Chapter 03

Reference Models

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Reference Models
❑ The OSI Reference Model
❑ The TCP/IP Reference Model
❑ A Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
❑ Addresses in TCP/IP
❑ OSI and TCP/IP (Merits, Demerits, similarities,
differences)

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The TCP/IP Reference Model

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TCP/IP model
❑ Another model for understanding communications
networks is the TCP/IP model. TCP/IP is Transmission
Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.
❑ It also is broken into layers
▪ It has no equivalent of the OSI model’s physical layer.
▪ The next three layers of the OSI model and the TCP/IP
model are roughly equivalent.
▪ The top three layers of the OSI model are combined into
one layer in the TCP/IP model.

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The main idea
❑ The communication between computers can be
broken down into layers.
▪ Each layer is characterized by its functions and how it
interfaces with the adjacent layers.
❑ Within the source’s computer and starting at the
user level, the communication is passed down
through the layers to the lowest layer where it is sent
through some transmission medium.
❑ The communication travels at the lowest layer
(physical), occasionally rising up to the second layer
(bridge) or third layer (router) until it reaches the
destination.
❑ The communication now passes up through the
layers. 5
Comparing OSI with TCP/IP Layers

OSI Layers TCP/IP Layers

Application

Presentation Application

Session

Transport Transport

Network Internet

Data Link
Network Access
Physical
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The TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP reference model with some protocols

Physical Layer

❑ Covers the physical interface between computer

and network
❑ Concerned with issues like:
▪ Characteristics of transmission medium
▪ Nature of the signals
▪ Data rates
Network Access/Data Link Layer

❑ Covers the exchange of data between an end

system and the network that it is attached to
❑ Concerned with:
▪ Access to and routing data across a network for two
end systems attached to the same network
Internet Layer
Implements
procedures
needed to allow
data to travel
across multiple
interconnected
networks

Internet Layer

Uses the
Internet
Implemented
Protocol (IP)
in end systems
to provide
and routers
routing
function
Host-to-Host (Transport) Layer

• May provide reliable

TCP
end-to-end service or
merely an end-to-end • Most commonly used
delivery service without protocol to provide this
reliability mechanisms functionality

Transmission
Control Protocol
Application Layer
❑ Contains the logic needed to support the various
user applications
❑ A separate module is needed for each different
type of application that is peculiar to that
application
TCP/IP Concepts
Host A Host B

App X App Y
App Y App X
Port

1 2 3 2 4 6
Logical connection
(TCP connection)
TCP TCP
Global internet
IP address IP

Network Access Network Access

Protocol #1 Protocol #2
Logical connection
Physical Subnetwork attachment (e.g., virtual circuit) Physical
point address Router J
IP

NAP 1 NAP 2
Network 1 Network 2
Physical Physical

Figure 2.4 TCP/IP Concepts

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
❑ TCP is the transport layer protocol for most
applications
❑ TCP provides a reliable connection for transfer of
data between applications
❑ A TCP segment is the basic protocol unit
❑ TCP tracks segments between entities for duration
of each connection
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
❑ Alternative to TCP
❑ Does not guarantee delivery, preservation of
sequence, or protection against duplication
❑ Enables a procedure to send messages to other
procedures with a minimum of protocol
mechanism
❑ Adds port addressing capability to IP
❑ Used with Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP)
❑ Includes a checksum to verify that no error
occurs in the data
Traditional Internet-Based Applications
• Three common applications that have been
standardized to operate on top of TCP are:
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Provides a mechanism for transferring
messages among separate hosts
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Used to send files from one system to another under
user command
• Both text and binary files are accommodated
Secure Shell (SSH)
• Provides a secure remote logon capability
Addresses in TCP/IP
❑ Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
Physical addresses
❑ It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
❑ In this figure a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two
nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As
the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10
is the sender, and the computer with physical address
87 is the receiver.
physical addresses
❑ Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 IP addresses
❑ Used for universal communications. A logical address in the Internet is
currently a 32-bit address.

