SECTION 1: SYSTEM FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Introduction to Circuit and Network Theory

• Overview of Circuit and Network Theory
o Basic concepts: circuits, networks, and systems.
o Importance in electronics, signal processing, and communication systems.
• Transfer Functions
o Definition and significance in circuits.
o Mathematical representation:
o Importance in analyzing the behavior of circuits over a range of frequencies.
o Examples of common transfer functions.
Frequency Response of Circuits
• Frequency Response
o Definition and key concepts.
o How circuits behave at different frequencies.
o Frequency response in terms of gain and phase.
• Types of Responses
o Low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-stop filters.
• Phase Response
o Relationship between input and output signal phases.
o Importance in circuit stability.
Introduction to Bode Plots
• What is a Bode Plot?
o Graphical representation of the frequency response of a system.
o Logarithmic scale for frequency and magnitude.
• Magnitude and Phase Plots
o How to interpret them.
o Sketching Bode plots for simple transfer functions.
• Uses of Bode Plots
o Understanding system behavior over a wide range of frequencies.
o Assessing system stability.
Scaling in Circuits

• Magnitude and Frequency Scaling

o Definition and importance in circuit design.
o Scaling relationships for resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
• Practical Applications
o How scaling affects circuit performance.
o Use in filter design.
Sensitivity in Frequency Domain
• Introduction to Sensitivity
o Definition and significance in circuits.
o How small changes in component values affect the overall system.
• Bode Sensitivity
o Sensitivity in the frequency domain using Bode plots.
• Comparing Sensitivity of Typical Circuits
o Examples of how sensitivity varies across different circuit types.
 1. Introduction to System Response
System response: is the output or behavior of a system when it is acted upon by a force or action. It
can be used to describe how a system processes signals and how well it transforms inputs into outputs

o The output behavior of a system or circuit when subjected to a given input.

o Characterized by both magnitude response and phase response.

Importance of System Response in Circuit Analysis:

o Helps in predicting how circuits behave for different frequency inputs.

o Used to evaluate filter performance, control systems, and communication systems.

Transfer function H(s) is a mathematical function that describes the relationship between a system's
input and output in the frequency domain. It's calculated by dividing the Laplace transform of the
output by the Laplace transform of the input, assuming all initial conditions are zero.

• Importance of Transfer Function:

o Provides insight into the system’s stability, frequency response, and phase response.
o Widely used for analyzing & designing systems including filters, amplifiers, and control systems.
• Key Concepts:
o Poles and Zeros: Locations in the complex plane that dictate system behavior.
o System Stability: Determined by the location of poles (inside or outside the unit circle for discrete
systems or in the left or right half-plane for continuous systems).

Transfer functions are also known as system functions or network functions. They're often represented
in block diagrams and are used in electronic engineering tools like circuit simulators.

A transfer function is a convenient way to represent a linear, time-invariant (LTI) system in terms of its
input-output relationship. It is obtained by applying a Laplace transform to the differential equations
describing system dynamics, assuming zero initial conditions. In the absence of these equations, a
transfer function can also be estimated from measured input-output data.
ECE4510/5510: Feedback Control Systems. 8–1

FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS

8.1: Motivation to study frequency-response methods

■ Advantages and disadvantages to root-locus design approach:
ADVANTAGES :

• Good indicator of transient response.

• Explicitly shows location of closed-loop poles. ➠ Tradeoffs are
clear.
DISADVANTAGES :

• Requires transfer function of plant be known.

• Difficult to infer all performance values.
• Hard to extract steady-state response (sinusoidal inputs).

■ Frequency-response methods can be used to supplement root locus:

• Can infer performance and stability from same plot.
• Can use measured data when no model is available.
• Design process is independent of system order (# poles).
−sτ
• Time delays handled correctly (e ).
• Graphical techniques (analysis/synthesis) are “quite simple.”

What is a frequency response?

■ We want to know how a linear system responds to sinusoidal input, in
steady state.
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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–2
■ Consider system Y (s) = G(s)U (s) with input u(t) = u 0 cos(ωt), so
s
U (s) = u 0 2 .
s + ω2
■ With zero initial conditions,
s
Y (s) = u 0 G(s) .
s 2 + ω2
■ Do a partial-fraction expansion (assume distinct roots)
α1 α2 αn α0 α0∗
Y (s) = + + ···+ + +
s − a1 s − a2 s − an s − jω s + jω
y(t) = !α1ea1t + α2ea2"#
t
+ · · · + αn ean$t +α0e j ωt + α0∗e− j ωt .
If stable, these decay to zero.

yss (t) = α0e j ωt + α0∗e− j ωt .

■ Let α0 = Ae j φ . Then,

yss = Ae j φ e j ωt + Ae− j φ e− j ωt
% &
= A e j (ωt+φ) + e− j (ωt+φ)

= 2A cos (ωt + φ) .

We find α0 via standard partial-fraction-expansion means:

'
α0 = (s − jω)Y (s)|s= j ω
( )
u 0 sG(s) ))
=
(s + jω) )s= j ω
u 0( jω)G( jω) u 0 G( jω)
= = .
(2 jω) 2
■ Substituting into our prior result

yss = u 0|G( jω)| cos (ωt + ̸ G( jω)) .

