Rac Mod 1

10/4/2021 1
Lecture 1
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10/4/2021 Lecture 1 3
Module 1
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Module– I
Air Refrigeration Cycles: Introduction, Units of Refrigeration, Coefficient of
performance of a refrigerator, Open air refrigeration cycle, Closed or Dense air
Refrigeration cycle. Air Refrigerator Working on Reversed Carnot cycle. Air
Refrigerator working on Bell Coleman cycle.
Vapour Compression Refrigeration System: Analysis of Theoretical vapour
Compression cycle, Representation of the cycle on P-H, T-S and P-V diagrams, Simple
Saturation Cycle, Sub-cooled cycles and Superheated cycle. Effect of suction and
discharge pressure on performance. Actual Vapour compression Cycle.
Module– II
Compound Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle: Introduction, Methods
of improving C.O.P – Optimum Interstage Pressure for Two-Stages Refrigeration
System. Single load systems, Multi load systems with single Compressor, Multiple
Evaporator and Compressor systems. Dual Compression systems.
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Module– III
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems: Introduction, simple vapour
Absorption system. Practical Vapour Absorption System. Advantages of Vapour
Absorption sytem over vapour compression system. Coefficient of Performance of an
Ideal Vapour Absorption Ref. System. Electrolux (Ammonia-Hydrogen) Refrigerator,
Lithium Bromide Absorption Refrigeration System.
Module– IV
Refrigerants: Introduction, Desirable properties of an Ideal Refrigerant. Classification
of Refrigerants, Designation System of Refrigerants, Properties of Refrigerants, Uses of
Important Refrigerants, Secondary Refrigerants – Brine
Module–V (8 Hours)
Psychrometry and Psychrometric properties, psychrometric Relations, Psychrometric
chart, Psychrometric processes. Adiabatic mixing of two air streams. Requirements of
Comfort Air-Conditioning : Requirements of comfort Air-Conditioning, Thermodynamics
of Human Body, The body defence, Effect of heat on work performance, Comfort and
Comfort chart, Effective Temperature.
Air Conditioning Systems: Process in Air-Conditioning, Summer, Winter and Year
Round Air Conditioning,Cooling Load Calculations, Design of Air-Conditioning Systems
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What is Refrigeration ?
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❑The term ‘refrigeration’ may be defined as the process of
removing heat from a substance under controlled conditions.
In other words, the refrigeration means a continued
extraction of heat from a body whose temperature is already
below the temperature of its surroundings.
❑ System used for accomplishing the process of refrigeration
is called refrigeration system.
❑ The region which is maintained at a temperature lower than
its surroundings is called “refrigerated space”.
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❑When refrigerant absorbs the unwanted heat, this raises the
refrigerant’s temperature (“Saturation Temperature”) so
that it changes from a liquid to a gas, basically, it evaporates.
The system then uses condensation to release the heat and
change the refrigerant back into a liquid. This is called
“Latent Heat”.
❑“All refrigeration processes involve cooling, but all cooling
processes need not involve refrigeration”
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Refrigeration - Elements
High Temp
Surrounding Air
Source
QH
Condenser QH
Wnet, in Wnet, in
Expansion
Valve
Compressor
Evaporator QL
QL
Low Temp
Refrigerated Space
Sink
NB: Refrigeration
and air
conditioning is
used to cool
products or a
building
environment.
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 11
Household Refrigerator
In a household refrigerator, the tubes
in the freezer compartment where
heat is absorbed by the refrigerant
serves as the evaporator. The coils
behind the refrigerator, where heat is
dissipated to the kitchen air, serve as
the condenser
Working of a household refrigerator
• It consists of a refrigeration system containing compressor, condenser, capillary
tube, evaporator and an insulated cabinet
• Compressor + Motor is placed at the base of the cabinet
• Air cooled condenser is installed at the back and the evaporator is placed inside
the cabinet at the top
• The evaporator coil is kept surrounding the freezer space. Freezer space is meant
for preservation of perishable products at temperatures below 0⁰C. Further below
are compartments with progressively higher temperatures

Refrigeration Circuit
Evaporator
Compressor
Refrigeration Circuit
Expansion Condenser
Valve
Applications of Refrigeration System
❑ Preservation and transportation of food products
❑ Preserving life saving drugs, vaccines,…etc
❑ Used for air conditioning purpose
❑ Used in medical fields
❑ Used for making ice products
❑ Used for the efficient operation of computers and other work stations
❑ Liquefy processing gas
❑ Separation of vapours by distillation
❑ Freeze drying (Lyophilization)

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1. Ice making.
2. Transportation of food items above and below
freezing.
2. Industrial Air – Conditioning.
4. Comfort Air – Conditioning.
5. Chemical and related industries.
6. Medical and Surgical instruments.
Applications : 7. Processing food products and beverages.
8. Oil Refining.
9. Synthetic Rubber Manufacturing.
10. Manufacture and treatment of metals.
11. Freezing food products.
12. Manufacturing Solid Carbon Dioxide.
13. Production of extremely low temperatures (Cryogenics)
14. Plumbing.
15. Building Construction.
ICE PLANTS AIR CONDITIONER
REFRIGERATOR
WATER COOLER
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COLD STORAGES MARINE REFRIGERATORS
SHOPPING MALL
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Refrigeration Systems
1. Ice Refrigeration System.
2. Air Refrigeration System.
2. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System.
4. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System.

Refrigeration Systems :
5. Adsorption Refrigeration System.
6. Cascade Refrigeration System.
7. Mixed Refrigeration System.
8. Thermoelectric Refrigeration System.
9. Steam Jet Refrigeration System.
10. Vortex Tube Refrigeration System.

Refrigerating Effect:
❑ It is the amount of heat energy removed per unit time from the
space to be cooled by the refrigeration process.
Tons of Refrigeration:
• The capacity of a refrigerating machine is generally expressed
in tons of refrigeration(TR)
• A ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of refrigeration
effect produced by the uniform melting of one ton (1000kg) of ice
from and at 0∘C in 24 hours.
• One ton of refrigeration(1TR) is equivalent to 210KJ/min or 3.5KW
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UNIT OF REFRIGERATION AND COP:
The standard unit of refrigeration is ton of refrigeration or simply ton denoted

by TR. It is defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform
melting of one tonne(1000 kg) of ice from and at 0ºC in 24 hours.
Since latent heat of ice is 335kJ/kg, therefore one tone of refrigeration, 1
TR= 1000335 kJ in 24 hours.
=
In actual practice one tone of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to 210kJ/min
or 3.5kW (i.e 3.5kJ/s).
Significance of COP:
COP represents running cost of the system, greater the COP lesser is the running
cost. Therefore, systems with higher COP are desired.
Note:
COP can be greater than 1, equal to 1 or less than 1.
→ For Window air conditioning, COP ≃ 3.
→ For Domestic refrigeration, COP ≃ 1.
→ Vapour refrigeration system, COP <1.
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 22
• The transfer of heat from a low-
temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators
• The objective of a refrigerator is

to maintain the refrigerated space
at a low temperature by
removing heat from it
• Refrigerators, like heat engines,

are cyclic devices. The working
fluid used in the refrigeration
cycle is called a refrigerant
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• QL is the magnitude of the heat removed from the refrigerated
space at temperature TL , QH is the magnitude of the heat
rejected to the warm space at temperature TH , and Wnet is the
net work input to the refrigerator
• The performance of refrigerators are expressed in terms of the

coefficient of performance (COP), defined as
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 24
Performance - COP
Performance of Refrigeration System :
- Measured in terms of COP (Coefficient of Performance).
COP – Ratio of Heat absorbed by the Refrigerant while passing through the Evaporator
to the Work Input required to compress the Refrigerant in the Compressor.
If; Rn = Net Refrigerating Effect. W = Work required by the machine.

Rn
Then; COP =
W
Actual COP
Relative COP =
Theoretical COP
Actual COP = Ratio of Rn and W actually measured.
Theoretical COP = Ratio of Theoretical values of Rn and W obtained by applying
Laws of Thermodynamics to the Refrigerating Cycle.
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Performance - Rating
Rating of Refrigeration System :
- Refrigeration Effect / Amount of Heat extracted from a body in a
given time.
Definition :
- Refrigeration Effect produced by melting 1 tonne of ice from and
at 0 ºC in 24 hours.
Unit :
- Standard commercial Tonne of Refrigeration / TR Capacity
Latent Heat of ice = 336 kJ/kg.
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Difference between Refrigerator and Heat pumps
1. Transfer of heat: Both the refrigerator and the heat pumps carry the heat from low
temperature reservoir or the sink to the high temperature reservoir or source. The
main purpose of the refrigerator is to chill or cool or freeze the substance, by
maintaining very low temperature in the freezer. It absorbs the heat from the freezer
or evaporator and deliver it to the atmosphere which is at high temperature. The
main purpose of the heat pump is to heat the room during winter seasons or
when the atmospheric temperature is very low. It absorbs the heat from the
atmosphere which is at low temperature and delivers it to the room which is at high
temperature and which is to be heated.
2. Location of the evaporator: In the refrigerator the evaporator is located in the

freezer section. The evaporator absorbs the
heat from the substance, which is to be cooled. In the heat pump the evaporator is
located outside the room which is to be heated. The evaporator absorbs the heat
from the atmosphere.
3. Location of the condenser: In the refrigerator the condenser is located
outside the refrigerator and it is exposed to the atmosphere. It is through
the condenser that the heat is rejected to the atmosphere. In the heat
pump the condenser is located inside the room and it acts as the heating
device.
4. Working of evaporator and condenser: In the refrigerator the evaporator

performs the main function of chilling or freezing, while the condenser
performs the function of delivering the heat to the atmosphere. In the
heat pump, it is the condenser
that performs the main function of heating the room, while the evaporator
performs the function of absorbing the heat from the atmosphere.
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Difference between a Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump:
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Heat engine: the heat is supplied to the engine is converted into useful
work. If Q2 heat supplied to the engine and Q1 is heat rejected from the
engine, then net work done is
The performance of a heat engine is expressed by its efficiency.
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• A refrigerator is a reversed heat engine which either cool or maintain the
temperature of a body (T1) lower than atmospheric temperature (Ta). This is done
by extracting heat (Q1) from a cold body and delivering it to a hot
body (Q2). In doing so, work WR is required to be done on the system.
• The performance of a refrigerator is expressed by the ratio of amount of heat taken

from the cold body (Q1) to the amount of work required to be done on the system .
• A refrigerator used for cooling in summer can be used as a heat pump for heating in
winter. There is no difference between a heat pump and a refrigerator in the case of
its cycle of operation.
• The main difference between the heat pump and refrigerator is its operating
temperatures.
• The working temperatures of a refrigerator are cold body temperature T1 and
atmospheric temperature Ta. Where as in the case of a heat pump, the working
temperatures are atmospheric temperature Ta and hot body temperature T2.
Wp = Q2 – Q1
• The performance of a heat pump is expressed by the ratio of the amount of the heat
delivered to the hot body (Q2) to the amount of work required to be done on the
system (Wp).
• This ratio is called coeffi cient of performance or energy performance

