Introduction to Python

Python is open-source, high-level, dynamically typed, interpreted, object oriented

programming language known for its simplicity and readability.
It was created by Guido van Rossum in 1991 and further developed by the Python Software
Foundation.
Its syntax allows programmers to express their concepts in fewer lines of code.
Python is a programming language that lets you work quickly and integrate systems more
efficiently.

Versions of Python
Python 1.x
Released: 1991
Key Features: Basic features like exception handling, functions, and the core data types (lists,
dictionaries, etc.) were introduced.
Python 2.x
Released: 2000
Key Features:
Introduced list comprehensions, garbage collection, and the yield statement.
Significant libraries and modules were added.
Unicode support was introduced but required a 'u' prefix.
Division of integers resulted in integer values (e.g., 5/2 = 2).
Python 3.x
Released: 2008
Key Features:
Print Function: The print statement was replaced with a print() function.
Integer Division: Division of integers now results in float values (e.g., 5/2 = 2.5).
Unicode: All strings are Unicode by default.
Iterators: Range and other iterating functions return iterators instead of lists.
Library Improvements: Many standard libraries were redesigned and improved.
Syntax Changes: Many syntactic features were changed or removed to make the language
cleaner and more consistent.
Key Differences Between Python 2.x and Python 3.x:

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Print Statement:
Python 2: print "Hello, World!"
Python 3: print("Hello, World!")
Integer Division:
Python 2: 5 / 2 results in 2
Python 3: 5 / 2 results in 2.5
Unicode Handling:

Python 2: Strings are ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) by
default, Unicode strings need a u prefix.
Python 3: Strings are Unicode by default.
Iterators:
Python 2: range(5) returns a list.
Python 3: range(5) returns a range object (iterator).
Library Changes:
Many standard libraries have been renamed or restructured in Python 3.
For example, ConfigParser in Python 2 is configparser in Python 3.
Syntax Changes:
Many deprecated functions and syntax from Python 2 were removed in Python 3.
Example: xrange() was removed in favor of range().

Features of Python
1. Easy to Read and Write: Python's syntax is clear and concise, making it an excellent
choice for beginners and experienced developers alike.
2. Interpreted Language: Python is executed line by line, which makes debugging easier
and code execution simpler.
3. Dynamically Typed: Python does not require explicit declaration of variable types,
making it flexible but also necessitating careful variable management.
4. Extensive Standard Library: Python comes with a vast standard library that supports
many common programming tasks, such as connecting to web servers, reading and
modifying files, and more.
5. Cross-Platform: Python programs can run on various operating systems, including
Windows, macOS, and Linux, without needing modification.

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 6. Community Support: Python has a large, active community that contributes to an
extensive ecosystem of libraries and frameworks, such as Django for web development,
NumPy and pandas for data analysis, and TensorFlow for machine learning.
7. High-level - High-level language means readability, simplicity(open source, available
for everyone) and abstraction.

Common Uses of Python:

Web Development: Frameworks like Django, Flask, and Pyramid enable efficient web
application development.

Data Science and Machine Learning: Libraries like NumPy, pandas, Scikit-learn, and
TensorFlow make Python a popular choice for data analysis, visualization, and machine
learning.

Automation and Scripting: Python is often used for writing scripts to automate repetitive tasks.

Software Development: Python can be used to develop standalone applications and prototype
software.

Game Development: Libraries like Pygame provide tools for game development.

Network Programming: Python has robust support for networking, enabling the development
of complex network applications.

How to Install Python

One has to have Python installed on their system in order to start creating Python code.
Python is much simpler to learn and programme in. Any plain text editor, such as notepad or
notepad++, may be used to create Python programs. To make it easier to create these routines,

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one may also utilise an online IDE for Python or even install one on their machine. IDEs offer
a variety of tools including a user-friendly code editor, the debugger, compiler, etc.
Step 1: Visit the Python Website and Navigate to the Downloads Section
First and foremost step is to open a browser and type Python Download or paste link
(https://www.python.org/downloads/)
Step 2: Choose the Python Version
Click on the version you want to download. Click on the download button to download the
exe file of Python
If in case you want to download the specific version of Python. Then, you can scroll down
further below to see different versions from 2 and 3 respectively. Click on download button
right next to the version number you want to download.
Step 3: Download the Python Installer
Once the download is complete, run the installer program. On Windows, it will typically be a
.exe file, on macOS, it will be a .pkg file, and on Linux, it will be a .tar.gz file.
Install Python on Windows 10
Double-click the executable file, which is downloaded.

