugees in Europe
Further Readings and Video
10 Intercultural and Intergroup Relations
Introduction
Dimensions and Characteristics of Human Relationships
Conditions and Stages of Relationship Development
Culture and Human Relationship Development
Summary
Join the Debate: Is the Internet a Sustainable Site for Building
Intercultural Romantic Relationships?
Case Study: Indian Wedding – Marry Me, Marry My Family
Further Readings and Video
11 Intercultural and International Conflicts
Introduction
Defining Conflict Types and Identifying Potential Sources of
Conflict
Conflict Stages and Conflict Management
Influence of Culture on Conflict Management
Summary
Join the Debate: Can Celebrities Promote Humanitarian
Campaigns in Regions Where There Is Conflict or War?
Case Study: Celebrity Activism in War-Torn Societies
Further Readings and Video

9
12 Mass Media and Cultural Change
Introduction
Communication Technology and Mass Media in the Digital Age
Mass Media Ownership and Content
Media Construction of Social Reality and Media Effects
Mass Media and Cultural Change
Summary
Join the Debate: What Are the Parents’ Roles in Young
Children’s Use of Digital Media?
Case Study: Social Media and Fake News
Further Readings and Video
13 Effective Intercultural Communication in a Global Society
Introduction
Dialectics of Homogenization and Fragmentation
Diffusion, Convergence, Hegemony and Colonization
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence
Summary
Join the Debate: Will Our Attitudes and Tastes Become More
‘Provincial’ in the Global Economy?
Case Study: Chinatown as a Transnational Space
Further Readings and Video
Glossary
References
Index

10
Preface

This third edition of Introducing Intercultural Communication: Global

Cultures and Contexts consolidates its reputation as an introduction to
intercultural communication from the global perspective. This global
perspective made the previous editions stand out among other competitors
in the market. The realization that the second edition was so well received
by scholars, colleagues, instructors, and, more importantly, students across
the world in the past three years has left us with a sense of achievement.
We interpret this success to mean that a book with a global perspective has
resonated with an international audience. We sincerely appreciate the
positive feedback we have received from instructors across the world, who
describe the second edition as a book that not only helps students to apply
theory to the real world, but also fosters critical thinking. The clarity and
scope of the second edition were highly praised, as was the diversity of
content. Instructors who adopted the second edition recognized the
learning features as both pedagogically helpful and visually appealing,
making complex materials more accessible yet retaining the book’s
academic rigour to take students further in the intercultural communication
field. In this third edition of the book, we embrace the opportunity to
refine and improve on the content and features that have proven successful
in the second edition, while also updating and expanding the book to keep
abreast of current theories and research in the field.

This new edition continues our commitment to presenting intercultural

communication theories and applications through a global prism and in a
lively, interesting, relevant and accessible writing style. At the same time,
it maintains the high standard of intellectual depth and rigour in scholarly
discussions about theories and applications. New content has been added
to the book in relation to theories, concepts, applications and case studies,
which take students into some new territory, empower them in active
learning and encourage critical thinking. We have updated the content of
each chapter to reflect the state-of-the-art knowledge and current research
in the field. We have replaced 11 out of 13 case studies from the second
edition, and updated the remaining two case studies with new material.
Further, more examples from a diverse set of cultures have been added to
broaden the coverage of cultures even more. These include Scandinavia,
Kosovo, North Africa, the Netherlands, Sweden, Russia, Saudi Arabia,

11
Finland and the United States. Theoretical debates throughout the book
give students opportunities to exercise their potential, and possibly to
target postgraduate students. This new edition has a stronger emphasis on
the application of knowledge and skills. Hands-on exercises, entitled ‘Do
it!’, have been added to each chapter to encourage students to apply what
they have learned to real-life situations. In response to the reviews, we
have also streamlined the presentation of various topics and expanded the
coverage of theories. At every point in the new edition we have tried to put
ourselves in the student’s place, drawing upon the learning experiences of
hundreds of culturally diverse students whom we have been privileged to
teach.