ratio (E.P.R.) of a heat pump. Mathematically, coefficient of performance or energy
performance ratio of a heat pump,
• We see that the C.O.P. may be less than one or greater than one depending on the
type of refrigeration system used. But the C.O.P. of a heat pump is always
greater than one.
Refrigeration Capacity (RC)
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑅𝐸
RE is expressed in kJ/kg and RC is expressed in kJ/sec or kW.
Power input to compressor
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑤𝑖𝑛
𝑚 → 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑅𝐶 𝑚̇ × 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = = =
𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑚̇ × 𝑤𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Energy Efficient ratio (EER)
While calculating COP, work input to compressor is taken into account.
𝑅𝐸
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑤𝑖𝑛
EER is the ratio if refrigeration effect to work input to motor.
𝐸𝐸𝑅 = 𝑅𝐸
𝑤𝑖 𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟)
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑛,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ) = =
𝑃𝑚 𝑜 𝑡 𝑜 𝑟 𝑤𝑖 𝑛 ,𝑚 𝑜 𝑡 𝑜
Q.2 A machine working on a Carnot cycle operates between 305 K and 260 K.
Determine the COP when it is operated as 1. a refrigerating machine, 2. a heat pump and 3.
a heat engine.
Ans. (COP)R = 5.7, (COP)HP = 6.78, (COP)HE = 0.147
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Air Refrigeration System
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Air refrigeration cycle systems
• Systems in which air is used as the working fluid.
• The gas does not undergo any phase change during the cycle.
• During operation air is able to take sensible heat only.
• It doesn't absorb or reject latent heat because it doesn't change its phase.
• Power required to operate the unit will be higher and hence C.O.P will decrease
• Obsolete nowadays
• Find applications in aircraft cabin cooling and also in the liquefaction of various
gases.
• The aircraft engine already consists of a high speed turbo-compressor, hence separate
compressor for cooling
system is not required. This reduces the weight of equipment per kW cooling
considerably less than 50% of an equivalent vapor compression equipment weight.
• Air cycle refrigeration system analysis assumptions:
✓ The working fluid is a fixed mass of air that behaves as an ideal gas
✓ All the processes within the cycle are reversible, i.e., the cycle is
internally reversible
✓ The specific heat of air remains constant throughout the cycle
Assumptions:
i. The working fluid is a fixed mass of air that behaves as an ideal gas
ii. The cycle is assumed to be a closed loop cycle with all inlet and
exhaust processes of open loop cycles being replaced by heat transfer
processes to or from the environment.
iii. All the processes within the cycle are reversible, i.e., the cycle is
internally-reversible
iv. The specific heat of air remains constant throughout the cycle
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 40
Temperature of an Ideal gas can be reduced by:
❖ The temperature of an ideal gas can be reduced either by making

the gas to do work in an isentropic process or by sensible heat
exchange with a cooler environment.
❖ When the gas does adiabatic work its internal energy drops in a
closed system and enthalpy drops in an open system.
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Air Refrigeration System
One of the earliest method.
Obsolete due to low COP and high operating cost.
Preferred in Aircraft Refrigeration due to its low weight.
Characteristic :
- Throughout the cycle, Refrigerant remains in gaseous state.
Air Refrigeration
Closed System Open System
• Air refrigerant contained within • Refrigerator space is actual room to be cooled.

piping or components of system. • Air expansion to atm. Pr. And then
• Pressures above atm. Pr. compressed to cooler pressure.
• Pressures limited to near atm. Pr. levels..
1. Open air refrigeration cycle
• Elements are , compressor, cooler or heat exchanger , expander, and

evaporator.
• Air directly passed over the refrigerated space to be cooled (cooled air from the
expander enters the cabin and comes in contact with the occupants).
• Heat absorbed by the air is cooled by circulating it in a cooler after passing

through the compressor and the
cycle will be repeated.

Disadvantages :
• Large size of components : Since air is supplied to the refrigerated space at

atmosphere pressure, volume of air handled by the compressor, cooler and
expander is very large.
• Clogging pipelines and choke valves: Possibility of moisture to be carried

away with air and forms frost at the end of expansion process.
• Thus in an open cycle system, a drier should be used.
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2. Closed or dense air refrigeration cycle.
• Circulated air doesn't have contact with refrigerated space. ( no direct contact
between the working fluid and the product being cooled ).
• Air is always passed through pipes of various components of the system at all times.
• Cooled air from expander passes through the coil and a fan circulates and
recirculates cabin air over it.
• It is the closed air refrigeration cycle which is employed in actual practice.
Advantages
•Since it can work at a suction pressure higher than that of atmospheric pressure so,
volume of air handled by compressor and expander are smaller.
•Operating pressure ratio or compression ratio can be reduced, thus reducing work
input which results in higher C.O.P
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 46
Closed System Vs. Open System :
1. Suction to compressor in Closed System may be at high
pressures. Hence, the size of Expander and Compressor can be
kept small.
2. In Open Systems, air picks up the moisture from refrigeration chamber.
This moisture freezes and chokes the valves.
3. Expansion in Open System is limited to atm. Pressure Level only.
No such restriction to Closed System.
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Air Refrigerator working on Reversed Carnot Engine:
• Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle that consists of two reversible
isothermal and two isentropic processes.
• It has the maximum thermal efficiency for given temperature limits, and it serves
as a standard against which actual power cycles can be compared.
• Since it is a reversible cycle, all four processes that comprise the Carnot cycle can be
reversed. Reversing the
cycle does also reverse the directions of any heat and work interactions.
• The result is a cycle that operates in the counterclockwise direction on a T-s

diagram, which is called the
Reversed Carnot Cycle.
• A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator or a
Carnot Heat Pump.

• A reversed Carnot cycle, using air as the working medium is shown on p-v and T-s
diagrams in (a) and (b)
respectively.
• At point 1, let p 1, v1, T1 be the pressure, specific volume and temperature of air
respectively. The four processes of the cycle are as follows:
Reverse Carnot Cycle
P –V Diagram
T –S Diagram
Isotherms
3 2
Pressure
3 T1 T2
2
Temperature
Adiabatic Expansion Compression
Expansion
T1 4 1
Compression
4
T2 1
3’ 2’
Volume Entropy
P –V Diagram T –s Diagram
Operation :
1 – 2 : Adiabatic Compression.
T2
3 2 Requires external power.
Temperature
Temp. rises from T1 to T2.

Expansion Compression Cylinder in contact with Hot Body at T2
2 – 3 : Isothermal Compression.
T1 4 1
Heat Rejection to Hot Body.
3 – 4 : Adiabatic Expansion.
3’ 2’ Temp. falls from T2 to T1.
Entropy Cylinder in contact with Cold Body at T1.

4 – 1 : Isothermal Expansion.
Heat Extraction from Cold Body.
Heat extracted from cold Body : Area 1-1’-4’-4

= T1 X 1-4
Work done per cycle : Area 1-2-3-4
T2
3 2
= (T2 – T1) X 1-4
Temperature
Heat Extracted
Expansion Compression COP =
Work Done
4 1 Area 1−1'−4'−4
T1
=
Area 1− 2− 3− 4
T1 X (1− 4)
3’ 2’ =
(T2 − T1 ) X (1− 4)
Entropy
T1
=
T2 − T1
1. Isentropic Compression Process (1-2)
The air is compressed isentropically as shown by the curve 1-2 on p-v and T-s
diagrams. During this process, the
pressure of air increases from p 1 to p2, specific volume decreases from v1 to v2 and
temperature increases from T1
to T2. We know that during isentropic compression, no heat is absorbed or rejected by

the air.
2. Isothermal Heat rejection Process (2-3)
The heat is rejected isothermally (i.e. at constant temperature, T2 = T3 ) as shown by
the curve 2-3 on p-v and T-s
diagrams. During this process, the pressure of air increases from p 2 to p 3 and specific
volume decreases from v2 to v3. We know that the heat rejected by the air during
isothermal process per kg of air,
QR = Q2-3 = Area 2-3-3’-2’ = T3 (s2 – s3) = T2 (s2 – s3)

3. Isentropic Expansion Process (3-4)
The air is now expanded isentropically as shown by the curve 3-4 on p-v and T-s
diagrams. The pressure of air
decreases from p3 to p4, specific volume increases from v3 to v4 and temperature
decreases from T 3 to T4. We know that during isentropic expansion, no heat is absorbed
or rejected by the air.
4. Isothermal Heat Absorption Process (4-1)
The heat is absorbed isothermally (i.e. at constant temperature, T4 = T1) as shown by the
curve 4-1 on p-v and T-s
diagrams. During this process, the pressure of air decreases from p 4 to p 1 and specific
volume increases from v 4 to v 1. We know that the heat absorbed by the air during
isothermal pressure per kg of air,
QA= Q4-1 = Area 4-1-2’-3’ = T4 (s1 – s4) = T4 (s2 – s3) = T1 (s2 – s3)
We know that work done during the cycle per kg of air = Heat
rejected – Heat absorbed
W R = Q 2-3 – Q 4-1 = T2 (s2 – s3) – T1 (s2 – s3)
Therefore, coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system working
on reversed Carnot cycle,
C.O.P
Coefficient of performance of the heat pump system working on
reversed Carnot cycle,
Temperature Limitations for Reversed Carnot Cycle
Where The C.O.P. of the reversed Carnot cycle can be
improved by T1 = Lower
(a) Decreasing the higher temperature (i.e. temperature temperature,

of hot body, T2) or T2 = Higher
tem perature.
(b) Increasing the lower temperature (i.e. temperature of
cold body, T1) .
• Higher temperature (T 2) is the temperature of cooling water or air available for rejection of heat
and the lower temperature (T 1) is the temperature to be maintained in the refrigerator.
• If the temperature of cooling water or air (i.e. T2) available for heat rejection is low, the
C.O.P. will be high.
Since T 2 in winter is less than T2 in summer, therefore, C.O.P in winter will be higher
than C.O.P in summer.
• In other words, the Carnot refrigerator works more efficiently in winter than in
summer.
• If the lower temperature (T1) is high, the C.O.P. of the Carnot
refrigerator will be high.
• The lower the refrigeration temperature required, and the higher the
temperature of heat rejection to the surroundings, the larger is the
power consumption of the refrigerating machine. Also, the lower is the
refrigeration temperature required, the lower is the refrigerating
capacity obtained.
• Carnot refrigerator used for making ice at 00C will have less C.O.P
than a Carnot refrigerator used for air
conditioned plant in summer at 200C when the atmospheric

temperature is 400C.
• Carnot C.O.P of domestic refrigerator < Carnot C.O.P of domestic

air conditioner.
The Reversed Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for Vapor Refrigeration Cycles.
Why ?
1. Process 1-2: Involves the compression of a liquid – vapor mixture, which

requires a compressor that will handle two phases (It is easier to compress vapor
only and not liquid-vapor mixture in a compressor)
• Liquid droplets entering along with the vapor at the inlet of the compressor
causes excessive wear - Liquid refrigerant droplets may wash away the
lubricating oil from the walls of the compressor cylinders.
• Liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the cylinder and damage the
compressor valves and cylinder.
• The most commonly used refrigeration cycle is the vapor refrigeration cycle in
which a saturated vapor state is assumed at the end of the evaporation
process and a saturated liquid state is assumed at the end of the
condensation process.
2. Process 3-4: Adiabatic expansion of high moisture or liquid refrigerant in a
turbine.
• Isentropic expansion process of the Carnot cycle may be replaced by a
simple throttling process (Irreversible process) by the use of an expansion
device such as throttle valve or a capillary tube which substantiates the
necessary pressure drop from condenser pressure to the evaporator
pressure and maintains the required mass flow rate. It is difficult to design
an Expander/Turbine to handle a mixture of largely liquid and partly vapor.
3. Process 4-1 & 2-3: It is not possible to devise, in practice, isothermal processes of
heat absorption and rejection 4-1 and 2-3 with gas as the working substance.
These are impractical as these process have to be
executed very slowly for which significant heat transfer area is required.
So, reversed Carnot cycle cannot be approximated in actual devices and is not a
realistic model for refrigeration cycles. However, the reversed Carnot cycle
can serve as a standard against which actual refrigeration cycles are
compared.
Limitations of Carnot cycle with gas as a
refrigeration:
Carnot cycle is an idealization and it suffers from several practical limitations.
1. Extreme pressures and large volumes are developed since the pressure rise
takes place both during isentropic compression as well as isothermal heat
rejection processes.
2. Isothermal heat transfer processes with a gas are impossible to achieve in

practice
3. The p-v diagram of the cycle working with a gas is so narrow that even small
irreversibilities of the individual processes cause a significant increase in the
work done. This increase in work forms a large proportion of the net work of
the cycle.
Example 1
A Carnot Refrigerator requires 1.3 kW per tonne of refrigeration to maintain a region at low
temperature of -38 ºC. Determine:
ii)COP of Carnot Refrigerator.
iii)Higher temperature of the cycle.
iv)Heat delivered and COP, if the same device is used Heat Pump.
Heat absorbed 1 tonne 14,000 kJ / hr