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–3
■ Important LTI-system fact: If the input to an LTI system is a sinusoid,
the “steady-state” output is a sinusoid of the same frequency but
different amplitude and phase.
FORESHADOWING : Transfer function at s = jω tells us response to a
sinusoid...but also about stability as jω-axis is stability boundary!
EXAMPLE : Suppose that we have a system with transfer function
2
G(s) = .
3+s
■ Then, the system’s frequency response is
)
2 )) 2
G( jω) = = .
3 + s s= j ω 3 + jω
)
■ The magnitude response is
) )
) 2 ) |2| 2 2
A( jω) = )) )= = √ = √ .
3 + jω ) |3 + jω| (3 + jω)(3 − jω) 9+ω 2

■ The phase response is

ω
* +
2
φ( jω) = ̸
3 + jω θ
= ̸ (2) − ̸ (3 + jω) 1 2 3

= 0 − tan−1 (ω/3) .
■ Now that we know the amplitude and phase response, we can find

the amplitude gain and phase change caused by the system for any
specific frequency.
■ For example, if ω = 3 rad s−1,
√
2 2
A( j3) = √ =
9+9 3
φ( j3) = − tan−1(3/3) = −π/4.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–4
8.2: Plotting a frequency response

■ There are two common ways to plot a frequency response ➠ the

magnitude and phase for all frequencies.

EXAMPLE :
R
1
U (s) C Y (s) G(s) =
1 + RCs
■ Frequency response
1
G( jω) = (let RC = 1)
1 + jω RC
1
=
1 + jω
1
=√ ̸ − tan−1 (ω).
1 + ω2
■ We will need to separate magnitude and phase information from
rational polynomials in jω.

• Magnitude = magnitude of numerator / magnitude of denominator

,
R(num)2 + I(num)2
, .
R(den)2 + I(den)2
• Phase = phase of numerator − phase of denominator
* + * +
I(num) I(den)
tan−1 − tan−1 .
R(num) R(den)

Plot method #1: Polar plot in complex plane

■ Evaluate G( jω) at each frequency for 0 ≤ ω < ∞.
■ Result will be a complex number at each frequency: a + jb or Ae j φ .
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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–5

■ Plot each point on the complex plane at (a + jb) or Ae j φ for each

frequency-response value.
■ Result = polar plot.
■ We will later call this a “Nyquist plot”.

ω G( jω)
0 1.000̸ 0.0◦
0.5 0.894̸ − 26.6◦
1.0 0.707̸ − 45.0◦
1.5 0.555̸ − 56.3◦
2.0 0.447̸ − 63.4◦
3.0 0.316̸ − 71.6◦
5.0 0.196̸ − 78.7◦
10.0 0.100̸ − 84.3◦
∞ 0.000̸ − 90.0◦

■ The polar plot is parametric in ω, so it is hard to read the

frequency-response for a specific frequency from the plot.
■ We will see later that the polar plot will help us determine stability
properties of the plant and closed-loop system.

Plot method #2: Magnitude and phase plots

■ We can replot the data by separating the plots for magnitude and
phase making two plots versus frequency.

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–6

1 0

−10
0.8 −20

−30

G( jω)
|G( jω)|

0.6
−40

−50
0.4
−60

̸
0.2 −70

−80

0 −90
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency, (rads/sec.) Frequency, (rads/sec.)

■ The above plots are in a natural scale, but usually a log-log plot is
made ➠ This is called a “Bode plot” or “Bode diagram.”

Reason for using a logarithmic scale

■ Simplest way to display the frequency response of a
rational-polynomial transfer function is to use a Bode Plot.
■ Logarithmic |G( jω)| versus logarithmic ω, and logarithmic ̸ G( jω)
versus ω.
REASON : + *
ab
log10 = log10 a + log10 b − log10 c − log10 d .
cd
➤ The polynomial factors that contribute to the transfer function can
be split up and evaluated separately.
(s + 1)
G(s) =
(s/10 + 1)
( jω + 1)
G( jω) =
( jω/10 + 1)
| jω + 1|
|G( jω)| =
| jω/10 + 1|
- . ω /2
,
log10 |G( jω)| = log10 1 + ω2 − log10 1 + .
10
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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–7
■ Consider: 0
* +2
ω
log10 1+ .
ωn
■ For ω ≪ ωn , 0
* +2
ω
log10 1+ ≈ log10(1) = 0.
ωn
■ For ω ≫ ωn , 0
* +2 * +
ω ω
log10 1+ ≈ log10 .
ωn ωn
KEY POINT: Two straight lines on a log-log plot; intersect at ω = ωn .
■ Typically plot 20 log10 |G( jω)|; that is, in dB.
20dB

Exact Approximation

0.1ωn ωn 10ωn
■ A transfer function is made up of first-order zeros and poles, complex
zeros and poles, constant gains and delays. We will see how to make
straight-line (magnitude- and phase-plot) approximations for all these,
and combine them to form the appropriate Bode diagram.

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–8
8.3: Bode magnitude diagrams (a)

■ The log10(·) operator lets us break a transfer function up into pieces.