New to the third edition

Updated content. Various new sections and content have been added
throughout the book to fill in the gaps identified in the reviews and to
reflect current developments in the field. New and updated content
includes refugees in Europe, discursive construction of culture and
identity, the transactional model of communication, digital
communication and digital media, fake news, nation branding, culture
jamming, and technology diffusion theories. These are just some
examples.
Combined Theory Corner and Theory in Practice. The Theory Corner
section in the third edition combines Theory Corner with Theory in
Practice from the second edition to achieve a clearer layout by
reducing the number of boxed texts. The questions at the end of the
Theory in Practice from the second edition have been moved to the
Online resources for instructors.
Application exercises within text – named ‘Do it!’. Three hands-on
exercises have been added to each chapter as ‘experiential tasks’.
This new feature puts more emphasis on the application of knowledge
and encourages students to experiment with what they have learned in
class in real-life situations.
New case studies. All reviewers and our own students embraced and
endorsed the case studies. To build on the success of this feature, we
have replaced 11 case studies from the second edition with
completely new cases, and we have updated the other two case
studies with new materials. These case studies cover a range of topics
and cultures, ranging from refugees in Europe, food culture in China,

12
 culture jamming, to freedom of expression and hate speech, Barbie
dolls, Turkish soap operas, fake news and the Building Brand
Australia programme Australia Unlimited.
Links to SAGE video sources. A URL link to a video relevant to the
content of each chapter is provided at the end of each chapter. The
video, drawn from the SAGE video library, usually features experts in
the specific field talking about the subject area (e.g., nonverbal
communication). It complements and consolidates the chapter
content.

Retained from the second edition

Join the Debate. The Join the Debate feature in the second edition
was endorsed by instructors and students alike. These sections pose
challenging questions and highlight current debates in the
intercultural communication field. This feature enables students to
explore the field further and encourages them to engage in scholarly
discussion about issues surrounding intercultural communication
research and practice.
Annotated further readings. Annotated further readings at the end of
each chapter consolidate and complement students’ learning. In this
new edition, the five further readings in each chapter are updated. In
addition, a list of further readings is provided in the Online resources
for instructors.
Chapter summaries. The summary of each chapter highlights the key
points covered. In response to the reviews, the chapter summaries in
this new edition are updated in accordance with the updated content
of each chapter, but retain the format of bullet points, as in the second
edition, to make them more concise and easier to follow.
Pictures. The illustrative pictures were praised by reviewers and
students as original and interesting. We retained this feature, but we
have replaced many of the pictures in the third edition in order to
align with the revised text and enhance their illustrative power.
Glossary. The glossary, containing definitions of all the key terms
used in the text, is retained to give users a quick index of the key
concepts covered and their definitions. We have retained this feature
but updated the glossary to incorporate new content from this third
edition.
Online resources for instructors and students. In this edition, we have

13
 updated all the exercises and activities, as well as the multiple-choice
questions, to align with the new content. The original sections have
been retained with updated content: lecture notes, power points,
further readings, exercises and activities, and multiple-choice
questions. Additional multiple-choice questions have been added for
student access as well.

Removed from this edition

Theory in Practice. This feature is combined with Theory Corner in
the third edition. In other words, the Theory Corner in this edition
contains both theory and theory in practice. The further readings and
questions in the Theory in Practice boxes in the second edition have
been moved to the Online resources.
Critical thinking questions within the text. Critical thinking questions
in the second edition have been replaced by hands-on experiential
tasks in this third edition, to enable students to apply their knowledge
in practice. This new feature is named ‘Do it!’.

14
Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all those who have helped us as we progressed

through the journey to complete this third edition. We thank the reviewers
for their insightful comments on the second edition, and we appreciate
their valuable suggestions for improvement. A special note of thanks goes
to the many instructors who have adopted the second edition over the past
two years, as well as scholars who have provided their feedback through
various channels, including the website of SAGE Publications. Their
positive comments on the second edition are especially gratifying, and
their suggestions for improvement have helped us to rethink and reshape
this new edition. We have all had the privilege of teaching and doing
research in intercultural communication, and these experiences have
framed our outlook on this fascinating field.