COPrefrig = = = 2.99….ANS
= Work done 1.3 kW (1.3 kW ) (3600 sec/ hr)
T1 235 K
COPrefrig =  2.99 =  T1 = 313.6 K ….ANS
T2 −T1 T2 − 235 K
Heat Delivered as Heat Pump ;
= Heat absorbed + Work done
14,000 kJ / hr
= 1tonne + 1.3kW = + 1.3= 5.189 kJ / sec ….ANS
3600
Heat delivered 5.189 kJ / sec
COPHP = = = 3.99….ANS
Work done 1.3 kW
Example 2
A refrigerating system works on reverse Carnot cycle. The higher temperature in the system is
35 ºC and the lower temperature is -15 ºC. The capacity is to be 12 tonnes. Determine :
ii)COP of Carnot Refrigerator.
iii)Heat rejected from the system per hour.
iv)Power required.
T1 258 K
COPrefrig = = = 5.18 ….ANS
T2 − T1 308 K − 258
K
Re frig. Effect 12 tonne 12 X 14,000 kJ / hr
COPrefrig =  5.16 = =
Work Input Work Input Work Input
Work Input = 32558 kJ / hr
Heat Rejected / hr = Refrig. Effect / hr + Work Input / hr
= 12 x 14,000 (kJ/hr) + 32,558 (kJ/hr) = 2,00,558 kJ/hr. ….ANS
Power =
Work Input / hr 32558 kJ / hr
= = 9.04 kW ….ANS
3600 3600
Example 3
Ice is formed at 0 ºC from water at 20 ºC. The temperature of the brine is -8 ºC. Find out the kg
of ice per kWh. Assume that the system operates on reversed Carnot cycle. Take latent heat of
ice as 335 kJ/kg.
T1 265 K
COPrefrig = = = 9.46
T2 − T1 293 K − 265K
Heat to be extracted per kg of water ( to from ice at 0 ºC)
Rn = 1 (kg) x Cpw (kJ/kg.K) x (293– 273) (K) + Latent Heat (kJ/kg) of ice
= 1 (kg) x 4.18 (kJ/kg.K) x 20 (K) + 335 (kJ/kg)
= 418.6 kJ/kg.
Also, 1 kWh = 1 (kJ) x 3600 (sec/hr) = 3600 kJ.
Rn Re frig. Effect (kJ )

COPrefrig = =
W Work done (kJ )
m (kg) X 418.6 (kJ / kg)
 9.46 = ice  mice = 81.35kg….ANS
3600 kJ
Air Refrigeration System Working on Bell - Coleman Cycle Or Reversed Brayton Cycle or Joule
Cycle
OR
Elements of this system :
Cooling
Heat Exchanger
Water • Compressor.
Hot Air • Heat Exchanger.

Col d Air
• Expander.
Expander Compressor • Refrigerator.
Very Cold Air

Warm Air
Work gained from Expander is used
to drive Compressor.
Hence, less external work is required.

Refrigerator
Bell – Coleman / Reverse Bryaton Cycle
Heat Absorbed in Refrigerator :
Qadded = m CP (T1 − T4 )
Isobars Heat Rejected in Heat Exchanger :
2
Adiabatic
Qrejected = m CP (T2 − T3)
3
Temperature
If process changes from Adiabatic to Polytropic;

n
Compression
Qcomp = (P2 V2 − P1 V1 )
Expansion
1 n −1
4 n
Qexpn = (P3 V3 − P4 V4 )
n −1
Entropy We know,
  −1
R = CP  
  
Net Work Done :
W = Wcomp −Wexp n
n
= (P2 V2 − P1V1 − P3V3 + P4 V4 )
n −1
m R (T2 −T1 −T3 + T4 )
n
=
n −1
= n   −1 m CP (T4 −T3 +T2 − T1 )
n −1   
For Isentropic Process :
W = Wcomp −Wexp n
= m C P (T4 −T3 +T2 − T1 )
COP :
COP =
Work Added Q
= added
Qrejected − Qadded Wnet
m CP (T1 − T4 )
=
 n    −1 m C (T −T +T − T
   
 n −1    
P 4 3 2 1
)
(T1 −T4 )
COP =
 n    −1 (T −T +T − T
 
 n −1    
4 3 2 1
)
Air Refrigeration System Working on Bell - Coleman Cycle Or Reversed Brayton Cycle or Joule
Cycle
It is modification of
reversed Carnot cycle.
Earliest type of
refrigerator used in
ships carrying frozen
meat.
OR
Isobars
Isobars
2
Pressure
Adiabatic
2 3
Temperature
3
Adiabatic
Compression
Expansion
Expansion
Compression 1
1 4
4
Volume Entropy
P –V Diagram T –s Diagram
• It was the earliest types of refrigerators used in ships carrying frozen meat.
• It consists of compressor, a cooler, an expander, and a refrigerator
• The cold air in the cold chamber comes in contact with the chamber and the pressure
is also atmospheric. Thus this system of refrigeration is also called open air system
of refrigeration.
• The cycle is known as Reverse Brayton cycle or Joule cycle.

• Thus the same Bell Coleman refrigerator may be worked with closed air system.
The air may pass through the
coils and extract heat from cold chamber without coming directly contact. In
this system, suction to the compressor is at higher pressure than the
atmosphere. This system is called dense air system.
• Consider 1 kg of air from the cold storage chamber or refrigerator is drawn
into the compressor cylinder during suction stroke.
• Figure (a) and (b) shows p-V and T-s diagrams for a reversed
Brayton cycle. Here it is assumed that
(i) Absorption and rejection of heat are constant pressure

processes and
(ii) Compression and expansion are isentropic processes.
• At point 1, let p 1, v1, T1 be the pressure, specific volume and temperature of
air respectively. The four processes
of the cycle are as follows:
1.Isentropic Compression Process (1-2)
The cold air from the refrigerator is drawn into the compressor cylinder where it is
compressed isentropically as
shown by the curve 1-2 on p-v and T-s diagrams. During this process, the pressure
of air increases from p 1 to p2,
specific volume decreases from v1 to v2 and temperature increases from T1 to T2. We
know that during isentropic compression, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
2. Constant Pressure Heat Rejection Process (2-3)

The warm air from the compressor is now passed into the cooler where it reject heat at
constant pressure p 3 (= p2), reducing the temperature from T2 to T3 as shown by the
curve 2-3 on p-v and T-s diagrams. During this process,
specific volume decreases from v2 to v3. We know that the heat rejected by the air
during constant pressure per kg of air.
QR = Q 2-3 = cp ( T2 – T3 ) kJ/kg of air

3. Isentropic Expansion Process (3-4)
The air from the cooler is now drawn into the expander cylinder where it is expanded
isentropically as shown by the
curve 3-4 on p-v and T-s diagrams. The pressure of air decreases from p 3 to p 4
(refrigerator pressure), specific
volume increases from v3 to v4 and temperature decreases from T3 to T4. We know that
during isentropic expansion, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
4. Constant Pressure Heat Absorption Process (4-1)

The cold air from the expander is now passed to the refrigerator where it absorb heat at
constant pressure p 4 (= p1) as shown by the curve 4-1 on p-v and T-s diagrams.
During this process, the temperature of air increases from T4
to T1and specific volume changes from v4 to v1. We know that the heat absorbed by the
air during constant pressure per kg of air,
QA = Q 4-1 = cp ( T1-T4 ) kJ/kg of air

We know that work done during the cycle per kg of air = Heat rejected – Heat
absorbed
W = cp ( T2 – T3 ) – cp ( T1-T4 )
The compression and expansion process take place according to the lawPV !
= constant (Isentropic process)
….............(i)
….............(ii)
….............(iii)
….............(iv
)
Now substituting (iv) in
eq.(i), we get
Wher ….........
e, (v)
Sometimes, the compression and expansion process take place according to the law PVn =
constant (Polytropic process).
&
In such cases , the C.O.P is

obtained by
…........(vi)
C.O.P …........(vii)
In this case , the value of T2 and T4 are to obtained from the following relations
For isentropic compression or expansion , n = γ . Therefore, the equation (vii) may be

written as,
Merits and Demerits of Air refrigeration Bell Coleman cycle
Merits
1. Since air is non-flammable, There is no danger of fire or toxic effects due to leakage.
2. It is cheaper as air is easily available as compared to the other refrigerants.
3. It can work on both open and closed cycle system.

4. As compared to the other refrigeration systems the weight of air refrigeration system per
tonne of refrigeration is quite low, because of this reason this system is employed in
aircrafts.
Demerits
1. The C.O.P. of this system is very low in comparison to other systems.
2. The danger of frosting at the expander valves is more as the air taken into the
system
always contains moisture.

3. The weight of air required to be circulated is more compared with refrigerants used in
other systems. This is due to the fact that heat is carried by air in the form of sensible
heat.
Air Refrigeration Cycle - Merits / Demerits
Merits :
1. No risk of fire (as in case of NH3); as air is non – flammable.
2. Cheaper (than other systems); as air is easily available.

3. Weight per tonne of refrigeration is quite low (compared to other systems).
Demerits :
1. Low COP (compared with other systems).
2. Weight of air (as Refrigerant) is more (compared to other systems).

Air refrigeration system
Aircraft cooling systems – simple air cooling system.

• The advent of high-speed passenger aircraft, jet aircraft and missiles has
introduced the need for compact,
lightweight and simple refrigeration system. Air cycle refrigeration systems are
employed for air conditioning the cockpit and cabin space of an airplane.
• Even though the outside temperatures are very low at high altitudes, still cooling of
cabin is required due to:
✓ Large internal heat generation due to occupants, equipment etc.
✓ Heat generation due to skin friction (friction at the surface of a solid and a fluid in
relative motion) caused by the fast moving aircraft.
✓ At high altitudes, the outside pressure will be sub-atmospheric.
When air at this low pressure is compressed and supplied to the cabin at
pressures close to atmospheric, the temperature increases significantly.
For example, when outside air at a pressure of 0.2 bar and temperature
of 223K (at 10000 m altitude) is compressed to 1 bar, its temperature
increases to about 353K. If the cabin is maintained at 0.8 bar, the
temperature will be about 332K. This effect is called as ram effect. This
effect adds heat to the cabin, which needs to be taken out by the cooling
system.
✓ Solar radiation
COP of an air refrigeration cycle is very low, even then why air refrigeration system is
common in the aircrafts.
• Since air is non-flammable, therefore there is no risk of fire as in the machine using
NH 3 as the refrigerant.
• It is cheaper as air is easily available as compared to the other refrigerants.