The following window will open. Click on the Add Path check box, it will set the Python path
automatically otherwise you will have to do it explicitly, then click on Install Now. It will start
installing Python on Windows.
After installation is complete click on Close. Python is installed.
Verifying the Python Installation
To verify whether the python is installed or not in our system, we have to do the following.
Go to "Start" button, and search " cmd ".
Then type, " python - - version ".

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If python is successfully installed, then we can see the version of the python installed.
If not installed, then it will print the error as " 'python' is not recognized as an internal or
external command, operable program or batch file. ".
Opening IDLE
Now go to Windows and type IDLE.
The Python Interpreter also called Python Shell will open.
The three greater than >>> sign is called the Python command prompt, where we write our
program and with a single enter key, it will give results so instantly.
Install Python on MacOS
To install Python simply open the Terminal app from Application -> Utilities and enter the
following command
brew install python3
After command processing is complete, Python’s version 3 would be installed on your Mac.
To verify the installation enter the following commands in your Terminal app
python3 –version
Install Python on Linux
Most Linux OSs have Python pre-installed. To check if your device is pre-installed with
Python or not, just go to the terminal using Ctrl+Alt+T, On every Linux system including the
following OS:
Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Debian, openSUSE, CentOS, Fedora
You will find Python already installed. You can check it using the following command from
the terminal
$ python --version
To check the latest version of Python 3.x.x :
$ python3 --version

Python Development Environment

A Python development environment (PDE) is a combination of a text editor and a Python
runtime implementation. The text editor lets you write code, and the runtime implementation
executes the code.
A Python development environment is a setup that provides the necessary tools and libraries
for writing, testing, and running Python programs

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A text editor can be as simple as Notepad running on Windows or a more complicated
integrated development environment (IDE) with syntax checking, integrated test runner and
code highlighting.
IDLE: Integrated development and learning environment. (scripting shell)
This includes basic packages and concepts of an IDE in addition for learning and educational
purpose.
Multi-window text editor: this editor offers features like syntax highlighting, indentation.
Debugger: helps you find and fix errors in your code by letting you step through the code and
examine variables,
Cross-platform: works in windows, mac, and linux

Python Interpreter: Shell

The Python interpreter, also known as the Python shell, is a program that allows users to
directly interact with the Python interpreter and execute Python programs, code, or commands.
The shell is a command line interface that provides a basic read-eval-print loop (REPL) that
reads a Python statement, evaluates the result, and prints it to the screen. The shell then loops
back to read the next statement. (after executing the program, we can see ‘>>>’ these arrows
again, means ready to take next statement).
The Python interpreter translates source code into machine code and runs the resulting
program. If an error occurs, the interpreter stops translating the source code and displays an
error message. Within a Python shell, the interpreter can run one line of code at a time, which
is ideal for experimenting with small code snippets.
Most development environments include a Python shell. The Python installer provides two
interactive shells: IDLE (Python GUI) and Python (command line) (Interactive shell. Directly
type and execute python code line by line.), both of which can be used to run simple programs.

Steps performed by python interpreter:

Parsing: The Python interpreter reads the source code and checks for syntax errors. It converts
the source code into a series of tokens and then generates an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST).

Compilation: The interpreter compiles the AST into bytecode. Bytecode is an intermediate,
platform-independent representation of the source code. This bytecode is not machine code
but a lower-level code that the Python Virtual Machine (PVM) can execute.

Execution: The Python Virtual Machine (PVM) reads and executes the bytecode. The PVM
interprets the bytecode instructions and translates them into machine-level instructions as
needed, but this translation happens at runtime, not ahead of time.

Intermediate Files Generated

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Bytecode Files: When a Python script is executed, the interpreter compiles the script into
bytecode, which is usually stored in .pyc files within the __pycache__ directory. These files
are used to speed up future executions of the script by avoiding the need to recompile the
source code.

Just-In-Time (JIT) Compilation

Some implementations of Python, such as PyPy, use Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation to

improve performance. JIT compilation translates bytecode into machine code at runtime,
allowing frequently executed code to run faster. However, the standard implementation of
Python (CPython) does not include a JIT compiler and relies on the PVM to interpret bytecode.

Bytecode and the Python Virtual Machine

 Bytecode: Bytecode is a set of instructions that is similar to assembly language but is

platform-independent. It is stored in .pyc files in the __pycache__ directory.