We are indebted to our colleagues, friends and students, both at The

University of Queensland and at other institutions around the world where
we have studied, worked or spent periods of research leave. All of them
have contributed to this book in various ways, including providing
feedback on our intercultural communication classes, sharing their ideas
with us, and lending us references and photos from their collections. In
particular, we are grateful to Professor Carley Dodd from Abilene
Christian University, who granted us permission to include his model of
culture, and to Alison Rae for granting us permission to use the photos she
took while travelling around the world collecting stories as a reporter. We
express our sincere gratitude to colleagues who have shared their exercises
with us to help the development of the online resources for instructors and
students. Special thanks go to everyone who has given us support, time
and encouragement.

We express sincere appreciation to the Commissioning Editor at SAGE

Publications, Michael Ainsley. Without his encouragement and support,
this third edition would not have come to fruition. We are grateful to Mila
Steele at SAGE Publications, who was the senior Commissioning Editor
for the first and second editions of this book. If it had not been for the
confidence and support she gave us, the previous two editions of this book
would not have come into being, either. Special thanks also go to the
assistant editor, John Nightingale, others on the editorial staff, and the

15
anonymous reviewers who reviewed sample chapters of the manuscript.
Their insightful suggestions have greatly contributed to an improved book.
We would like to thank everyone from SAGE Publications whose work
has transformed the manuscript into its present form.

Finally, we are deeply indebted to our families for their support, love,
encouragement and patience throughout the writing of this book.

16
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Online Resources

Introducing Intercultural Communication is supported by a wealth of

online resources for both students and instructors to support learning,
studying and teaching. They are available at
http://study.sagepub.com/liu3e

For students

Further reading suggestions to guide you deeper into the literature.

These include books, journal articles and web sources. For those
articles published in SAGE Journals there are links providing free
access.
Multiple choice questions to help you test your knowledge on key
topics.
Videos tied to each chapter in which experts in the field discuss key
ideas, trends, themes and debates covered in the text.

For instructors

Discussion questions and activities to help structure seminars and

group work.
Instructor notes to aid the integration of each chapter’s learning
objectives with classroom sessions.

17
PowerPoint slides to help structure lectures in line with the book.
Multiple choice questions and answers to help inspire ideas for
assessments.

18
Introduction: Communicating in a
Culturally Diverse Society

Since ancient times, borders (visible and invisible) have always existed
between countries, states, cities, regions, villages, and even houses.
Geographic and artificial boundaries –rivers, oceans, mountains, walls,
fences and signs – all separate country from country, region from region,
and people from people. However, culture has never been confined to
these geographic or artificial borders. For example, as early as the fifteenth
century, Aesop’s Fables was translated from Greek, the language in which
the fables were originally written, into English, thus making them
accessible to entirely new cultural, national and geographical audiences.
Today, the fables, available in many languages across the world, have
permeated many cultures as myths and legends, providing entertainment
and moral truisms for children and adults alike. Regardless of where we
live, the colour of our skin or what language we speak, it is likely we have
at some time encountered many of the morals or adages of Aesop’s Fables
– for instance, ‘Slow and steady wins the race’ from the tale of the tortoise
and the hare. While we might not know whether those stories were in fact
written by Aesop, exactly when they were written or how many languages
they have been translated into, the tales still teach us universal virtues like
honesty, perseverance, modesty and mutual respect. Other cultural and
material products are also spread beyond borders, including tools,
technology, clothing, food, furniture, electric appliances, music, customs
and rituals. Thanks to ever-advancing digital communication technology
and devices, we find our lives intertwined with people we have never met,
places we have never visited, and events we have never participated in.
Indeed, we have become neighbours of the interconnected global
community.