• As compared to the other refrigeration systems the weight of air refrigeration
system per tonne of refrigeration is quite low, because of this reason this system is
employed in aircrafts.
(i)The working fluid (air) is free,

(ii) Environmentally friendly,
(iii) Safe and non-flammable
(iv)Nontoxic
(v) Air cycle equipment is extremely reliable

(vi) Reduces maintenance costs
(vii) Less system down-time
(viii)The performance of an air cycle unit does not deteriorate as much as
that of a vapor-compression unit when operating away from its design
point.
(ix)Very cold air (-1200C or even lower temperature) can be produced.
(x) Leakage of air is not a problem
(xi)Cold air can directly be used for cooling thus eliminating the low temperature heat
exchanger (open systems) leading to lower weight equipment.
(xii) The aircraft engine already consists of a high speed turbo-compressor,

hence separate compressor for
cooling system is not required. This reduces the weight of equipment per kW cooling
considerably less than 50% of an equivalent vapor compression equipment weight.
(xiii) Design of the complete system is much simpler due to low working pressures.
(xiv) It is non-corrosive, non decomposable and inert.
(xv) In the event of leakage, it does not have any undesirable effect on occupants or
products being cooled.
Example 4
A Bell – Coleman refrigerator operates between pressure limits of 1 bar and 8 bar. Air is drawn
from the cold chamber at 9 ºC, compressed and then cooled to 29 ºC before entering the
expansion cylinder. Expansion and compression follow the law PV1.35 = Const. Calculate the
theoretical COP.
For air, take γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.003 kJ/kg.
Polytropic Compression 1-2 :
n−1 1.35−1
302 K  P2  n  8 bar 
P2 T2 = T1   
1 bar 
= (282 K ) 1.35 = 482.2 K
= 8 bar 3 2  P1   
Pressure
PV1.35=C
Polytropic Expansion 3-4 :

n−1 1.35−1
P1
1  P3  n  8bar  1.35
= 1 bar T3 = T4    (302 K ) = T4  
4 282 K  P4   1 bar
 T4 =176.6 K 
Volume
Example 4….contd
Heat Extracted from Cold Chamber :
= CP (T1 − T4 ) = 1.003(kJ / kg) X (282 K −176.6 K ) = 105.7 kJ / kg
Heat Rejected to Heat Exchanger :
= CP (T2 − T3 ) = 1.003(kJ / kg) X (482.2 K − 302 K ) = 180.7 kJ / kg
Net Work Done :
n   −1
Wnet =   m C P (T4 −T3 + T2 − T1 )
n   
−1
1.35  1.4 −1 
Wnet =   (1.003 kJ / kg) (176.6 K − 302 K + 482.2 K − 282 K )
1.35 −1  1.4 
Wnet = 82.8 kJ / kg
Heat absorbed 105.7 kJ / kg
COPrefrig = = =1.27….ANS
Work done 82.8 kJ / kg
Example 5
An air refrigeration open system operating between 1 MPa and 100 kPa is required to produce a
cooling effect of 2000 kJ/min. temperature of the air leaving the cold chamber is -5 ºC, and at
leaving the cooler is 30 ºC. Neglect losses and clearance in the compressor and expander.
Determine :
ii)Mass of air circulated per min. ii) Compressor Work, Expander Work, Cycle Work.
iii)COP and Power in kW required.
Polytropic Expansion 3-4 :
 −1 1.4−1
P    1 MPa  1.4
P2 303 K
T3 = T4  3   (302 K ) = T 4  
3
= 1 MPa 2  P4   0.1 MPa 
 T4 = 156.9K
Pressure
PVγ=C
Refrig. Effect per kg :

P1
1 = CP (T1 − T4 )
= 100 kPa
4 268 K = 1.003(kJ / kg) X (268 K −156.9 K )
Volume = 111.66kJ / kg
Example 5….contd
Mass of air circulated per min :
Re frig. Effect 2000 kJ / min
= = = 17.91 kg / min….ANS
Re frig. Effect per kg 111.66 kJ / kg
 −1 1.4−1
 P2    1000 kPa  1.4
Polytropic Compression 1-2 : T2 = T1   = (268 K )   = 517.4 K
 P1   100 kPa  ….ANS
Compressor Work :
  
Wcomp =   m R (T2 − T1
  −1 
)
 1.4 
=
Wcomp   (17.91 kg / min) (0.287 kJ / kg) (517.4 K − 268 K )
 1.4 −1 
Wcomp = 4486.85 kJ / min ….ANS
Example 5….contd
Expander Work :
  
Wexp =   m R (T3 − T4 )
  −1 
 1.4 
=
Wcomp  (17.91 kg / min) (0.287 kJ / kg) (303K −156.9 K )
 1.4
 
Wcomp = 2628.42
−1 kJ / min….ANS
Cycle Work = Wcycle = Wcomp – Wexp
= 4486.85 kJ/min – 2628.42 kJ/min = 1858.43 kJ/min…ANS

Re frig. Effect = 2000 kJ / min =1.076 ….ANS
COPrefrig =
Work required 1858.43 kJ / min
Wcycle 1858.43 kJ / min

Power required : P= = = 30.97 kW….ANS
time 60 sec/
min
Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
1. Vapor Compression Refrigeration System - Simple Cycle.
2. Comparison With Carnot Cycle.
3. Theoretical And Actual Cycles- COP
4. Effect Of Operating Parameters on COP
5. Wet, Dry, Superheated Compression and Sub Cooling.
6. Actual Cycle Representation On T-s And P-h Diagrams- Simple Problems.
INTRODUCTION:
• A vapor compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration system in which a suitable
working substance, termed as refrigerant is used.
• Refrigerant readily condenses and evaporates at temperatures and pressures close to the atmospheric
conditions without leaving the refrigeration plant.
• During evaporation it absorbs heat from the cold body. This heat is used as its latent heat for converting it
from the liquid
to vapor. In condenser, it rejects heat to external body, thus creating a cooling effect in the working fluid.
• The principle upon which VCRS works apply to all the vapors for which, Tables of Thermodynamic properties
are available.
• The refrigerants usually used for this purpose are ammonia, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
• It is used for all industrial purposes from a small domestic refrigerator to a big air conditioning plant.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. It has smaller size for given capacity of 1. The initial cost is high
refrigeration.
2. The prevention of leakage of refrigerant is the
2. It has less running cost.
major problem in vapor compression system.
3. It can be employed over a large range of
temperatures.
4. The coefficient of performance is quite

high.
Comparison between gas cycles and vapor cycles
• Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized into gas cycles and vaporcycles.
• In a typical gas cycle, the working fluid (a gas or air ) does not undergo phase change.
• In gas cycles, heat rejection and heat absorption take place as the gas undergoes sensible
cooling and heating.
• In a vapor cycle the working fluid undergoes phase change and refrigeration effect is due to
the vaporization of liquid refrigerant.
• If the refrigerant is a pure substance then its temperature remains constant during the
phase change
processes. Hence, the required mass flow rates for a given refrigeration capacity will be much
smaller in VCRS compared to a gas cycle.
• Vapor cycles can be subdivided into vapor compression systems, vapor absorption systems,
vapor jet systems
etc.
• Among these the vapor compression refrigeration systems are predominant.
Simple Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
✓ Isentropic compression
✓ Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
✓ Throttling in an expansion valve
✓ Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator
Simple Vapor Compression Cycle
Saturation Line
2’
T3
3 2 Liquid Line
4 1 1’’
T1
4’’ 4 1’ 1
The cycle works between temperatures T1 and T3 representing the evaporator and condenser temperatures
respectively. The various process of the cycle A-B-C-D (A-B’-C’-D and A-B”-C”-D) are as given below:
If a substance exist entirely at saturation temperature, it is called Line 2-2’: The superheated vapor is cooled
saturated vapor. When the vapor is at a temperature greater than the in the condenser. First the superheat of
saturation temperature, it is said to superheated vapor. The pressure and
the gas will have to be removed to bring
down the temperature of the vapor to its
temperature of superheated vapor are independent properties, since the
saturation temperature corresponding to
temperature may increase while the pressure remains constant. its pressure before it can be condensed.
The removal of superheat, or de-
superheating is done in the topmost
portion of the condenser (The medium
used to cool the superheated steam does
not come into direct contact with it. A
cooler liquid or gas is employed as the
cooling medium)
The remainder of the condensing takes place

from 2’-3 where latent heat is removed.
Elements of this system :
• Compressor.
• Condenser.
• Expansion Valve.
• Evaporator.
Vapour @ ↓ Pr. and ↓ Temp. (State 1) Isentropic
Compression :
↑ Pr. and ↑ Temp. (State 2)
Condenser : ↑ Pr. Liquid (State 3) Throttling : ↓ Pr.
↓ Temp. (State 4)
Evaporator : Heat Extraction from surrounding;
↓ Pr. vapour (State 1).
Merits :
1. High COP; as very close to Reverse Carnot Cycle.
2. Running Cost is 1/5th of that of Air Refrigeration Cycle.
3. Size of Evaporator is small; for same Refrigeration Effect.
4. Evaporator temperature adjustment is simple; by adjusting Throttle Valve.
Demerits :
1. Initial cost is high.
2. Inflammability.
3. Leakage.
4. Toxicity.
Process 1-2
• Isentropic compression: From the evaporator, low-pressure and temperature saturated vapor refrigerant comes to the
compressor and is compressed into high pressure and temperature vapor. Work is done during isentropic compression.
Process 2-3
• Isobaric Heat rejection in condenser - The high pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant from the compressor is passed
through the condenser where it is completely condensed at constant pressure.
Process 3-4
• Isenthalpic expansion - The liquid refrigerant coming from the condenser is expanded by throttling process (irreversible
adiabatic expansion at constant enthalpy ) through the expansion valve to a low pressure and temperature liquid
refrigerant. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through expansion valve, but the greater portion is
vaporized in the evaporator. During the throttling process no heat is absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.
Process 4-1
• Isobaric heat extraction in evaporator - From the expansion valve, low pressure and temperature liquid refrigerant
enters in the evaporator where It absorbs heat at constant pressure from the surrounding medium, providing a cooling
effect. During evaporation, the liquid vapor refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from medium (air, water or
brine) which is to be cooled.