■ If we know how to plot the Bode plot of each piece, then we simply
add all the pieces together when we’re done.

Bode magnitude: Constant gain

dB
■ dB = 20 log10 |K |.
|K | > 1
■ Not a function of frequency.
Horizontal straight line. If 0.1 1 10
|K | < 1, then negative, else
|K | < 1
positive.

Bode magnitude: Zero or pole at origin

20 dB
■ For a zero at the origin,
20 dB per
G(s) = s decade

dB = 20 log10 |G( jω)| 0.1 1 10

= 20 log10 | jω| dB.

−20 dB
20 dB
■ For a pole at the origin,
1 −20 dB per
G(s) = decade
s
0.1 1 10
dB = 20 log10 |G( jω)|

= −20 log10 | jω| dB.

−20 dB

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–9
■ Both are straight lines, slope = ±20 dB per decade of frequency.

• Line intersects ω-axis at ω = 1.

■ For an nth-order pole or zero at the origin,

dB = ±20 log10 |( jω)n |

= ±20 log10 ωn

= ±20n log10 ω.

• Still straight lines.

• Still intersect ω-axis at ω = 1.

• But, slope = ±20n dB per decade.

Bode magnitude: Zero or pole on real axis, but not at origin

■ For a zero on the real axis, (LHP or RHP), the standard Bode form is
* +
s
G(s) = ±1 ,
ωn
which ensures unity dc-gain.
■ If you start out with something like

G(s) = (s + ωn ),

then factor as + *
s
G(s) = ωn +1 .
ωn
Draw the gain term (ωn ) separately from the zero term (s/ωn + 1).
■ In general, a LHP or RHP zero has standard Bode form
* +
s
G(s) = ±1
ωn
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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–10
* +
ω
G( jω) = ±1 + j
ωn
0
* +2
ω
20 log10 |G( jω)| = 20 log10 1+
ωn
0
+ *
ω 2 √
■ For ω ≪ ωn , 20 log10 1 + ≈ 20 log10 1 = 0.
ωn
0
* +2 * +
ω ω
■ For ω ≫ ωn , 20 log10 1 + ≈ 20 log10 .
ωn ωn
■ Two straight lines on a log scale which intersect at ω = ωn .
■ For a pole on the real axis, (LHP or RHP) standard Bode form is
* +−1
s
G(s) = ±1
ωn
0
* +2
ω
20 log10 |G( jω)| = −20 log10 1 + .
ωn
This is the same except for a minus sign.

0.1ωn 1ωn 10ωn

−20 dB per
20 dB
decade
20 dB per −20 dB
decade

0.1ωn 1ωn 10ωn

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–11
8.4: Bode magnitude diagrams (b)

Bode magnitude: Complex zero pair or complex pole pair

■ For a complex-zero pair (LHP or RHP) standard Bode form is
* +2 * +
s s
± 2ζ + 1,
ωn ωn
which has unity dc-gain.
■ If you start out with something like
s 2 ± 2ζ ωn s + ωn2 ,
which we have seen before as a “standard form,” the dc-gain is ωn2 .
■ Convert forms by factoring out ωn2
1* + * + 2
2
s s
s 2 ± 2ζ ωn s + ωn2 = ωn2 ± 2ζ +1 .
ωn ωn
■ Complex zeros do not lend themselves very well to straight-line
approximation.
* +2
s
■ If ζ = 1, then this is ±1 .
ωn
■ Double real zero at ω ➠ slope of 40 dB/decade.
n

■ For ζ ̸= 1, there will be overshoot or undershoot at ω ≈ ωn .

Dip amount for 0 < ζ < 0.707
■ For other values of ζ : 0

, -10
• Dip frequency: ωd = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2
-20
Dip (dB)

• Value of |H ( jωd )| is: -30

,
20 log10(2ζ (1 − ζ 2)). -40

-50
• Note: There is no dip unless
√ -60
0 < ζ < 1/ 2 ≈ 0.707 . 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
ζ
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–12
■ We write complex poles (LHP or RHP) as
1* + * + 2−1
2
s s
G(s) = ± 2ζ +1 .
ωn ωn
,
• The resonant peak frequency is ωr = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2
,
• Value of |H ( jωr )| is −20 log10 (2ζ (1 − ζ 2)).

Same graph as for “dip” for complex-conjugate zeros.

◆
√
• Note that there is no peak unless 0 < ζ < 1/ 2 ≈ 0.707 .

• For ω ≪ ωn , magnitude ≈ 0 dB.

• For ω ≫ ωn , magnitude slope = −40 dB/decade.

Bode Mag: Complex zeros Bode Mag: Complex poles
40 dB 20 dB
ζ = 0.05
ζ = 0.9 0.1
20 dB 0 dB 0.2
0.7
0.5 0.3
0.5 0.3
0.7
0 dB 0.2 −20 dB
ζ = 0.9
0.1
0.05
−20 dB −40 dB
0.1ωn ωn 10ωn 0.1ωn ωn 10ωn

Bode magnitude: Time delay

■ G(s) = e−sτ ... |G( jω)| = 1.

■ 20 log10 1 = 0 dB.
■ Does not change magnitude response.