{Assembly language is a low-level language that helps to communicate directly with computer
hardware. It uses mnemonics to represent the operations that a processor has to do. Which is
an intermediate language between high-level languages like C++ and the binary language. It
uses hexadecimal and binary values, and it is readable by humans.}

 Python Virtual Machine (PVM): The PVM is an interpreter that executes the bytecode. It
reads the bytecode instructions and translates them into machine-level instructions on the
fly. This means the PVM acts as a middle layer between the bytecode and the machine code.
It also provides programming environment.

Abstract Syntax Tree(AST)

An Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) is a tree representation of the abstract syntactic structure of
source code. Each node in the tree represents a construct occurring in the source code. The tree
reflects the hierarchical structure of the program, showing the syntactic relationships between
different parts of the code.

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Key Features of AST

1. Abstraction: The AST abstracts away certain details of the source code, such as
punctuation (e.g., commas, semicolons) and other tokens that do not affect the structure of
the code.
2. Hierarchy: The AST captures the hierarchical structure of the source code, making it
easier to analyze and manipulate.
3. Nodes: Each node in the AST represents a construct such as an expression, a statement, or
a block of code. Nodes can have children that represent sub-constructs.

Execute Python Script

When we have completed our python program (with IDLE) we run the program using ‘F5’
key on keyboard. Following steps are done after that:

Python Parsing Compilation Execution

Code

Indentation
Indentation in Python is the use of whitespace (spaces or tabs) at the beginning of a line to
define the structure and organization of code. Unlike many other programming languages,
which use braces or keywords to delimit blocks of code, Python uses indentation levels to
indicate the grouping of statements.
Key Points About Indentation in Python
Block Structure: Indentation is used to define blocks of code. For example, the body of a
function, loop, or conditional statement is indented relative to the enclosing statement.
Consistency: The amount of indentation must be consistent within a block. Mixing spaces and
tabs or using inconsistent levels of indentation will result in an IndentationError.
Syntax Requirement: Indentation is not optional in Python; it is a part of the syntax. Incorrect
indentation will lead to syntax errors.
def greet(name):

if name:

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

else:

print("Hello, World!")

Indentation Rules

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Consistent Indentation: Always use the same number of spaces or a single tab character for
each indentation level. The common practice is to use four spaces per indentation level.
Avoid Mixing Tabs and Spaces: Mixing tabs and spaces can cause errors and is discouraged.
Most code editors have settings to convert tabs to spaces to help maintain consistency.
Indentation Levels: Each new block of code is indented one level further than the block it is
contained within.
Blocks in Python
In Python, a block is a group of statements that are executed as a unit. Blocks are defined by
their indentation level. Python uses indentation to define the scope of loops, functions,
conditionals, and other constructs, making the code structure visually clear and consistent.
Types of Blocks in Python
Function Blocks
Conditional Blocks
Loop Blocks
Class Blocks
Exception Handling Blocks
With Statement Blocks (used in file handling)

Python Keywords
Every language contains words and a set of rules that would make a sentence meaningful.
Similarly, in Python programming language, there are a set of predefined words, called
Keywords which along with Identifiers will form meaningful sentences when used together.
Python keywords cannot be used as the names of variables, functions, and classes.
Keywords in Python are reserved words that cannot be used as a variable name, function name,
or any other identifier.
List of Keywords in Python
Keyword Description Keyword Description Keyword Description

Represents an
and It is a Logical False expression that nonlocal It is a non-
Operator will result in not local variable
being true.

It is used to
as finally It is used with not It is a Logical
create an alias
exceptions Operator
name

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Keyword Description Keyword Description Keyword Description

assert It is used for for It is used to or It is a Logical

debugging create Loop Operator

pass is used
To import when the user
break Break out a from pass
specific parts of doesn’t
Loop
a module want any code
to execute

raise is used
It is used to
class It is used to global raise to raise
declare a
define a class exceptions or
global variable
errors.

Skip the next To create a return is used

continue iteration of a if Conditional return to end the
loop Statement execution

Represents an
It is used to It is used to
def import True expression
define the import a
that will result
Function module
in true.