Comparison of Simple Vapor Compression Cycle with Carnot Cycle
i ) Refrigeration effect of the standardVCR cycle decreases.

i i ) Heat Rejection Increases.
i i i ) Net work input increases.
i v ) COP VCRS < COP Carnot
Comparison of Simple Vapor Compression Cycle with Carnot Cycle
For the same heat source and sink

temperature that means for the
same evaporator and condenser
2’’ temperatures compared to carnot
cycle.
• Refrigeration effect of the standard VCR
1 cycle decreases. (A2 )

1’
• Heat Rejection Increases.(A 1 )
• Net work input increases.
• COP VCRS < COP Carnot

VCRS cycle follows 1 – 2 – 2’ – 3 – 4 –
1
Carnot cycle follows 1- 2’’- 3 - 4’
• VCRS cycle follows 1 – 2 – 2’ – 3 – 4 –1 and Carnot cycle follows 1- 2’’- 3 - 4’
• Sometimes in VCRS, the compression process involves compression of wet refrigerant vapor at 1’ to dry
saturated vapor at 2’. It is called wet compression.
• With a reciprocating compressor , wet compression is not suitable due to
✓ Liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the cylinder and may damage the compressor valves
and the cylinder itself.
✓ Liquid droplets may wash away the lubricating oil from the walls of the cylinder and causes wear. So it
is desirable to have compression with vapor initially dry saturated or even slightly superheated. It is
called dry compression.
Comparison 1 - Refrigeration effect decreases
• In vapor compression cycle, there is a loss of refrigeration effect equivalent to area 4-4’-c-d due to increase in
entropy during the irreversible throttling expansion – known as throttlingloss.
• Throttling loss increases as evaporator temperature decreases and or the condenser temperature increases
and a practical consequence of this is a requirement of higher refrigerant mass flow rate for a given capacity.
Comparison 2 - Heat Rejection increases
• In vapor compression cycle, de-superheating between 2 and 2’ is at constant pressure rather than constant temperature (replacing
the isothermal heat rejection of the Carnot cycle by an isobaric heat rejection process).
• Therefore, more work has to be supplied to the compressor from state 2’’ to state 2 There is an equivalent amount of increase
in the magnitude of heat rejected.
• The heat rejection in case of Carnot cycle 1- 2’’- 3 - 4’ is given by: e - 2’’- 3 – c – e
• In case of VCRS cycle 1 – 2 – 2’ – 3 – 4 –1 , the heat rejection rate is given by: e – 2 – 3 – c – e

• Difference is Area 2’’- 2- 2’ generally known as ‘superheated horn’ (A 1), is due to replacement of isothermal heat rejection
process of Carnot cycle by isobaric heat rejection in case of VCRS.
Comparison 3 - Net work input increases
• Net work input of Carnot cycle is the area 1-2’’-3-4’ and for VCR cycle is the area 1-2-3-4’-c-d-4-1.
• We find the difference between the net work input of VCR cycle and Carnot cycle as the Area A1 + Area A2.
• As a result of this when you have moved away from the Carnot cycle you lost refrigeration effect and you also have to spend
more amount of a work input. So as a result the COP of the system decreases.
• The effect of all these deviations is to increase the compression work required or to decrease the refrigeration effect and
therefore the COP of the vapor compression cycle will be less than that of reversed Carnot cycle.
Throttling Versus Isentropic Expansion
• Refrigerating machines are usually much smaller devices compared to power plants.
• Thus the net work required by refrigeration systems is quite small compared to the work done in power generating plants.
• The positive work of the cycle, recovered during the isentropic expansion process, as shown by area 3-a-b-4’ is even
smaller as compared to the negative work of the cycle consumed during isentropic compression process, shown by area
1-2-a-b.
• The positive work of isentropic expansion is rarely large enough to justify the cost of an expander. On other hand the
thermodynamic and friction losses of an expander, if employed may even exceed the gain in work.
• Moreover there are difficulties in smoothly
expanding a liquid of a highly wet vapor in an
expander
What are the advantages of using an expansion valve instead of an expander/expansion cylinder in a
vapor compression refrigeration cycle ?
• If an expansion cylinder (Turbine - Isentropic expansion) is used in a vapor compression system, the
work
recovered would be extremely small, in fact not even sufficient to overcome the mechanical friction. It will not
be possible to gain any work. Further, the expansion cylinder is bulky, prone to wear and tear, maintenance
and also leakages of refrigerants which is notdesired.
• On the other hand the expansion valve (Throttling - Isenthalpic process) is a very simple and handy device,
much cheaper than the expansion cylinder. Itdoes not need installation, lubrication or maintenance.
• The expansion valve also controls the refrigerant flow rate according to the requirement, in addition to
serving the function of reducing the pressure of therefrigerant.
• In modern domestic refrigerator , a capillary is used in place of an expansion valve.
How pressure in expansion valve is reduced?

As fluid flow through capillary its velocity increase as per continuity equation (AV=constant).hence conversion of pressure energy into kinetic energy
takes place. This reduced pressure will produce flash evaporation and some part of refrigerant will evaporate by its own heat energy, this will
reduce its temperature.
Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)
✓ The vapor compression refrigeration cycle has four
components: evaporator, compressor, condenser, and
expansion (or throttle) valve.
✓ The most widely used refrigeration compression cycle
is the vapour refrigeration cycle.
✓ In an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle, the

refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is
cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser.
✓ It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes
astiabsorbsheatfromtherefrigeratedspace.
Mechanism of Simple vapor refrigeration system
Mechanism of Simple vapor refrigeration system
1. Compressor
• The low pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant from evaporator is drawn into the compressor through the inlet or suction
valve A, where it is compressed to a high pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant.
• This high pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant is discharged into the condenser through the delivery or discharge valve
B.
2. Condenser
• Condenser/cooler consists of coils of pipe in which the high pressure & temperature vapor refrigerant is cooled &
condensed.
• The refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, give up its latent heat to the surrounding condensing medium which is
normally air or water.
• Liquid refrigerant leaves from the condenser at high temperature and pressure.
3. Receiver
• The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a vessel known as receiver from where it is supplied to the
evaporator through the expansion valve or refrigerant control valve.

4. Expansion Valve
• It is also called throttle valve or refrigerant control valve
• The function of the expansion valve is to allow the liquid refrigerant under high pressure and temperature to pass at a
controlled rate after reducing its pressure and temperature.
• Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the expansion valve, but the greater portion is vaporized in
the evaporator at the low pressure and temperature.

5. Evaporator
• An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid refrigerant at low pressure and temperature is evaporated and
changed into vapor refrigerant at low pressure and temperature.

• In evaporating, the liquid vapor refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air, water or brine)
which is to be cooled.
There are two different refrigeration system, there are two pressure conditions.
• HP Side – discharge line (i.e., piping from delivery valve B to the condenser), condenser, receiver and expansion valve.
• LP Side – evaporator, piping from the expansion valve to the evaporator and suction line (i.e., piping from evaporator to
the suction valve A
Vapour Compression System : P-h Diagram
Isothermal,
T = Const
Superheated
region
Sub-cooled
Liq. region
Pressure, Pr
2 – phase
region
Isenthalpic,
h = Const.
Isobaric, P
= Const
Enthalpy, h
P - h diagram
• The condition of the refrigerant in any
thermodynamic state can be represented as a
point on the p-h chart.

• The chart is dividing into three areas that are
separated from each other by the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor lines.

• The region on the chart to the left of the
saturated liquid line is called the sub-cooled
region. At any point in the sub-cooled region

the refrigerant is in the liquid phase and its
temperature is below the saturation
temperature corresponding to its pressure.

• The area to the right of the saturated vapor line
is superheated region and the refrigerant is in
the form of a superheated vapor.

Vapour Compression System : P-h Diagram
Pressure, Pr
Condensation 2
3
Compression
Evaporation
4 1
Enthalpy, h

Rn = h1 − h4 W Rn h1 − h4
COP = =
= h2 − h1 W h2 − h1
• The section of the chart between the saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines is the two phase region and represents the
change in phase of the refrigerant between liquid and vapor phases. At any point between two saturation lines the
refrigerant is in the form of a liquid vapor mixture.

• The distance between the two lines along any constant pressure line, as read on the enthalpy scale at the bottom of the chart,
is the latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant at that pressure.
• The horizontal lines extending across the chart are lines of ‘constant pressure’ and the vertical lines are lines of constant
enthalpy.
• The lines of ‘constant temperature’ in the sub-cooled region are almost vertical on the chart and parallel to the lines of
constant enthalpy. In the center section, since the refrigerant changes state at a constant temperature and pressure, the lines
of constant temperature are parallel to and coincide with the lines of constant pressure.
• At the saturated vapor line the lines of constant temperature change direction again and, in the superheated vapor region,
fall of sharply toward the bottom of the chart.

• The straight lines which extend diagonally and almost vertically across the superheated vapor region are lines of constant
entropy.
• p-h chart gives directly the changes in enthalpy and pressure during a process for thermodynamic analysis.
Method Of Improving Vapor Compression
Cycles
Types of vapor compression cycles
1. Cycle with dry saturated vapor after compression.
2. Cycle with superheated vapor after compression.
3. Cycle with undercooling or sub cooling of refrigerant
4. Cycle with superheated vapor before compression

5. Cycle with wet vapor after compression.
1. Theoretical Vapor Compression Cycle with Dry Saturated Vapor after Compression
• A vapor compression cycle with dry saturated vapor

after compression is shown on T-s diagrams in Figures
(a) and (b) respectively.

• At point 1, let T1 , p1 and s1 be the temperature,
pressure and entropy of the vapor refrigerant
respectively.
• The four processes of the cycle are as follows :

1. Compression Process
• The vapor refrigerant at low pressure p1 and temperature T1 is compressed isentropically to dry saturated vapor as shown
by the vertical line 1-2 on the T-s diagram and by the curve 1-2 on p-h diagram.
• The pressure and temperature rise from p1 to p2 and T1 to T2 respectively.

• The work done during isentropic compression per kg of refrigerant is given by W = h2 – h1
• Where h 1 = Enthalpy of vapor refrigerant at temperature T1 , i.e. at suction of the compressor, and h2 = Enthalpy of the vapor
refrigerant at temperature T2. i.e. at discharge of the compressor.

2. Condensing Process
• The high pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant from the compressor is passed through the condenser where it is
completely condensed at constant pressure p2 and temperature T2 as shown by the horizontal line 2-3 on T-s and p-h
diagrams.
• The vapor refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant. The refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, gives its latent
heat to the surrounding condensing medium.

3. Expansion Process
• The liquid refrigerant at pressure p3 = p2 and temperature T3 = T2, is expanded by throttling process through the expansion
valve to a low pressure p4 = p1 and Temperature T4 = T1 as shown by the curve 3-4 on T-s diagram and by the vertical line 3-4 on
p-h diagram.
the evaporator.
• We know that during the throttling process (Isenthalpic), no heat is absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.
4. Vaporizing Process
• The liquid-vapor mixture of the refrigerant at pressure p4 = p1 and temperature T4 = T1 is evaporated and changed into vapor
refrigerant at constant pressure and temperature, as shown by the horizontal line 4-1 on T-s and p-h diagrams.
• During evaporation, the liquid-vapor refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air, water or brine)
which, is to be cooled,
• This heat which is absorbed by the refrigerant is called refrigerating effect and it is briefly written as RE. The process of
vaporization continues up to point 1 which is the starting point and thus the cycle is completed.
• We know that the refrigerating effect or the heat absorbed or extracted by the liquid-vapor refrigerant during evaporation
per kg of refrigerant is given by
RE = h1 – h4 = h1 – hf3
Where hf3 = Sensible heat at temperature T3, i.e. enthalpy of liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser.
• It may be noticed from the cycle that the liquid-vapor refrigerant has extracted heat during evaporation and the work will
be done by the compressor for isentropic compression of the high pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant.
• Coefficient of performance, C.O.P. = (Refrigerating effect)/( Work done)
Ratio of C.O.P of VCR cycle to the C.O.P of Carnot cycle is called refrigeration efficiency or performance index
OR
Dry and Saturated Vapour after Compression :
Work done by Compressor