EXAMPLE : Sketch the Bode magnitude plot for

2000(s + 0.5)
G(s) = .
s(s + 10)(s + 50)

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–13
■ The first step is to convert the terms of the transfer function into
“Bode standard form”.
%
2000·0.5 s
&
2000(s + 0.5) +1
G(s) = = % 10·50
s
&0.5
% s
&
s(s + 10)(s + 50) s 10 + 1 50 +1
. /
jω
2 0.5 + 1
G( jω) = . /. /.
jω jω
jω 10 + 1 50 + 1

■ We can see that the components of the transfer function are:

• DC gain of 20 log10 2 ≈ 6 dB;

• Pole at origin;

• One real zero not at origin, and

• Two real poles not at origin.

80

60

40

20

−20

−40

−60 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–14
8.5: Bode phase diagrams (a)

■ Bode diagrams consist of the magnitude plots we have seen so far,

■ BUT, also phase plots. These are just as easy to draw.
■ BUT, they differ depending on whether the dynamics are RHP or LHP.

Finding the phase of a complex number

■ Plot the location of the number as a vector in the complex plane.

■ Use trigonometry to find the phase.
■ For numbers with positive real part,
* + I
I(#)
̸ (#) = tan−1 . p1
̸ ( p2 )
R(#) p2 ̸ ( p1 )
■ For numbers with negative real part, R
* +
I (#)
̸ (#) = 180◦ − tan−1 .
|R(#)|
■ If you are lucky enough to have the “atan2(y, x)” function, then
̸ (#) = atan2(I(#), R(#))

for any complex number.

■ Also note, * +
ab
̸ = ̸ (a) + ̸ (b) − ̸ (c) − ̸ (d).
cd
Finding the phase of a complex function of ω

■ This is the same as finding the phase of a complex number, if specific

values of ω are substituted into the function.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–15
Bode phase: Constant gain

■ G(s) = K .
3
0◦ , K ≥ 0;
■ ̸ (K ) = ◦
.
−180 , K < 0.
■ Constant phase of 0◦ or −180◦.

Bode phase: Zero or pole at origin

■ Zero: G(s) = s, . . . G( jω) = jω = ω̸ 90◦.

1 1 −j 1
■ Pole: G(s) = , . . . G( jω) = = = ̸ − 90◦.
s jω ω ω
■ Constant phase of ±90 .
◦

Bode phase: Real LHP zero or pole

* +
s
■ Zero: G(s) = +1 . 90◦
ωn
* +
ω
̸ G( jω) = ̸ j +1 45◦ per
ωn decade
* +
ω
= tan−1 .
ωn
0.1ωn ωn 10ωn
1 0.1ωn ωn 10ωn
■ Pole: G(s) = . /,
s
ωn
+1
* + −45◦ per
ω decade
̸ G( jω) = ̸ (1) − ̸ j+1
ωn
* +
ω
= − tan−1 . −90◦
ωn

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–16
Bode phase: Real RHP zero or pole
* +
s 180◦
■ Zero: G(s) = −1 .
ωn −45◦ per
* + decade
ω
̸ G( jω) = ̸ j −1 90◦
ωn
* +
ω
= 180◦ − tan−1 .
ωn
0.1ωn ωn 10ωn
1
■ Pole: G(s) = . /,
s 0.1ωn ωn 10ωn
ωn
− 1
* +
ω
̸ G( jω) = ̸ (1) − ̸ j −1
ωn −90◦
* * ++
ω 45◦ per
= − 180◦ − tan−1 decade
ωn
* + −180◦
ω
= −180◦ + tan−1 .
ωn

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–17
8.6: Bode phase diagrams (b)

Bode phase: Complex LHP zero pair or pole pair

■ Complex LHP zeros cause phase to go from 0◦ to 180◦.

■ Complex LHP poles cause phase to go from −180◦ to 0◦.
■ Transition happens in about ±ζ decades, centered at ωn .
Bode Phase: Complex LHP zeros Bode Phase: Complex LHP poles
180 0

160
ζ = 0.05 −20

140
0.1 −40
0.2
120
0.3 −60
ζ = 0.9
100 0.5 −80
0.7
80 0.7 −100 0.5
60 0.9 −120 0.3
40 −140 0.2
20 −160
0.1
0 −180
0.05
0.1ωn ωn 10ωn 0.1ωn ωn 10ωn

Bode phase: Complex RHP zero pair or pole pair

■ Complex RHP zeros cause phase to go from 360◦ to 180◦.

■ Complex RHP poles cause phase to go from −360◦ to −180◦.
Bode Phase: Complex RHP zeros Bode Phase: Complex RHP poles
0
350
−50
300

−100
250

−150
200

−200
150

−250
100

−300
50

−350
0
0.1ωn ωn 10ωn 0.1ωn ωn 10ωn

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c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–18
Bode phase: Time delay
■ G(s) = e−sτ , 0.1ωi ωi 10ωi

G( jω) = e− j ωτ = 1̸ − ωτ
̸ G( jω) = −ωτ in radians.

= −56.3ωτ in degrees.

Note: Line→curve in log scale.