It is used to It is used to test

del is try Try is used to
delete an if two variables
handle errors
object are equal

While Loop is
To check if a
Conditional used to
elif in value is present while
statements, execute a
in a Tuple, List,
same as else-if block of
etc.
statements

with
It is used in a Used to create statement is
else conditional lambda an anonymous with used in
statement function exception
handling

yield keyword
try-except is is used to
except None It represents a yield
used to handle create a
null value
these errors generator
function

How to see keywords in python program:

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1. # importing keyword library which has lists
2. import keyword
3.
4. # displaying the complete list using "kwlist()."
5. print("The set of keywords in this version is: ")
6. print( keyword.kwlist )

Python Variables
Python Variable is containers that store values. Python is not “statically typed”. We do not
need to declare variables before using them or declare their type.
A variable is created the moment we first assign a value to it. A Python variable is a name
given to a memory location. It is the basic unit of storage in a program.
Rules for Python variables
 A Python variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character.
 A Python variable name cannot start with a number.
 A Python variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z,
0-9, and _ ).
 Variable in Python names are case-sensitive (name, Name, and NAME are three different
variables).
 The reserved words(keywords) in Python cannot be used to name the variable in Python.

Python Data Types

Python Data types are the classification or categorization of data items. It represents the kind
of value that tells what operations can be performed on a particular data. Since everything is
an object in Python programming, Python data types are classes and variables are instances
(objects) of these classes. The following are the standard or built-in data types in Python:
 Numeric
 Sequence Type
 Boolean
 Set
 Dictionary
To check the data type of any variable we use the type() function.

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1. Numeric Data Types in Python
The numeric data type in Python represents the data that has a numeric value. A numeric value
can be an integer, a floating number, or even a complex number. These values are defined as
Python int, Python float, and Python complex classes in Python.
Integers – This value is represented by int class. It contains positive or negative whole numbers
(without fractions or decimals). In Python, there is no limit to how long an integer value can
be.
Float – This value is represented by the float class. It is a real number with a floating-point
representation. It is specified by a decimal point. Optionally, the character e or E followed by
a positive or negative integer may be appended to specify scientific notation.
Complex Numbers – A complex number is represented by a complex class. It is specified as
(real part) + (imaginary part)j. For example – 2+3j
2. Sequence Data Types in Python
The sequence Data Type in Python is the ordered collection of similar or different Python data
types. Sequences allow storing of multiple values in an organized and efficient fashion. There
are several sequence data types of Python:
Python String
Python List
Python Tuple
String Data Type
Strings in Python are arrays of bytes representing Unicode characters. A string is a collection
of one or more characters put in a single quote, double-quote, or triple-quote. In Python, there
is no character data type Python, a character is a string of length one. It is represented by str
class.

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Creating String
Strings in Python can be created using single quotes, double quotes, or even triple quotes.
Example of accessing string:
String1 = "GeeksForGeeks"
print("Initial String: ")
print(String1)
print("\nFirst character of String is: ")
print(String1[0])
print("\nLast character of String is: ")
print(String1[-1])

List Data Type

Lists are just like arrays, declared in other languages which is an ordered collection of data. It
is very flexible as the items in a list do not need to be of the same type.
Creating a List in Python
Lists in Python can be created by just placing the sequence inside the square brackets[].
List = []
print("Initial blank List: ")
print(List)
List = ['GeeksForGeeks']
print("\nList with the use of String: ")
print(List)
List = ["Geeks", "For", "Geeks"]
print("\nList containing multiple values: ")
print(List[0])
print(List[2])
List = [['Geeks', 'For'], ['Geeks']]
print("\nMulti-Dimensional List: ")
print(List)

Tuple Data Type

Just like a list, a tuple is also an ordered collection of Python objects. The only difference
between a tuple and a list is that tuples are immutable i.e. tuples cannot be modified after it is
created. It is represented by a tuple class.

Creating a Tuple in Python

In Python Data Types, tuples are created by placing a sequence of values separated by a
‘comma’ with or without the use of parentheses for grouping the data sequence. Tuples can
contain any number of elements and of any datatype (like strings, integers, lists, etc.). Note:
Tuples can also be created with a single element, but it is a bit tricky. Having one element in
the parentheses is not sufficient, there must be a trailing ‘comma’ to make it a tuple.
Tuple1 = ()
print("Initial empty Tuple: ")
print(Tuple1)

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Tuple1 = ('Geeks', 'For')
print("\nTuple with the use of String: ")
print(Tuple1)
list1 = [1, 2, 4, 5, 6]
print("\nTuple using List: ")
print(tuple(list1))
Tuple1 = tuple('Geeks')
print("\nTuple with the use of function: ")
print(Tuple1)
Tuple1 = (0, 1, 2, 3)
Tuple2 = ('python', 'geek')
Tuple3 = (Tuple1, Tuple2)
print("\nTuple with nested tuples: ")
print(Tuple3)