This does not mean that the whole world has been subsumed into one
culture. Contact between cultures may accentuate differences as well as
similarities, because culture is both inclusive and exclusive: it unites
members within the cultural group, as well as marks the boundary for non-
members. Culture defines a group of people, binds them to one another
and gives them a sense of shared identity. The word ‘culture’ is derived
from the Latin root ‘colere’, meaning ‘to cultivate’. Our language,

19
customs, expectations, behaviours, habits –our thinking, doing and being –
have and continue to be formed over a long period of cultivation within the
specific physical environments and social contexts in which we were born,
with which we grew up, and in which we presently live. During the
process of learning and adapting to the environment, different groups of
people have learned distinctive ways to organize their world (Dodd, 1998).
A group’s unique ways of doing and thinking become their beliefs, values,
worldviews, norms, rituals, customs, and their communication patterns –
ultimately, their cultural traditions.

Culture is the means by which a society expresses its structure and

function, its views of the universe, and what it regards as the proper ways
to live and to treat other people. Cultural traditions go through a process of
development and are passed on from generation to generation. Central to
this entire process of cultural change and maintenance is human
communication. The word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin root
‘communicare’, which means ‘to make common’, as in sharing thoughts,
hopes and knowledge. In ancient times, our ancestors shared information
largely on a face-to-face basis. The successive historical breakthroughs of
print, telephone, broadcasting, television and the internet have
progressively expanded the domain of communication beyond the
immediate cultural and geographic borders. The frequency and necessity
of global interaction in business, politics, education, medical practice and
travel, to mention just a few, requires us to communicate competently with
people whose cultures are different from our own. However, the ability to
communicate effectively and efficiently in our increasingly diverse society
does not come naturally; it must be learned.

Origin of the Study of Intercultural

Communication
The origin of the study of intercultural communication can be traced to the
Chicago School, known for pioneering empirical investigations based on
the theories of German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918; Rogers and
Steinfatt, 1999). Simmel studied at the University of Berlin, and taught
there and at the University of Strassburg in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. Simmel analysed concepts related to his own life. He
was the son of Jewish parents, and the anti-Semitism he experienced in
Germany undoubtedly influenced his development of the concept of ‘der

20
Fremde’, or stranger, the intellectual descendants of which are key
concepts in the fields of both sociology and intercultural communication
today. The stranger (Simmel, 1950) is a member of a system, but not
strongly attached to it or accepted by the other members of the system.
Simmel’s insights into the role of the stranger are part of his general
concern with the relationships between individuals. His examination of
reciprocal interactions at the individual level within a larger social context
inspired much of the research at the Chicago School (Rogers, 1999), and
from there, subsequent research in the field of intercultural
communication. The notion of communicating with someone who is
different from us – an intercultural ‘stranger’ – lies at the heart of
intercultural communication.

The key scholar in translating and applying Simmel’s concept of the

stranger was Robert E. Park, a former newspaper reporter who also earned
his PhD degree in Germany. In 1900 Park took Simmel’s course in
sociology at the University of Berlin, and in 1915 began teaching
sociology at the University of Chicago. Inspired by Simmel’s notion of the
stranger, Park developed the concept of social distance, which he defined
as the degree to which an individual perceives a lack of intimacy with
individuals different in ethnicity, race, religion, occupation or other
variables (Park, 1924). Park’s student Emory S. Bogardus later developed
a scale that measured the social distance people perceive between
themselves and members of another group. For example, in the scale
respondents are asked such questions as ‘Would you marry someone who
is Chinese?’ and ‘Would you have Chinese people as regular friends or as
speaking acquaintances?’ (Bogardus, 1933). The Bogardus Social Distance
scale quantified the perceived intimacy or distance of an individual’s
relationships with others in various social groups.