■

EXAMPLE : Sketch the Bode phase plot for

2000(s + 0.5) 2 ( jω/0.5 + 1)
G(s) = or G( jω) = ,
s(s + 10)(s + 50) jω ( jω/10 + 1) ( jω/50 + 1)
where we converted to “Bode standard form” in a prior example.
■ Constant: K = +2. Zero phase contribution.
■ Pole at origin: Phase contribution of −90◦.
■ Two real LHP poles: Phase from 0◦ to −90◦, each.
■ One real LHP zero: Phase from 0◦ to 90◦.
90

−90

−180
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–19

EXAMPLE : Sketch the Bode magnitude and phase plots for

1200 (s + 3)
G(s) = .
s (s + 12) (s + 50)
■ First, we convert to Bode standard form, which gives
% &
1200 (3) 1 + 3s
G(s) = % s
&% s
&
s (12) (50) 1 + 12 1 + 50
. /
jω
6 1+ 3
G( jω) = . /. /.
jω jω
jω 1 + 12 1 + 50

■ Positive gain, one real LHP zero, one pole at origin, two real LHP
poles.
30
20
10
0
−10
−20 −1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10

90
45
0
−45
−90
−135
−180 −1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–20
8.7: Some observations based on Bode plots

Nonminimum-phase systems
■ A system is called a nonminimum-phase if it has pole(s) or zero(s) in
the RHP.
■ Consider 5
4
s+1 zero at − 1 minimum
G 1(s) = 10
s + 10 pole at − 10 phase
4 5
s−1 zero at + 1 nonminimum
G 2(s) = 10
s + 10 pole at − 10 phase
■ The magnitude responses of these two systems are:
√
| jω + 1| ω2 + 1
|G 1( jω)| = 10 = 10 √
| jω + 10| ω2 + 100
√
| jω − 1| ω2 + 1
|G 2( jω)| = 10 = 10 √
| jω + 10| ω2 + 100
which are the same!
■ The phase responses are very different:
Bode-Magnitude Plot Bode-Phase Plot
(G 1 ( jω)), ̸ (G 2 ( jω))

180
20
|G 1 ( jω)|, |G 2 ( jω)|

150
15
120
Non-minimum
Phase, G 2
10 90

60
Minimum
5 Phase, G 1
30

0
0
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
̸

Frequency, (rads/sec.) Frequency, (rads/sec.)

■ Note that the change in phase of G 1 is much smaller than change of
phase in G 2. Hence G 1 is “minimum phase” and G 2 is
“nonminimum-phase”
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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–21
■ Non-minimum phase usually associated with delay.
s−1
G 2(s) = G 1(s)
+ 1$
!s "#
Delay

s−1
■ Note: is very similar to a first-order Padé approximation to a
s+1
delay. It is the same when evaluated at s = jω.
■ Consider using feedback to control a nonminimum-phase system.
What do the root-locus plotting techniques tell us?
■ Consequently, nonminimum-phase systems are harder to design
controllers for; step response often tends to “go the wrong way,” at
least initially.

Steady-state errors from Bode magnitude plot

■ Recall our discussion of steady-state errors to step/ramp/parabolic

inputs versus “system type” (summarized on pg. 4–24)
■ Consider a unity-feedback system.
■ If the open-loop plant transfer function has N poles at s = 0 then the
system is “type N ”

• K p is error constant for type 0.

• K v is error constant for type 1.

• K a is error constant for type 2...

■ For a unity-feedback system, K p = lim G(s).

s→0

• At low frequency, a type 0 system will have G(s) ≈ K p .

• We can read this off the Bode-magnitude plot directly!

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–22

• Horizontal y-intercept at low frequency = K p .

1
➠ ess = for step input.
1 + Kp
■ K v = lim sG(s), and is nonzero for a type 1 system.
s→0

Kv
• At low frequency, a type 1 system will have G(s) ≈ .
s
Kv
• At low frequency, |G( jω)| ≈ . Slope of −20 dB/decade.
ω
• Use the above approximation to extend the low-frequency
asymptote to ω = 1. The asymptote (NOT THE ORIGINAL
|G( jω)|) evaluated at ω = 1 is K v .
1
➠ ess = for ramp input.
Kv
■ K a = lim s 2 G(s), and is nonzero for a type 2 system.
s→0

Ka
• At low frequency, a type 2 system will have G(s) ≈ .
s2
Ka
• At low frequency, |G( jω)| ≈ . Slope of −40 dB/decade.
ω2
• Again, use approximation to extend low-frequency asymptote to
ω = 1. The asymptote evaluated at ω = 1 is K a .
1
➠ ess = for parabolic input.
Ka
■ Similar for higher-order systems.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–23

20
Example 1 60
Example 2
10 50
Magnitude

Magnitude
0 40

−10 30

−20 20

−30 10

−40 0
−2 −1 0 1 −2 −1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency, (rads/sec.) Frequency, (rads/sec.)

EXAMPLE 1:

➤ Horizontal as ω → 0, so we know this is type 0.

➤ Intercept = 6 dB. . .K p = 6 dB = 2 [linear units].

EXAMPLE 2:

➤ Slope = −20 dB/decade as ω → 0, so we know this is type 1.