Boolean Data Type in Python

Python Data type with one of the two built-in values, True or False. Boolean objects that are
equal to True are truthy (true), and those equal to False are falsy (false). However non-Boolean
objects can be evaluated in a Boolean context as well and determined to be true or false. It is
denoted by the class bool.
Note – True and False with capital ‘T’ and ‘F’ are valid booleans otherwise python will throw
an error.
x = 10
y = 20
result1 = (x == y) # False, because 10 is not equal to 20
result2 = (x < y) # True, because 10 is less than 20
result3 = (x > y) # False, because 10 is not greater than 20
print(result1) # Output: False
print(result2) # Output: True
print(result3) # Output: False
Set Data Type in Python
In Python Data Types, a Set is an unordered collection of data types that is iterable, mutable,
and has no duplicate elements. The order of elements in a set is undefined though it may consist
of various elements.
Create a Set in Python
Sets can be created by using the built-in set() function with an iterable object or a sequence by
placing the sequence inside curly braces, separated by a ‘comma’. The type of elements in a
set need not be the same, various mixed-up data type values can also be passed to the set.
set1 = set()

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print("Initial blank Set: ")
print(set1)
set1 = set("GeeksForGeeks")
print("\nSet with the use of String: ")
print(set1)
set1 = set(["Geeks", "For", "Geeks"])
print("\nSet with the use of List: ")
print(set1)
set1 = set([1, 2, 'Geeks', 4, 'For', 6, 'Geeks'])
print("\nSet with the use of Mixed Values")
print(set1)

Access Set Items

set1 = set(["Geeks", "For", "Geeks"])
print("\nInitial set")
print(set1)
print("\nElements of set: ")
for i in set1:
print(i, end=" ")
print("Geeks" in set1)

Dictionary Data Type in Python

A dictionary in Python is an unordered collection of data values, used to store data values like
a map, unlike other Python Data Types that hold only a single value as an element, a Dictionary
holds a key: value pair. Key-value is provided in the dictionary to make it more optimized.
Each key-value pair in a Dictionary is separated by a colon : , whereas each key is separated
by a ‘comma’.
Create a Dictionary in Python
In Python, a Dictionary can be created by placing a sequence of elements within curly {}
braces, separated by ‘comma’. Values in a dictionary can be of any datatype and can be
duplicated, whereas keys can’t be repeated and must be immutable. The dictionary can also be
created by the built-in function dict(). An empty dictionary can be created by just placing it in
curly braces{}. Note – Dictionary keys are case sensitive, the same name but different cases
of Key will be treated distinctly.

Dict = {}
print("Empty Dictionary: ")
print(Dict)
Dict = {1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: 'Geeks'}
print("\nDictionary with the use of Integer Keys: ")
print(Dict)
Dict = {'Name': 'Geeks', 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}
print("\nDictionary with the use of Mixed Keys: ")
print(Dict)

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Dict = dict({1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: 'Geeks'})
print("\nDictionary with the use of dict(): ")
print(Dict)
Dict = dict([(1, 'Geeks'), (2, 'For')])
print("\nDictionary with each item as a pair: ")
print(Dict)

Accessing Key-value in Dictionary

Dict = {1: 'Geeks', 'name': 'For', 3: 'Geeks'}
print("Accessing a element using key:")
print(Dict['name'])
print("Accessing a element using get:")
print(Dict.get(3))
Input and Print Statement
In Python, input and output statements are fundamental for interacting with users and
displaying information. Here's an overview:
Input Statements
The input() function in Python is used to gather user input. It pauses the program's execution
and waits for the user to type something. Whatever the user types is then returned as a string.
Here’s how it works:
Syntax: input(prompt)
prompt: A string, representing the text that is displayed to the user.
Example:
name = input("Enter your name: ")
print("Hello, " + name + "!")
Output Statements
The print() function in Python is used to display output to the console. It can take multiple
arguments, and by default, it separates them by a space.
Syntax: print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)
*objects: Any number of objects to be printed.
sep: The separator between objects, default is a space.
end: The string appended after the last object, default is a newline.
file: An object with a write method, default is sys.stdout.
flush: A boolean, specifying whether to forcibly flush the stream.
Example:
print("Hello, World!")
print("Hello", "World", sep="-")

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print("Hello", end=" ")
print("World")
In the first print statement, it simply prints "Hello, World!" and moves to the next line. In the
second print statement, it prints "Hello-World" using a hyphen as a separator. In the third and
fourth print statements, "Hello" and "World" are printed on the same line.
Combining Input and Output
Often, programs require taking user input and then doing something with it. Here’s a combined
example:
# Taking input from the user
age = input("Enter your age: ")
# Displaying the output
print("You are " + age + " years old.")
In this example, the program takes the user's age as input and then prints a message including
the age.
Type Conversion
Since input() returns a string, you might need to convert it to another type, such as an integer
or a float, for mathematical operations.
Example:
number = input("Enter a number: ")
number = int(number) # Convert the input string to an integer
print("The square of the number is:", number * number)