❑ This figure shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three
LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and
physical) for each connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router,
however, is connected to three networks (only two are shown in the figure).
So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.
Port addresses
❑ It is used for a process communicating with another
process.
❑ The figure following shows two computers communicating
via the Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c.

❑ The receiving computer is running two processes at this

time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical addresses
change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain
the same from the source to destination.
Port addresses

Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical
addresses usually remain the same.
Port addresses
❑ A port address is a 16-bit address represented by
one decimal number as shown.
753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single number.

Specific addresses
❑ Some applications have user-friendly addresses
that are designed for that specific address.
❑ Examples: e-mail address and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL).
OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
Merits of OSI reference model
❑ OSI model distinguishes well between the services,
interfaces and protocols.
❑ Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
❑ Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as
technology changes.
❑ Supports connection oriented services as well as
connectionless service.
Demerits of OSI reference model
❑ Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
❑ Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
❑ It is just used as a reference model. 25
OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
Merits of TCP/IP model
❑ It operated independently.
❑ It is scalable.
❑ Client/server architecture.
❑ Supports a number of routing protocols.
❑ Can be used to establish a connection between two
computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
❑ In this, the transport layer does not guarantee
delivery of packets.
❑ The model cannot be used in any other application.
❑ Replacing protocol is not easy.
❑ It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces
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OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
Now it's time to compare both the reference model
that we have learned till now. Let's start by
addressing the similarities that both of these models
have.
Following are some similarities between OSI
Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model.
▪ Both have layered architecture.
▪ Layers provide similar functionalities.
▪ Both are protocol stack.
▪ Both are reference models.

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OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
Following are some major differences between OSI
Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model.
OSI TCP/IP
1. OSI is a generic, protocol 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard
independent standard, acting as protocols around which the Internet has
a communication gateway developed. It is a communication protocol,
between the network and end which allows connection of hosts over a
user. network.
2. In OSI model the transport 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
layer guarantees the delivery of not guarantees delivery of packets. Still the
packets. TCP/IP model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
Presentation layer and Session Presentation layer or Session layer.
layer.
5. Transport Layer is Connection 5. Transport Layer is both Connection
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Oriented. Oriented and Connection less.
OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI TCP/IP
6. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented 6. Network Layer is Connection
and Connection less. less.
7. OSI is a reference model around which the 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way
networks are built. Generally it is used as a implementation of the OSI model.
guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides both 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP
connection oriented and connectionless model provides connectionless
service. service.
9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any
protocols into the model. protocol
10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is
easily replaced as the technology changes. not easy.
11. OSI model defines services, interfaces and 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces
protocols very clearly and makes clear and protocols are not clearly
distinction between them. It is protocol separated. It is also protocol
independent. dependent.
12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers 29
Midterm exam of 2019
Question 1 (7 Marks, Time 7 minutes)
Select the correct answer for each question below.
1. Transmission data rate is decided by
A. Network layer B. Physical layer C. Data link layer D. Transport layer
2. The lower layers of the OSI model are, in correct order -
A. physical, Data, Network B. Session, presentation, application C. session, presentation,
physical D. physical, Data, Transport
3. In TCP/IP Model, when data is sent from device A to device B, the 5th layer to receive data at B is
A. Application layer B. Transport layer C. Link layer D. Session lay
4……………..is responsible for providing Networking Services to the user.
A. Network layer B. Physical layer C. Data link layer D. Application Layer

5………………….is responsible for end-to-end connectivity.

A. Transport Layer B. Physical layer C. Data link layer D. Application Layer

6. Which layer defines how data is formatted, presented, encoded, and converted for use on the
network?
A. Transport Layer B. Network Layer C. Data Link Layer D. Presentation Layer
7………………provides a basic electronic mail transport facility.
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A. TELNET B. SNMP C. UDP D. SMTP
 End

Chapter 3

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