➤ Extend slope at low frequency to ω = 1.
➤ Intercept = 20 dB. . . K v = 20 dB = 10 [linear units].

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–24
8.8: Stability revisited

■ If we know the closed-loop transfer function of a system in rational-

polynomial form, we can use Routh to find stable ranges for K .
■ Motivation: What if we only have open-loop frequency response?

A simple example
■ Consider, for now, that we know the transfer-function of the system,
and can plot the root-locus.
EXAMPLE :
I(s)
K =2
r (t) 1
K y(t)
s(s + 1)2
R(s)

■ We see neutral stability at K = 2. The system is stable for K < 2 and

unstable for K > 2.
■ Recall that a point is on the root locus if |K G(s)| = 1 and
̸ G(s) = −180◦ .

■ If system is neutrally stable, jω-axis will have a point (points) where

|K G( jω)| = 1 and ̸ G( jω) = −180◦.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–25
■ Consider the Bode plot of
K G(s). . .
40

■ A neutral-stability condition from 20

Bode plot is: |K G( jωo)| = 1 AND −20 K = 0.1

̸ K G( jωo ) = −180◦ at the same −40 K =2
−60 K = 10
frequency ωo . −80 −2
10
−1
10
0
10
1
10

■ In this case, increasing −90

K →instability ➠ |K G( jω)| < 1 −120

at ̸ K G( jω) = −180◦ =stability.

−150

−180

In some cases, decreasing

■
−210

−240

K →instability ➠ |K G( jω)| > 1 −270 −2 −1 0 1

10 10 10 10
◦
at K G( jω) = −180 =stability.
̸

KEY POINT: We can find neutral stability point on Bode plot, but don’t
(yet) have a way of determining if the system is stable or not. Nyquist
found a frequency-domain method to do so.

Nyquist stability

■ Poles of closed-loop transfer function in RHP—the system is unstable.

■ Nyquist found way to count closed-loop poles in RHP.
■ If count is greater than zero, system is unstable.
■ Idea:

• First, find a way to count closed-loop poles inside a contour.

• Second, make the contour equal to the RHP.

■ Counting is related to complex functional mapping.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–26
8.9: Interlude: Complex functional mapping

■ Nyquist technique is a graphical method to determine system stability,

regions of stability and MARGINS of stability.
■ Involves graphing complex functions of s as a polar plot.

EXAMPLE : Plotting f (x), a real function of a real variable x.

f (x)

■ This can be done.

EXAMPLE : Plotting F(s), a complex function of a complex variable s.
F(s)
? NO! This is wrong!

s
■ Must draw mapping of points or lines from s-plane to F(s)-plane.
jω s I(F) F(s)
F(s0)

mapping
s0
σ R(F)
EXAMPLE : F(s) = 2s + 1 . . . “map the four points: A, B, C, D”
D A I(s)
j

−1 1 R(s)
−j
C B

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–27
s
EXAMPLE : Map a square contour (closed path) by F(s) = .
s +2
D j A j IF(D)
(s)

F( A)
−1 1 −1 F(B)1 R(s)

C −j B − j F(C)

FORESHADOWING : By drawing maps of a specific contour, using a

mapping function related to the plant open-loop frequency-response,
we will be able to determine closed-loop stability of systems.

Mapping function: Poles of the function

■ When we map a contour containing (encircling) poles and zeros of
the mapping function, this map will give us information about how
many poles and zeros are encircled by the contour.
■ Practice drawing maps when we know poles and zeros. Evaluate
v |e j α
G(s)|s=so = G(so) = |⃗
6 6
α= ̸ (zeros) − ̸ (poles).

EXAMPLE :
F(c1)
I(s)
c1
α
R(s)

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–28
■ In this example, there are no zeros or poles inside the contour. The
phase α increases and decreases, but never undergoes a net change
of 360◦ (does not encircle the origin).
EXAMPLE :
I(s)
F(c2)
c2
α
R(s)

■ One pole inside contour. Resulting map undergoes 360◦ net phase
change. (Encircles the origin).
EXAMPLE :
I(s) F(c3)
c3

R(s)

■ In this example, there are two poles inside the contour, and the map
encircles the origin twice.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–29
8.10: Cauchy’s theorem and Nyquist’s rule
■ These examples give heuristic evidence of the general rule: Cauchy’s
theorem

“Let F(s) be the ratio of two polynomials in s. Let the closed

curve C in the s-plane be mapped into the complex plane
through the mapping F(s). If the curve C does not pass through
any zeros or poles of F(s) as it is traversed in the CW direction,
the corresponding map in the F(s)-plane encircles the origin
N = Z − P times in the CW direction,” where
Z = # of zeros of F(s) in C,

P = # of poles of F(s) in C.
■ Consider the following feedback system:

r (t) D(s) G(s) y(t)

D(s)G(s)
T (s) = .
1 + D(s)G(s)H (s)
H (s)

I(s)
■ For closed-loop stability, no poles of T (s)
in RHP. R→∞

• No zeros of 1 + D(s)G(s)H (s) in RHP.

R(s)
• Let F(s) = 1 + D(s)G(s)H (s).

• Count zeros in RHP using Cauchy

theorem! (Contour=entire RHP).