Arithmetic Operators
The Python operators are fundamental for performing mathematical calculations in
programming languages like Python, Java, C++, and many others. Arithmetic operators are
symbols used to perform mathematical operations on numerical values. In most
programming languages, arithmetic operators include addition (+), subtraction (-),
multiplication (*), division (/), and modulus (%).
Arithmetic Operators in Python
There are 7 arithmetic operators in Python. The lists are given below:
Operator Description Syntax

Addition Operator + Addition: adds two operands x+y

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 Operator Description Syntax

Subtraction Subtraction: subtracts two operands

– x–y
Operator

Multiplication Multiplication: multiplies two operands

* x*y
Operator

Division (float): divides the first operand by

Division Operator / the second x/y

Floor Division Division (floor): divides the first operand by

// the second x // y
Operator

Modulus: returns the remainder when the

Modulus Operator % first operand is divided by the second x%y

Exponentiation Power (Exponent): Returns first raised to

** power second x ** y
Operator

Assignment Operators
The Python Operators are used to perform operations on values and variables. These
are the special symbols that carry out arithmetic, logical, and bitwise computations.
The value the operator operates on is known as the Operand. Here, we will cover
Different Assignment operators in Python.
Sign Syntax
Operators Description

Assign the value of the right side of the c=a+

Assignment Operator = expression to the left side operand b

Add right side operand with left side

Addition Assignment operand and then assign the result to left a += b
+=
Operator operand

Subtract right side operand from left side

Subtraction Assignment operand and then assign the result to left a -= b
-=
Operator operand

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 Sign Syntax
Operators Description

Multiplication Multiply right operand with left operand and

*= a *= b
Assignment Operator then assign the result to the left operand

Division Assignment Divide left operand with right operand and

/= a /= b
Operator then assign the result to the left operand

Divides the left operand with the right

Modulus Assignment operand and then assign the remainder to a %= b
%=
Operator the left operand

Floor Division Divide left operand with right operand and

//= a //= b
Assignment Operator then assign the value(floor) to left operand

Calculate exponent(raise power) value

Exponentiation a **=
**= using operands and then assign the result
Assignment Operator b
to left operand

Bitwise AND Performs Bitwise AND on operands and

&= a &= b
Assignment Operator assign the result to left operand

Bitwise OR Assignment Performs Bitwise OR on operands and

|= a |= b
Operator assign the value to left operand

Bitwise XOR Performs Bitwise XOR on operands and

^= a ^= b
Assignment Operator assign the value to left operand

Bitwise Right Shift Performs Bitwise right shift on operands a >>=

>>= and assign the result to left operand b
Assignment Operator

Performs Bitwise left shift on operands and

Bitwise Left Shift <<= a <<= b
assign the result to left operand
Assignment Operator

Assign a value to a variable within an

Walrus Operator := a := exp
expression

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

Comparison Operators
The Python operators can be used with various data types, including numbers,
strings, booleans, and more. In Python, comparison operators are used to compare
the values of two operands (elements being compared). When comparing strings, the
comparison is based on the alphabetical order of their characters (lexicographic
order).
Be cautious when comparing floating-point numbers due to potential precision issues.
Consider using a small tolerance value for comparisons instead of strict equality.
Types of Comparison Operators in Python
The different types of Comparison Operators in Python are as follows:
Operator Syntax
Description

Python Equality
== Equal to: True if both operands are equal a == b
Operators

Inequality
!= Not equal to: True if operands are not equal a != b
Operators

Greater than: True if the left operand is

Greater than Sign > a>b
greater than the right

Less than: True if the left operand is less

Less than Sign < a<b
than the right

Greater than or Greater than or equal to: True if left operand

>= a >= b
Equal to Sign is greater than or equal to the right

Less than or Equal Less than or equal to: True if left operand is
<= a <= b
to Sign less than or equal to the right

Logical Operators
Python logical operators are used to combine conditional statements, allowing you to perform
operations based on multiple conditions. These Python operators, alongside arithmetic
operators, are special symbols used to carry out computations on values and variables.
In Python, Logical operators are used on conditional statements (either True or False). They
perform Logical AND, Logical OR, and Logical NOT operations.