= W = Area 1-2-3-4-1
Compressor Work, (W)
Heat Absorbed
T2 3 Condensation 2
Temperature, T
= W = Area 1-4-g-f-1
Sat. Vapour Line
Heat Absorbed
Expansion Compression
COP =
Work Done
T1 1
4 Evaporation Area 1− 4 −g − f −1
Net Refrig. Effect, =
(R )n Area 1− 2 − 3 − 4 −1
g f
h1 − h4
Sat. Liq. Line =
Entropy, s h2 − h1
Example-1
In an ammonia vapour compression system, the pressure in the evaporator is 2 bar.
Ammonia at exit is 0.85 dry and at entry its dryness fraction is 0.19. During compression, the
work done per kg of ammonia is 150 kJ. Calculate the C.O.P. and the volume of vapour
entering the compressor per minute, if the rate of ammonia circulation is 4.5 kg/min. The
latent heat and specific volume at 2 bar are 1325 kJ/kg and 0.58 m3/kg respectively.
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 121

Solution
Given: p1=p4=2bar; x1=0.85; x4=0.19; w=150kJ/kg; ma=4.5kg/min; hfg=1325kJ/hg; vg=0.58 m3/kg
C.O.P.
Since the ammonia vapour at entry to the evaporator (i.e. at point 4) has dryness fraction (x4) equal
to 0.19, therefore enthalpy at point 4,
h4=x4×hfg=0.19×1325=251.75kJ/kg
Similarly, enthalpy of ammonia vapour at exit i.e. at point 1,
h1=x1×hfg=1126.25kJ/kg
Therefore heat extracted from the evaporator or refrigerating effect,
RE=h1−h4=1126.25−251.75=874.5kJ/kg
We know that work done during compression,
W=150 kJ/kg
Therefore
C.O.P=RE / w=874.5 / 150=5.83 (Ans)

Volume of vapour entering the compressor per minute
We know that volume of vapour entering the compressor per minute
= Mass of refrigerant/ min × Specific volume
10/4/2021
=ma×vg=4.5×0.58=2.61m3/minLecture
(Ans) 1 122
Example-2
The temperature limits of an ammonia refrigerating system are 25° C and -10° C. If the gas
is dry at the end of compression, calculate the coefficient of performance of the cycle
assuming no undercooling of the liquid ammonia. Use the following table for properties
of ammonia:
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 123

Solution
Given: T2=T3=25°C=25+273=298k; T1=T4=−10°C=263K; hf3=h4=298.9kJ/kg; hfg2=1166.94kJ/kg; sf2=1.1242kJ/kgK;
hf1=135.37kJ/kg; hfg1=1297.68kJ/kg; sf1=0.5443kJ/kgK
The T-s and p-h diagrams are shown in (a) and (b) respectively.
Let x1= Dryness fraction at point 1.
We know that entropy at point 1,
s1=sf1+x1hfg1 / T1=0.5443+x1×1297.68263 / 263
=0.5443+4.934x1.........................................................(i)
Similarly, entropy at point 2,
s2=sf2+x1hfg2 / T2
=1.1242+1166.94 / 298=5.04…………………………...(ii)
Since the entropy at point 1 is equal to entropy at point 2, therefore equating equations (i) and (ii),
We know that enthalpy at point 1,
h1=hf1+x1hfg1=135.37+0.91×1297.68=1316.26kJ/kg
and enthalpy at point 2,
h2=hf2+hfg2=298.9+1166.94=1465.84kJ/kg
Therefore coefficient of performance of the cycle
=(h1−hf3) / (h2−h1)=(1316.26−298.9) / (1465.84−1316.26)=6.8 (Ans)
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 124
Example-3
A vapour compression refrigerator works between the pressure limits of 60 bar and
25 bar. The working fluid is just dry at the end of compression and there is no
under-cooling of the liquid before the expansion valve. Determine :
1. C.O.P. of the cycle ;and
2. Capacity of the refrigerator if the fluid flow is at the rate of 5 kg/min
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 125

2. Theoritical Vapor Compression Cycle with superheated vapor after compression
Superheated refrigerant is gas that is at a

temperature ie; higher than saturaI on
temperature. Saturated vapour is on the

point of condensing, superheated vapor is
too hot to condense without a finite
temperature drop/pressure increase.
Superheated temperature is
• Contains more energy so higher is the
work it can do.
Cooling Superheated vapor take place in two stages: • Higher specific entropy
• 1st it will be condensed to dry saturated stage at constant pressure (2-2’) and, • Has a greater specific volume than
• 2nd it will be condensed at constant temperature (2’-3).
saturated gas.
1. Compression Process
• The vapor refrigerant at low pressure p1 and temperature T1 is compressed isentropically to superheated vapor as shown
by the vertical line 1-2 on the T-s diagram and by the curve 1-2 on p-h diagram.
• The pressure and temperature rise from p1 to p2 and T1 to T2 respectively.

• The work done during isentropic compression per kg of refrigerant is given by W = h2 – h1
• Where h 1 = Enthalpy of vapor refrigerant at temperature T1 , i.e. at suction of the compressor, and h2 = Enthalpy of the vapor
refrigerant at temperature T2. i.e. at discharge of the compressor.

2. Condensing Process
• The high pressure and temperature super heated vapor refrigerant from the compressor is passed through the condenser.
• 2-2’ Vapor superheat removed in condenser: The vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the superheat
by cooling the vapor known as de-superheating process, i.e; it represents cooling of the superheated gas at constant
pressure or de-superheating process, so as to bring down temperature of refrigerant to the saturated vapor temperature.
• 2’-3 Vapor converted into liquid in condenser: The vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into
a saturated liquid, where it is completely condensed at constant pressure p3 and temperature T3 as shown by the
horizontal line 2’-3 on T-s and p-h diagrams. The vapor refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant. The refrigerant, while
passing through the condenser, gives its latent heat to the surrounding condensing medium.
3. Expansion Process
• The liquid refrigerant at pressure p3 = p2 and temperature T3 = T2’ is expanded by throttling process through the expansion
valve to a low pressure p4 = p1 and Temperature T4 = T1 as shown by the curve 3-4 on T-s diagram and by the vertical line 3-4 on
p-h diagram.
the evaporator.
• We know that during the throttling process (Isenthalpic), no heat is absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.
• Note: In case an expansion cylinder is used in place of expansion valve to expand the liquid refrigerant, then the refrigerant
will expand isentropically as shown by dotted vertical on T-s diagram.
4. Vaporizing Process
• The liquid-vapor mixture of the refrigerant at pressure p4 = p1 and temperature T4 = T1 is evaporated and changed into vapor
refrigerant at constant pressure and temperature, as shown by the horizontal line 4-1 on T-s and p-h diagrams.
• During evaporation, the liquid-vapor refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air, water or brine)
which, is to be cooled,
• This heat which is absorbed by the refrigerant is called refrigerating effect and it is briefly written as RE. The process of
vaporization continues up to point 1 which is the starting point and thus the cycle is completed.
• A little consideration shows that Superheating increases the refrigerating effect and the amount of work done in
compressor. Since increase in the refrigerating effect is less as compared to the increase in work done , so, net effect of
superheating is to have low C.O.P

• We know that the refrigerating effect or the heat absorbed or extracted by the liquid-vapor refrigerant during evaporation
per kg of refrigerant is given by
RE = h1 – h4 = h1 – hf3
Where hf3 = Sensible heat at temperature T3, i.e. enthalpy of liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser.
• It may be noticed from the cycle that the liquid-vapor refrigerant has extracted heat during evaporation and the work will
be done by the compressor for isentropic compression of the high pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant.

OR
Superheated Vapour after Compression :

= W = Area 1-2-2’-3-4-1
Compressor Work, (W)
2
Heat Absorbed
T2 3 Condensation 2’
Temperature, T
= W = Area 1-4-g-f-1
Sat. Vapour Line
Heat Absorbed
Expansion
COP =
Compression Work Done
T1 1 Area 1− 4− g − f −1
4 Evaporation
Net Refrig. Effect, (Rn) =
Area 1− 2 − 2'−3 − 4 −1
g f h−h
= 1 4
Sat. Liq. Line
NOTE : h2 = h2’ + Cp (Tsup – Tsat)
Example-4
A vapour compression refrigerator uses methyl chloride (R-40) and operates

between temperature limits of -10°C and 45°C. At entry to the compressor, the
refrigerant is dry saturated and after compression it acquires a temperature of
60°C. Find the C.O.P. of the refrigerator. The relevant properties of methyl
chloride are as follows
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 131

Solution Given : T1=T4T1=T4=-10° C = −10+273=263−10+273=263 K ;
T′2T2′ =T3=45T3=45° C = 45+273 = 318 K ;T2T2= 60° C = 60+273 = 333 K ; hf1hf1=45.4 kJ/kg ; hf3hf3=133
kJ/kg ; h1h1=460.7 ;
h′2=h2′=483.6 kJ/kg ; sf1sf1=0.183 kJ/kg K ; sf3sf3=0.485 kJ/kg K ;s1=s2=s1=s2=1.637 kJ/kg K
; s′2=s2′=1.587 kJ/kg K
Let cp=cp= Specific heat at constant pressure for superheated vapour.

We know that entropy at point 2,
s2=s′2+2.3cplogT2T′2s2=s2′+2.3cplogT2T2′
1.637=1.587+2.3cplog3383181.637=1.587+2.3cplog338318
1.637 =1.587+2.3cp×cp×0.02=1.587+0.046cpcp
Therefore cpcp=1.09
and enthalpy at point 2,
h2=h′2+cp×Degreeofsuperheath2=h2′+cp×Degreeofsuperheat =h′2+cp(T2−T′2)h2′+cp(T2−T2′)
=483.6+1.09(333−318)=500=483.6+1.09(333−318)=500 kJ/kg
Therefore
C.O.P. of refrigerator
=h1−hf3h2−h1=640.7−133500−460.7=3.77h1−hf3h2−h1=640.7−133500−460.7=3.77 (Ans)
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 132

Example-4
Find the theoretical C.O.P. for a CO2 machine working between the temperature range of
25°C and - 5°C. The dryness fraction of CO2 gas during the suction stroke is 0.6.
Following properties of CO2 are given
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 133

Solution
Given: T2=T3=25°C=25+273=298K; T1=T4=−5°C=−5+273=268K; x1=0.6; hf3=hf2=164.77kJ/kg;
hf1=hf4=72.57kJ/kg; sf2=0.5978kJ/kgK; sf1=0.2862kJ/kgK; h2 ′ =282.23kJ/kg; h1 ′ =321.33kJ/kg; s2 ′
=0.9918kJ/kgK; s1 ′ =1.2146kJ/kgK; hfg2=117.46kJ/kg; hfg1=248.76kJ/kg
The T-s and p-h diagrams are shown above.
First of all, let us find the dryness fraction at point 2, i.e. x2x2.
We know that the entropy at point 1,
s1=sf1+x1hfg1T1=0.2862+0.6×248.76268=0.8431s1=sf1+x1hfg1T1=0.2862+0.6×248.76268=0.8431 ......(i)
Similarly, entropy at point 2,
s2=sf2+x2hfg2T2=0.5978+x2×117.64298s2=sf2+x2hfg2T2=0.5978+x2×117.64298
=0.5978=0.3941x20.5978=0.3941x2 .....(ii)
………………………
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 134

Example 5
An ammonia refrigerating machine fitted with an expansion valve works between the temperature limits of-10°C and 30°C. The vapour is
95% dry at the end of isentropic compression and the fluid leaving the condenser is at 30°C. Assuming actual C.O.P. as 60% of the
theoretical, calculate the kilograms of ice produced per kW hour at 0°C from water at 10°C. Latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg. Ammonia has the
following properties
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 135