■ The Nyquist criterion simplifies Cauchy’s criterion for feedback

systems of the above form.
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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–30
■ Cauchy: F(s) = 1 + D(s)G(s)H (s). N = # of encirclements of origin.
■ Nyquist: F(s) = D(s)G(s)H (s). N = # of encirclements of −1.
Cauchy Nyquist
I(s) I(s)

R(s) R(s)

■ Simple? YES!!!
■ Think of Nyquist path as four parts: I(s)
I. Origin. Sometimes a special case (later III
examples). II

II. + jω-axis. FREQUENCY-response of R(s)

I
O.L. system! Just plot it as a polar plot.
IV
III. For physical systems=0.
IV. Complex conjugate of II.
■ So, for most physical systems, the Nyquist plot, used to determine
CLOSED-LOOP stability, is merely a polar plot of LOOP frequency
response D( jω)G( jω)H ( jω).
■ We don’t even need a mathematical model of the system. Measured
data of G( jω) combined with our known D( jω) and H ( jω) are
enough to determine closed-loop stability.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–31

THE TEST:
■ N = # encirclements of −1 point when F(s) = D(s)G(s)H (s).
■ P = # poles of 1 + F(s) in RHP= # of open-loop unstable poles. (as-
suming that H (s) is stable—reasonable).
■ Z = # of zeros of 1 + F(s) in RHP= # of closed-loop unstable poles.

Z=N+P

The system is stable iff Z = 0.

■ Be careful counting encirclements!

■ Draw line from −1 in any direction.
■ Count # crossings of line and diagram.
■ N = #CW crossings−#CCW crossings.

■ Changing the gain K of F(s) MAGNIFIES the entire plot.

ENHANCED TEST: Loop transfer function is K D(s)G(s)H (s).

■ N = # encirclements of −1/K point when F(s) = D(s)G(s)H (s).

■ Rest of test is the same.
■ Gives ranges of K for stability.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–32
8.11: Nyquist test example
EXAMPLE : D(s) = H (s) = 1.
5 ω R(G( jω)) I(G( jω))
G(s) =
(s + 1)2 0.0000 5.0000 0.0000
5 0.0019 4.9999 -0.0186
or, G( jω) =
( jω + 1)2 0.0040 4.9998 -0.0404
I: At s = 0, G(s) = 5. 0.0088 4.9988 -0.0879
5 0.0191 4.9945 -0.1908
II : At s = jω, G( jω) = .
(1 + jω)2 0.0415 4.9742 -0.4135
III : At |s| = ∞, G(s) = 0. 0.0902 4.8797 -0.8872
0.1959 4.4590 -1.8172
IV : At s = − jω, G(s) =
5 0.4258 2.9333 -3.0513
.
(1 − jω)2 0.9253 0.2086 -2.6856
2.0108 -0.5983 -0.7906
I(s)
4.3697 -0.2241 -0.1082
9.4957 -0.0536 -0.0114
20.6351 -0.0117 -0.0011
R(s) 44.8420 -0.0025 -0.0001
97.4460 -0.0005 -0.0000
500.0000 -0.0000 -0.0000

■ No encirclements of −1, N = 0.
■ No open-loop unstable poles P = 0.
■ Z = N + P = 0. Closed-loop system is stable.
■ No encirclements of −1/K for any K > 0.

• So, system is stable for any K > 0.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–33
■ Confirm by checking Routh array.
■ Routh array: a(s) = 1 + K G(s) = s 2 + 2s + 1 + 5K .

s2 1 1 + 5K
s1 2
s 0 1 + 5K

■ Stable for any K > 0.

ω R(G( jω)) I(G( jω))
50 0 5.0000 0
EXAMPLE : G(s) = .
(s + 1)2(s + 10) 0.1 4.9053 -0.8008
I: G(0) = 50/10 = 5. 0.2 4.4492 -1.8624
50
II: G( jω) = . 0.5 2.4428 -3.2725
( jω + 1) ( jω + 10)
2
1.2 -0.5621 -2.0241
III: G(∞) = 0.
2.9 -0.4764 -0.1933
IV: G(− jω) = G( jω)∗. 7.1 -0.0737 0.0262

■ Note loop to left of origin. System 17.7 -0.0046 0.0064

is NOT stable for all K > 0. 43.7 -0.0002 0.0006

100.0 -0.0000 0.0000
I(s) Zoom

R(s)

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–34
8.12: Nyquist test example with pole on jω-axis
1
EXAMPLE : Pole(s) at origin. G(s) = .
s(τ s + 1)
■ WARNING! We cannot blindly follow procedure!