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

 Operator Description Syntax Example

Returns True if both

and the operands are x and y x>7 and x>10
true

Returns True if
or either of the x or y x<7 or x>15
operands is true

Returns True if the

not not x not(x>7 and x> 10)
operand is false

Truth Table for Logical Operators in Python

a = True
b = False
result4 = a and b # False, because both a and b need to be True
result5 = a or b # True, because at least one of a or b is True
result6 = not a # False, because a is True and not inverts it
print(result4) # Output: False
print(result5) # Output: True
print(result6) # Output: False
AND Operator in Python
The Boolean AND operator returns True if both the operands are True else it returns False.

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

Python OR Operator
The Boolean OR operator returns True if either of the operands is True.

Python NOT Operator

The Boolean NOT operator works with a single boolean value. If the boolean value is True
it returns False and vice-versa.

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

Membership Operator
The Python membership operators test for the membership of an object in a sequence, such
as strings, lists, or tuples. Python offers two membership operators to check or validate the
membership of a value. They are as follows:
Membership
Operator Description Syntax

Returns True if the value exists in a

in Operator value in sequence
sequence, else returns False

Returns False if the value exists in a value not

not in Operator
sequence, else returns True in sequence
Python IN Operator
The in operator is used to check if a character/substring/element exists in a sequence or
not. Evaluate to True if it finds the specified element in a sequence otherwise False.
# initialized some sequences
list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
str1 = "Hello World"
set1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
dict1 = {1: "Geeks", 2:"for", 3:"geeks"}
tup1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

# using membership 'in' operator

# checking an integer in a list
print(2 in list1)

# checking a character in a string

print('O' in str1)

# checking an integer in aset

print(6 in set1)

# checking for a key in a dictionary

print(3 in dict1)

# checking for an integer in a tuple

print(9 in tup1)

Python NOT IN Operator

The ‘not in’ Python operator evaluates to true if it does not find the variable in the specified
sequence and false otherwise.
# initialized some sequences
list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
str1 = "Hello World"
set1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

dict1 = {1: "Geeks", 2:"for", 3:"geeks"}
tup1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

# using membership 'not in' operator

# checking an integer in a list
print(2 not in list1)

# checking a character in a string

print('O' not in str1)

# checking an integer in aset

print(6 not in set1)

# checking for a key in a dictionary

print(3 not in dict1)

# checking for an integer in a tuple

print(9 not in tup1)

Identity Operators
The Python Identity Operators are used to compare the objects if both the objects are
actually of the same data type and share the same memory location. There are different
identity operators such as:
Identity
Operator Description Syntax

Returns True if both objects refers to same memory

is Operator obj1 is obj2
location, else returns False

is not Returns False if both object refers to same memory obj1 is

Operator location, else returns True not obj2
Python IS Operator
The is operator evaluates to True if the variables on either side of the operator point to the
same object in the memory and false otherwise.
# Python program to illustrate the use
# of 'is' identity operator
num1 = 5
num2 = 5

lst1 = [1, 2, 3]
lst2 = [1, 2, 3]
lst3 = lst1

str1 = "hello world"

str2 = "hello world"

# using 'is' identity operator on different datatypes

print(num1 is num2) #True
print(lst1 is lst2) #False

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

print(str1 is str2) #True
print(str1 is str2) #True

We can see here that even though both the lists, i.e., ‘lst1’ and ‘lst2’ have same data, the output
is still False. This is because both the lists refers to different objects in the memory. Where as
when we assign ‘lst3’ the value of ‘lst1’, it returns True. This is because we are directly giving
the reference of ‘lst1’ to ‘lst3’.
Python IS NOT Operator
The is not operator evaluates True if both variables on the either side of the operator are not
the same object in the memory location otherwise it evaluates False.
# Python program to illustrate the use
# of 'is' identity operator
num1 = 5
num2 = 5

lst1 = [1, 2, 3]
lst2 = [1, 2, 3]
lst3 = lst1

str1 = "hello world"

str2 = "hello world"

# using 'is not' identity operator on different datatypes

print(num1 is not num2)
print(lst1 is not lst2)
print(str1 is not str2)
print(str1 is not str2)

Difference between ‘==’ and ‘is’ Operator

While comparing objects in Pyhton, the users often gets confused between the Equality
operator and Identity ‘is’ operator. The equality operator is used to compare the value of two
variables, whereas the identities operator is used to compare the memory location of two
variables.
# Python program to illustrate the use
# of 'is' and '==' operators
lst1 = [1, 2, 3]
lst2 = [1, 2, 3]