3. Theoritical Vapor Compression Cycle With Undercooling or Sub Cooling Of Refrigerant.
Refrigerant is superheated after compression and undercooled before throttling
• Undercooling/ Sub cooling : Refrigerant after condensation process 2’-3’, is cooled below saturated temperature T 3’
before expansion by throttling and is generally done along the liquid line.
• Effect of sub cooling is to increase the value of C.O.P.
• Process of undercooling is brought about by circulating more quantity of cooling water through the condenser or
sometimes using heat
exchanger.
• In actual practice the refrigerant is superheated after compression and undercooled before throttling.
• A little consideration will show that refrigerating effect is increased by adopting both the superheating and undercooling
process as compared to a cycle without them (shown by dotted lines (a))
• Also
4. Theoretical Vapor Compression Cycle With Superheated Vapor Before Compression
Heat is absorbed in two stages:

• 1st from point 4 to 1’ and
• 2nd from point 1’ to point 1.
• Evaporation starts at the point 4 continue up to point 1’, when it is dry saturated. The vapor is now superheated before
entering the compressor up to the point 1.
5. Theoretical Vapor Compression Cycle with wet vapor after compression
• The enthalpy at point 2 is found out with the help of dryness fraction at this point.
• The dryness fraction at points 1 and 2 may be obtained by equating entropies at point 1 and 2
• Remaining cycle is same as discussed in the last article

OR
Wet Vapour after Compression :

= W = Area 1-2-3-4-1
Compressor Work, (W) Heat Absorbed
T2 3 Condensation 2
Temperature, T
= W = Area 1-4-g-f-1
Sat. Vapour Line
Heat Absorbed
Expansion
COP =
Compression Work Done
T1 1 Area 1− 4 − g − f −1
4 Evaporation
Net Refrig. Effect, (Rn)
=
Area 1− 2− 3− 4−1
g f h1− h 4
=
Sat. Liq. Line
NOTE : h2 = (hf + x.hfg)2
Actual Vapor Compression Cycle
✓ Non-isentropic compression
✓ Superheated vapor at evaporator exit
✓ Sub-cooled liquid at condenser exit
✓ Pressure drops in condenser and evaporator
✓ Pressure drop in suction and discharge valves
Actual vapor compression cycle
The main deviations between theoretical and actual cycle

• The vapor refrigerant leaving the evaporator is in superheated state.
• The compression of refrigerant is neither isentropic nor polytropic.

• Both the compressor suction and discharge valves are actuated by pressure difference and this process requires
the actual suction pressure inside the compressor to be slightly below that of the evaporator and the
discharge pressure to be above that of condenser.
• Although isentropic compression assumes no transfer of

heat between the refrigerant and the cylinder
walls,
actually the cylinder walls are hotter than the incoming

gases from the evaporator and colder than the
compressed gases discharged to the condenser.
• The liquid refrigerant before entering the expansion valve
is sub cooled in the condenser.
• The pressure drops in the evaporator and condenser.

Process 1-2-3
• These processes show the flow of refrigerant inthe evaporator.
• Point 1 represent entry and point 3 represent exit of refrigerant from evaporator and also entry of the
refrigerant into compressor in a superheated state.
• The superheating of refrigerant (vapor) from 2-3 is dueto
a.Automatic control of expansion valve sothat refrigerant leaves the evaporator as the superheated vapor.
b.Picking up of large amount of heat from evaporator through pipes located within the cooled space. (The
liquid is vaporized at low temperature in evaporator, while the vapor is cold after the liquid has been totally evaporated. As
the cold vapor flows though the evaporator, it continues to absorb heat, and becomes superheated)
c. Picking up heat from the suction pipe ( pipe connecting evaporator delivery and compressor suction valve)
• In (a) And (b) the refrigeration effect and compressor work isincreased.
• C.O.P as compared to saturation cycle at the same suction pressure may be greater, less or unchanged.
• When the refrigerant is superheated, the refrigeration effect increases. However, at the same time the work of
compression also increases, primarily due to increase in specific volume or (decrease in density) of the
refrigerant due to superheat.

• As a result, the volumetric refrigeration effect and COP may increase or decrease with superheating depending
on the relative increase in refrigeration effect and specific volume.
• Even though useful superheating may or may not increase the COP of the system, a minimum amount of
superheat is desirable as it prevents the entry of liquid droplets into the compressor.
Process 3-4-5-6-7-8
• This process is represents the flow of refrigerant through thecompressor.
a.At point 3 refrigerant enters the compressor through suctionvalve.
b.At point 4 the pressure falls due to frictional resistance to flow during passing through the suction valve.
Thus actual suction pressure (PS ) < Evaporator pressure (PE )
c. At point 5 the temperature is raised up due to coming in contact of the walls of compressor cylinder.
d. Actual compression is shown by 5-6. This is due to the heat transfer of between cylinder wall & vapor
refrigerant.
e. There is cooling effect in process 6-7. This heating (4-5) and cooling effect is take place at constant pressure.
• Due to frictional resistance of flow there is pressure drop ie, The actual discharge pressure (PD) > Condenser
pressure (PC).
Process 8-9-10-11
• This process represent flow of refrigerant through condenser.
a.Process 8-9 represents the cooling of superheated vapor refrigerant to dry saturated state.
b.Process 9-10 represents the removal of latent heat which changes the dry saturated refrigerant into liquid
refrigerant.
c.Process 10-11 represent sub cooling of liquid refrigerant in the condenser before passing it through the
expansion valve.
✓ This increases the refrigerant effect per kg of refrigerant flow.
✓ Reduces the volume of refrigerant parDally evaporated from the liquid refrigerant while passing
through the expansion valve.
✓ The increase in refrigeraDng effect can be obtained by large quanDDes of circulaDng cooling water
which should be at a temperature much lower than condensing temperature.
Process 11-1
• This represents the expansion of sub cooled liquid refrigerant by throEling from the condenser pressure to
evaporator pressure
Factors affecting the performance of a vapor refrigeration cycle
1.Effect of Suction Pressure

• Let us consider a theoretical vapor compression cycle 1’- 2’- 3- 4’ when the suction pressure decreases
from ps to ps‘ as
shown on p-h diagram.
It may be noted that the decrease in suction pressure :
(a) Decreases the refrigerating effect from (h1 – h4) to ( h1‘ – h4‘ ), and
(b) Increases the work required for compression from (h2 – h1) to ( h2‘ – h1‘ )
• Since the C.O.P of the system is the ratio of refrigerating effect to the
work done, therefore with the decrease in suction pressure, the
net effect is to decrease the C.O.P. of the refrigerating system for the
same refrigerant flow.
• Hence with the decrease in suction pressure the refrigerating

capacity of the system decreases and the refrigeration cost
increases.
OR
Effect of Suction Pressure :
COP of Original Cycle :
Rn h1 − h4
COP = =
W h2 − h1
P2 3 2 2’
Pressure, Pr
COP when Suction Pr. decreased :

Rn h − h4'
COP = = 1'
W h2' − h1'
P1 4 1
=
(h − 1h )−4(h − h1 ) 1'
4’ 1’ ( h 2 − h 1) (+ h 1− )h (+1' h − )h2' 2
Thus,
Refrig. Effect ↓
Enthalpy, h Work Input ↑
⇒ COP ↓
2. Effect of Discharge Pressure
• Let us consider a theoretical vapor compression cycle 1-2’-3’-4’
when the discharge pressure increases from pD to pD’ as shown on
p-h diagram resulting in increased compressor work and reduced
refrigeration effect.
• It may be noted that the increase in discharge pressure :
(a) Decreases the refrigerating effect from (h1 – h4) to ( h1– h4‘ ), and
(b) Increases the work required for compression from (h2 – h1) to
( h2 ‘ – h1 ‘ )
• The effect of increasing the delivery/discharge pressure is just similar to the effect of decreasing the sucFon
pressure. The only difference is that the effect of decreasing the suc3on pressure is more predominant than
the effect of increasing the discharge pressure.
• Discharge pressure should be kept as low as possible depending upon the temperature of the cooling medium
available.
• The increase in discharge pressure is necessary for high condensing temperatures and decrease in sucFon
pressure is necessary to maintain low temperature in the evaporator.
3. Effect of superheating
• The effect of superheating is to increase the refrigerating effect but this increase in refrigerating effect is at the
cost of increase in amount of work spent to attain the upper pressure limit. (Fig. 14.17)
• Since the increase in work is more as compared to increase in refrigerating effect, therefore overall effect of
superheating is to give a low value of C.O.P.
4. Effect of sub-cooling of liquid.

• ‘Sub-cooling’ is the process of cooling the liquid refrigerant below the condensing temperature for a given
pressure.
• In Fig. 14.18 the process of sub cooling is shown by 4-4′.
• As is evident from the figure the effect of sub cooling is to increase the refrigerating effect. Thus sub-cooling
results in increase of C.O.P. provided that no further energy has to be spent to obtain the extra cold coolant
required.
• The sub-cooling or undercooling may be done by any of the following methods :
(i)Inserting a special coil between the condenser and the expansion valve.
(ii)Circulating greater quantity of cooling water through the condenser.
(iii)Using water cooler than main circulating water.
• Subcooling is beneficial as it increases the refrigeration effect by reducing the throttling
loss at no additional specific work
input.
• Also subcooling ensures that only liquid enters into the throttling device leading to its
efficient operation
• Subcooling cause decrease in electrical usage, reducing pulldown time, more uniform
refrigerating temperatures, and
reduction in the initial cost.
5. Use of liquid-suction heat exchanger (LSHX)

• A LSHX is a counter flow heat exchanger in which the warm saturated refrigerant liquid
from the condenser exchanges
heat with the relatively cool refrigerant vapour from the evaporator.
• In cooling the liquid and reducing its enthalpy, a greater refrigerating effect will be
obtained.
• Required degree of subcooling and superheating may not be possible, if one were to
rely only on heat transfer between the refrigerant and external heat source and sink.
• Also, if the temperature of refrigerant at the exit of the evaporator is
not sufficiently superheated, then it may get superheated by
exchanging heat with the surroundings as it flows through the
connecting pipelines (useless superheating), which is detrimental to
system performance.
• One way of achieving the required amount of subcooling and

superheating is by the use of a liquid-suction heat exchanger
(LSHX).
• As shown in the T-s diagram, since the temperature of the refrigerant

liquid at the exit of condenser is considerably higher than the
temperature of refrigerant vapour at the exit of the evaporator, it is
possible to subcool the refrigerant liquid and superheat the
refrigerant vapour by exchanging heat between them.
4 3 2
5 1
6
Vapour Compression System – Mathematical Analysis
A. Refrigerating Effect :
= Amount of Heat absorbed in Evaporator.
Qevap = (h1 − h4 )+ Latent Heat + Superheated Heat (kJ / kg)
B. Mass of Refrigerant :
= Amount of Heat absorbed / Refrigerating Effect.
14,000
m= (kg / sec− tonne)
3600 (h1 − h4 ) 1 TR = 14,000 kJ/hr
C. Theoretical Piston Displacement :

= Mass of Refrigerant X Sp. Vol. of Refrigerant Gas (vg)1.
 (v )
14,000
Th. Piston Displ. = (m3 / sec−tonne)
3600 (h −1 h ) 4
g 1
Vapour Compression System – Mathematical Analysis
D. Theoretical Power Required :

a) Isentropic Compression :
Wcomp = (h2 − h1 ) (kJ / kg)
Ptheor = m (h2 − h1 ) (kW )
a) Polytropic Compression :
n
W comp = (P2V2 − P1V1 ) (kJ / kg)
n −1
n
Ptheor =m (P2V2 − P1V1 ) (kW )
n −1
E. Heat removed through Condenser :