As social distance is largely culturally prescribed, intercultural

communication is invariably affected. For instance, Australians often use
first names with someone they have just met, and in a university setting it
is common for students to address the lecturers by their first name. This
can be very puzzling to Korean students, who are more formal in their
social relationships, using first names only with very close friends, who
are usually of the same age or social status as themselves. For example, an
American Korean who has taught in the United States for over 30 years
still feels some discomfort when students address her by her first name.
When asked why she did not explain her preference to her students, she

21
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honfitársaimat arra a helytelen szokásukra figyelmeztessem, amely a
külföldön már annyi kellemetlenséget szerzett nekik: hogy t. i.
magyarul sans gène teszik a legfurcsább megjegyzéseket, abban a
biztos tudatban, hogy ugy sem értik meg őket. Pedig ma már
mindenütt találkozik az ember magyar utasokkal, nemcsak
Luzernben, hanem még Tuniszban vagy Hammerfestben is. Az a skót
ruhás ur, aki a szomszéd asztalnál angolos flegmával csepegteti a
mézet a vajas kenyerére, esetleg marosvásárhelyi fiskális s az a
kokett, karcsu asszony, aki dekolletált ruhában libben be a palermói
hotel éttermébe, talán mérnökné vagy háztulajdonosné
Nagyváradon. Senkinek sincs a homlokára irva, hogy honnan való s
könnyen megeshetik, hogy a vélt francia kokottról tett
megjegyzésünkkel egy tisztességes magyar uri asszonyt sértünk
vérig. Amióta, pár évvel ezelőtt, magam is a hősévé lettem egy ilyen
kinos félreismerésnek, – szerencsére, csak a passziv hősévé – azóta
gondosan őrizkedem attól, hogy semmiféle nyelven se tegyek
valakire félremagyarázható megjegyzést. Rómából utaztam Nápolyba
s valami közbeeső, kis állomáson kiszálltam a kupéból, hogy egy
olasz ujságot vásároljak. Visszamenet, nagy siettemben, egy idegen
szakaszba ugrottam, ahol egy fiatal, magyar házaspár ült. A vonat
időközben megindult s mivel a kocsinak nem volt közlekedése a
többi kocsival, kénytelen-kelletlen ott maradtam s olvasgatni
kezdtem az állomáson vett olasz lapot. Ugy látszik, nem lehettem
valami szivesen látott vendég, mert a fiatal férj haragosan nézett
végig rajtam, majd igy szólott magyarul a feleségéhez:
– Ennek a bivalynak is éppen ide kellett beszállnia…
Mindig szerény ember voltam s igy most se tartottam
szükségesnek, hogy az inkognitómat leleplezzem, – hanem óvatosan
elrejtőztem a Corriere della Sera kibontott lepedője mögé.
Szeretetreméltó honfitársaim erre még egy ideig hasonló modorban
tárgyalták csekély személyemet, aztán – megunva ezt a témát –
áttértek a maguk tagadhatatlanul érdekesebb dolgaira; öt perc
mulva tudtam, hogy kétnapos házasok s hogy ő nagysága
gyönyörünek és édesnek találja a mézeshetek intézményét. Még sok
egyebet is megtudtam, még pedig olyan részletességgel, hogy
valósággal lángba borultam az ujságom mögött. A nászutasok isteni
fesztelenséggel csevegtek olyan intimitások felől, amelyekbe
harmadik embert még a világ teremtése óta se avatott bele jóizlésü
házaspár. Igy folyt a beszélgetés vagy másfél órán keresztül, amikor
a vonat megint egy nagyobb állomásra ért s utitársam, aki már azt
hitte, hogy lemaradtam valahol, izgatottan rontott be hozzám a
kupéba:
– Hát te itt vagy? – kiáltotta magyarul. – Már telegrafálni
akartam, hogy az esti vonattal visszautazom hozzád…
Hogy e szavakra mi történt, azt talán nem szükséges
elmondanom. Még ma is oda vagyok a csodálkozástól, hogy a
kétnapos menyecske ájulás nélkül esett tul ezen a borzalmas
meglepetésen.
Én ott, a nápolyi gyorsvonaton, szentül megfogadtam, hogy
ezután semmiféle nyelven se teszek megjegyzéseket olyan
emberekre, akikről nem tudom, hogy kicsodák. Szabadszáju
honfitársaimnak melegen ajánlom, hogy kövessék a példámat.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MINDENNAPI
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