# using 'is' and '==' operators

print(lst1 is lst2) #False
print(lst1 == lst2) #True

Slice Function
Syntax: slice(start, stop, step)
Parameters:

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

start: Starting index where the slicing of object starts.
stop: Ending index where the slicing of object stops.
step: It is an optional argument that determines the increment between each index for slicing.
Return Type: Returns a sliced object containing elements in the given range only.
The slice function in Python is used to create a slice object, which can be used to specify how
to slice a sequence (such as a list, tuple, or string). Slicing is a way to extract a portion of a
sequence by specifying a start, stop, and step index.
s = "Hello, World!"
slice_obj = slice(0, 5, 1)
print(s[slice_obj]) # Output: Hello
Using Slicing Syntax
You can achieve the same result with slicing syntax directly:
s = "Hello, World!"
print(s[0:5:1]) # Output: Hello
Negative indexing
In Python, negative sequence indexes represent positions from the end of the array. slice()
function can also have negative values. In that case, the iteration will be performed backwards
i.e. from end to start.
numbers = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
print(numbers[-4:-1]) # Output: [2, 3, 4]

Bitwise Operators
Python bitwise operators are used to perform bitwise calculations on integers. The integers
are first converted into binary and then operations are performed on each bit or
corresponding pair of bits, hence the name bitwise operators. The result is then returned in
decimal format.
Note: Python bitwise operators work only on integers.
OPERATOR NAME DESCRIPTION SYNTAX

Result bit 1, if both operand

Bitwise AND Bitwise
& bits are 1; otherwise results bit x&y
operator AND
0.

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

 OPERATOR NAME DESCRIPTION SYNTAX

Result bit 1, if any of the

Bitwise OR Bitwise
| operand bit is 1; otherwise x|y
operator OR
results bit 0.

Result bit 1, if any of the

Bitwise XOR Bitwise
^ operand bit is 1 but not both, x^y
Operator XOR
otherwise results bit 0.

Bitwise NOT Bitwise

~ Inverts individual bits. ~x
Operator NOT

The left operand’s value is

Python Bitwise
>> moved toward right by the x>>
Bitwise right shift number of bits
Right Shift
specified by the right operand.

The left operand’s value is

Python Bitwise
<< moved toward left by the x<<
Bitwise Left left shift number of bits
Shift
specified by the right operand.

Bitwise AND Operator

The Python Bitwise AND (&) operator takes two equal-length bit patterns as parameters. The
two-bit integers are compared. If the bits in the compared positions of the bit patterns are 1,
then the resulting bit is 1. If not, it is 0.
a = 10
b = 4

# Print bitwise AND operation

print("a & b =", a & b)
Bitwise OR Operator
The Python Bitwise OR (|) Operator takes two equivalent length bit designs as boundaries; if
the two bits in the looked-at position are 0, the next bit is zero. If not, it is 1.
a = 10
b = 4

# Print bitwise OR operation

print("a | b =", a | b)
Bitwise XOR Operator
The Python Bitwise XOR (^) Operator also known as the exclusive OR operator, is used to
perform the XOR operation on two operands. XOR stands for “exclusive or”, and it returns

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J

true if and only if exactly one of the operands is true. In the context of bitwise operations, it
compares corresponding bits of two operands. If the bits are different, it returns 1; otherwise,
it returns 0.
a = 10
b = 4

# print bitwise XOR operation

print("a ^ b =", a ^ b)
Bitwise NOT Operator
The preceding three bitwise operators are binary operators, necessitating two operands to
function. However, unlike the others, this operator operates with only one operand.
The Python Bitwise Not (~) Operator works with a single value and returns its one’s
complement. This means it toggles all bits in the value, transforming 0 bits to 1 and 1 bits to
0, resulting in the one’s complement of the binary number.
a = 10
b = 4

# Print bitwise NOT operation

print("~a =", ~a)
Bitwise Shift
These operators are used to shift the bits of a number left or right thereby multiplying or
dividing the number by two respectively. They can be used when we have to multiply or divide
a number by two.
a = 10
b = -10

# print bitwise right shift operator

print("a >> 1 =", a >> 1)
print("b >> 1 =", b >> 1)
Python Bitwise Left Shift
Shifts the bits of the number to the left and fills 0 on voids right as a result. Similar effect as
of multiplying the number with some power of two.
a = 5
b = -10

# print bitwise left shift operator

print("a << 1 =", a << 1)
print("b << 1 =", b << 1)

Harish Suthar | Unit 1 | Python | BCA Vth J