Qcond = m (h2 − h3 ) (kJ / kg)
IMPROVEMENTS IN SIMPLE SATURATION CYCLE
Improvements in Simple Saturation Cycle

The simple saturation cycle may be improved by the following methods:
1. By introducing the flash chamber between the expansion valve and the evaporator.
2. By using the accumulator or pre-cooler.
3. By subcooling the liquid refrigerant by the vapour refrigerant.
4. By subcooling the liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser by liquid refrigerant from the
expansion valve.
With flash chamber
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 156
➢ During the expansion process some unwanted vapours are
generated. This unwanted vapour is totally inactive to absorb latent
heat in evaporator.
➢ In flash chamber there are baffle plate on which mixer from
expansion device strikes and there is separation of vapour and
liquid.
➢ Unwanted vapour is directly supplied to compressor where as only
liquid is supplied to Evaporator. By adding flash chamber there is no
effect on refrigerating effect. Work supplied to compressor remains
constant and COP remains constant. The effect obtained is only
reduction in evaporator length of pipe.
➢ Flash chamber is added between expansion device and evaporator.
Flash chamber is an insulating tank. When there is fixed load on our
vapour compression cycle then flash chamber is added in the plant.
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 • 157
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 158
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 159
With accumulator or Pre-cooler
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 161
➢ An accumulator is an insulated tank which is installed in between
the expansion device and evaporator. Figure shows block
diagram of this system.
➢ Unwanted vapour generating during expansion process are
strikes on baffle plates. The evaporator also supply’s the mixture
of liquid and vapour when load on evaporator is less. This mixture
also strikes on the baffle plate.
➢ In accumulator separation of liquid refrigerant and vapour
refrigerant is carried out. Accumulator supplied only liquid to
evaporator. It also supplied only vapour to compressor. When
load on our vapour compression cycle varies then accumulator is
added in the system.
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 162
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 163
Subcooling with liquid refrigerant by vapour refrigerant
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 165
➢ Sub-cooling of liquid refrigerant is carried out by using
vapour of refrigerant. The heat exchanger is installed
between condenser and expansion device. In heat
exchanger through one pipe of liquid at 45 degree C flowing
where another line vapour refrigerant at -10 degree C are
flowing.
➢ Liquid rejects its heat energy to vapour refrigerants and sub-
cooling of liquid takes place. Which improves COP of plant.
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 166

10/4/2021 Lecture 1 167
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 168
Subcooling with liquid refrigerant by liquid refrigerant
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 170
➢ In this method subcooling of liquid refrigerant is carried
out by using liquid refrigerant. A heat exchanger is
installed in between condenser and expansion device.
➢ One line carries liquid refrigerant of 45 degree C whereas
another line carries liquid refrigerant of -10 degree C
temperature. This liquid is taken partially from after
expansion. The heat transfer takes place, if heat
exchanger liquid of 45 degree C gives heat energy to
partial -10 degree C.
➢ After absorbing heat energy liquid at -10 degree C
evaporates and it is directly supplied to compressor.
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 171
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 172
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 173
10/4/2021 Lecture 1 174
Example 6
A refrigeration machine is required to produce ice at 0º C from water at 20 ºC. The machine has
a condenser temperature of 298 K while the evaporator temperature is 268 K. The relative
efficiency of the machine is 50 % and 6 kg of Freon-12 refrigerant is circulated through the
system per minute. The refrigerant enters the compressor with a dryness fraction of 0.6. Specific
heat of water is 4.187 kJ/kg.K and the latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg. Calculate the amount of
ice produced on 24 hours. The table of properties if Freon-12 is given below:
Temperature Liquid Heat Latent Heat Entropy of Liquid

(K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
298 59.7 138.0 0.2232
268 31.4 154.0 0.1251

m = 6 kg/min ηrel hf1 = 31.4 kJ/kg
= 50 % hfg1 = 154.0 kJ/kg
Given :
x2 = 0.6 hf2 = 59.7 kJ/kg
Cpw = 4.187 kJ/kg.K hfg2 = 138.0 kJ/kg
Latent Heat of ice = 335.7 kJ/kg hf3 = h4 = 59.7 kJ/kg
Example 7
28 tonnes of ice from and at 0 ºC is produced per day in an ammonia refrigerator. The temperature range in the
compressor is from 25 ºC to -15 ºC. The vapour is dry and saturated at the end of compression and an expansion
valve is used. Assuming a co-efficient of performance of 62% of the theoretical, calculate the power required to
drive the compressor. Take latent heat of ice = 335 kJ/kg.
Temp Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy of Entropy of Vapour

(ºC) Liquid Vapour Liquid (kJ/kg.K)
(kJ/kg.K)
25 100.04 1319.22 0.3473 4.4852
-15 -54.56 1304.99 -2.1338 5.0585

Tcond = 25 ºC hf1 = -54.56 kJ/kg
Tevap = -15 ºC hg1 = 1304.99kJ/kg
Given :
x2 = 1….dry saturated vapour COPactual hf2 = 100.04 kJ/kg
= 0.62 (COPtheor) hg2 = 1319.22 kJ/kg
Latent Heat of ice = 335.7 kJ/kg hf3 = h4 = 100.04 kJ/kg
Example 8
In a standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle, operating between an evaporator temperature of -10 ºC and a
condenser temperature of 40 ºC, the enthalpy of the refrigerant, Freon-12, at the end of compression is 220 kJ/kg. Show
the cycle diagram on T-s plane. Calculate:
1. The C.O.P. of the cycle.
2. The refrigerating capacity and the compressor power assuming a refrigerant flow rate of 1 kg/min.
You may use the extract of Freon-12 property table given below:
Temp (ºC) Pr (MPa) hf (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg)

-10 0.2191 26.85 183.1

40 0.9607 74.53 203.1
hf1 = 26.85 kJ/kg

Tcond = 40 ºC
h g1 = h = 1183.1 kJ/kg
Given : Tevap = -10 ºC
h f2 = 74.53 kJ/kg
x1 = 1….dry saturated vapour h2 = 220
h g2 = 203.1 kJ/kg
kJ/kg
hf3 = h4 = 74.53 kJ/kg
Example 9
A Freon-12 refrigerator producing a cooling effect of 20 kJ/sec operates on a simple cycle with pressure limits of
1.509 bar and 9.607 bar. The vapour leaves the evaporator dry saturated and there is no undercooling. Determine
the power required by the machine. If the compressor operates at 300 rpm and has a clearance volume of 3% of
stroke volume, determine the piston displacement of the compressor. For compressor assume that the expansion
following the law PV1.3 = Constant.
Temp Ps vg Enthalpy hf Enthalpy hg Entropy sf Entropy sg Specific heat

(oC) (bar) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
-20 1.509 0.1088 17.8 178.61 0.073 0.7082 ---

40 9.607 --- 74.53 203.05 0.2716 0.682 0.747
hf1 = 17.8 kJ/kg

Tcond = 40 ºC
h g1 = h = 1178.61 kJ/kg
Given : Tevap = -20 ºC
h f2 = 74.53 kJ/kg
x1 = 1….dry saturated vapour h2 = 220
h g2’ = 203.05 kJ/kg
kJ/kg
hf3 = h4 = 74.53 kJ/kg
Example 10
A food storage locker requires a refrigeration capacity of 50 kW. It works between a condenser temperature of 35 ºC
and an evaporator temperature of -10 ºC. The refrigerator is ammonia. It is sub-cooled by 5 ºC before entering the
expansion valve. By the dry saturated vapour leaving the evaporator. Assuming a single-cylinder, single-acting
compressor operating at 1000 rpm with stroke equal to 1.2 times the bore, determine :
6.The power required.
7.The cylinder dimensions. Properties of ammonia are :
Sat. Pr. Enthalpy Entropy Sp. Vol. Sp. Heat

Temp. (bar) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
(oC)
Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
-10 2.9157 154.056 1450.22 0.82965 5.7550 --- 0.417477 --- 2.492

35 13.522 366.072 1488.57 1.56605 5.2086 1.7023 0.095629 4.556 2.903
Tcond = 35 ºC
h 1 = 1450.22 kJ/kg
T evap = -10 ºC
Given : h 2’ = 1488.57 kJ/kg
x 1 = 1….dry saturated vapour
h f3 = 366.072 kJ/kg
State 3 = Sub-cooled by 5 ºC

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10/4/2021 1

• It consists of a refrigeration system containing compressor, condenser, capillary

tube, evaporator and an insulated cabinet

• Compressor + Motor is placed at the base of the cabinet

the cabinet at the top

for preservation of perishable products at temperatures below 0⁰C. Further below

are compartments with progressively higher temperatures

❑ Preserving life saving drugs, vaccines,…etc

❑ Used for air conditioning purpose

❑ Used in medical fields

❑ Used for making ice products

❑ Liquefy processing gas

❑ Separation of vapours by distillation

❑ Freeze drying (Lyophilization)

2. Air Refrigeration System.

2. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System.

4. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System.

6. Cascade Refrigeration System.

7. Mixed Refrigeration System.

8. Thermoelectric Refrigeration System.

9. Steam Jet Refrigeration System.

10. Vortex Tube Refrigeration System.

The standard unit of refrigeration is ton of refrigeration or simply ton denoted

• The objective of a refrigerator is

• Refrigerators, like heat engines,

• The performance of refrigerators are expressed in terms of the

If; Rn = Net Refrigerating Effect. W = Work required by the machine.

2. Location of the evaporator: In the refrigerator the evaporator is located in the

4. Working of evaporator and condenser: In the refrigerator the evaporator

The performance of a heat engine is expressed by its efficiency.

body (Q2). In doing so, work WR is required to be done on the system.

• The performance of a refrigerator is expressed by the ratio of amount of heat taken

its cycle of operation.

• This ratio is called coeﬃ cient of performance or energy performance

performance ratio of a heat pump,

❖ The temperature of an ideal gas can be reduced either by making

Closed System Open System

• Air refrigerant contained within • Refrigerator space is actual room to be cooled.

• Elements are , compressor, cooler or heat exchanger , expander, and

• Heat absorbed by the air is cooled by circulating it in a cooler after passing

cycle will be repeated.

• Large size of components : Since air is supplied to the refrigerated space at

• Clogging pipelines and choke valves: Possibility of moisture to be carried

pressures. Hence, the size of Expander and Compressor can be

2. In Open Systems, air picks up the moisture from refrigeration chamber.

This moisture freezes and chokes the valves.

3. Expansion in Open System is limited to atm. Pressure Level only.

No such restriction to Closed System.

• The result is a cycle that operates in the counterclockwise direction on a T-s

Carnot Heat Pump.

Temp. rises from T1 to T2.

Entropy Cylinder in contact with Cold Body at T1.

Heat extracted from cold Body : Area 1-1’-4’-4

to T2. We know that during isentropic compression, no heat is absorbed or rejected by

QR = Q2-3 = Area 2-3-3’-2’ = T3 (s2 – s3) = T2 (s2 – s3)

(a) Decreasing the higher temperature (i.e. temperature temperature,

conditioned plant in summer at 200C when the atmospheric

• Carnot C.O.P of domestic refrigerator < Carnot C.O.P of domestic

1. Process 1-2: Involves the compression of a liquid – vapor mixture, which