■ Nyquist path goes through pole at zero! (Remember from Cauchy’s

theorem that the path cannot pass directly through a pole or zero.)
■ Remember: We want to count closed-loop poles inside a “box” that
encompasses the RHP.
■ So, we use a slightly-modified Nyquist path.
I(s) I(s) Zoom

III
II ρ→0
θ
R(s) R(s)
I
IV

■ The bump at the origin makes a detour around the offending pole.
■ Bump defined by curve: s = lim ρe j θ , 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦.
ρ→0
■ From above,
1
G(s)|s=ρe j θ = , 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦
ρe j θ (τρe j θ + 1)
■ Consider magnitude as ρ → 0
1 1
lim |G(s)|s=ρe j θ = ≈ .
ρ→0 ρ|τρe j θ + 1| ρ

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■ Consider phase as ρ → 0
lim ̸ G(s)|s=ρe j θ = −θ − ̸ (τρe j θ + 1).
ρ→0

■ So,
1
lim G(ρe j θ ) = lim ̸ − θ+
ρ→0 ρ→0 ρ

• This is an arc of infinite radius, sweeping from 0◦ to −90◦+ (a little

1
more than 90◦ because of contribution from term).
(τ s + 1)
• WE CANNOT DRAW THIS TO SCALE!

■ Z = N + P.
■ N = # encirclements of −1. N = 0.
■ P = # Loop transfer function poles
inside MODIFIED contour. P = 0.
■ Z = 0. Closed-loop system is stable.

EXAMPLE :
1
G(s) =
s 2(s + 1)
■ Use modified Nyquist path again
I: Near origin
1
G(s)|s=ρe j θ = .
ρ 2e j 2θ (1 + ρe j θ )
jθ 1 1
■ Magnitude: lim |G(ρe )| = 2 ≈ .
ρ→0 ρ |1 + ρe j θ | ρ 2
■ Phase: lim ̸ G(ρe
jθ
) = 0 − [2θ + ̸ (1 + ρe j θ )] ≈ −2θ +. So,
ρ→0
1
lim G(ρe j θ ) = lim ̸ − 2θ + 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦.
ρ→0 ρ→0 ρ 2

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■ Infinite arc from 0◦ to −180◦+ (a little

1
more than −180◦ because of term.)
1+s
■ Z = N + P = 2 + 0 = 2. Unstable for

K = 1.
■ In fact, unstable for any K > 0!

■ Matlab for above

1
G(s) =
s 3 + s 2 + 0s + 0
num=[0 0 0 1];
den=[1 1 0 0];
nyquist1(num,den);
axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax]);
■ “nyquist1.m” is available on course web site.
■ It repairs the standard Matlab “nyquist.m” program, which doesn’t
work when poles are on imaginary axis.
■ “nyquist2.m” is also available. It draws contours around poles on the
imaginary axis in the opposite way to “nyquist1.m”. Counting is
different.

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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–37
8.13: Stability (gain and phase) margins
■ A large fraction of systems to be controlled are stable for small gain
but become unstable if gain is increased beyond a certain point.
■ The distance between the current (stable) system and an unstable
system is called a “stability margin.”
■ Can have a gain margin and a phase margin.
GAIN MARGIN : Factor by which the gain is less than the neutral stability
value.
■ Gain margin measures “How much can we increase the gain of the
loop transfer function L(s) = D(s)G(s)H (s) and still have a stable
system?”

■ Many Nyquist plots are like this one.

Increasing loop gain magnifies the 1
plot. GM
■ GM =1/(distance between origin and PM
place where Nyquist map crosses
real axis).
■ If we increase gain, Nyquist map
“stretches” and we may encircle −1.

■ For a stable system, GM > 1 (linear units) or GM > 0 dB.

PHASE MARGIN : Phase factor by which phase is greater than neutral
stability value.
■ Phase margin measures “How much delay can we add to the loop
transfer function and still have a stable system?”
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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–38
■ PM = Angle to rotate Nyquist plot to achieve neutral stability =
intersection of Nyquist with circle of radius 1.
■ If we increase open-loop delay, Nyquist map “rotates” and we may
encircle −1.
■ For a stable system, PM > 0◦.

IRONY: This is usually easiest to check on Bode plot, even though

derived on Nyquist plot!
■ Define gain crossover as frequency where Bode magnitude is 0 dB.
■ Define phase crossover as frequency where Bode phase is −180◦.
30

20
■ GM = 1/(Bode gain at
Magnitude

10
phase-crossover 0

frequency) if Bode gain is −10

measured in linear units. −20

−30 −2 −1 0 1 2
■ GM = (− Bode gain at 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency, (rads/sec.)
phase-crossover
−90
frequency) [dB] if Bode −120

gain measured in dB. −150

Phase

−180
■ PM = Bode phase at −210

gain-crossover −(−180◦). −240

−270
−2 −1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

Frequency, (rads/sec.)
■ We can also determine stability as K changes. Instead of defining
gain crossover where |G( jω)| = 1, use the frequency where
|K G( jω)| = 1.
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ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–39
■ You need to be careful using this test.
• It works if you apply it blindly and the system is minimum-phase.
• You need to think harder if the system is nonminimum-phase.
• Nyquist is the safest bet.

PM and performance
■ A bonus of computing PM from the open-loop frequency response
graph is that it can help us predict closed-loop system performance.
■ PM is related to damping. Consider open-loop 2nd-order system
ωn2
G(s) =
s(s + 2ζ ωn )
with unity feedback,
ωn2
T (s) = 2 .
s + 2ζ ωn + ωn2
■ The relationship between PM and ζ is: (for this system)
⎡ ⎤
2ζ
PM = tan−1 ⎣ :,
⎢ ⎥
⎦
1 + 4ζ 4 − 2ζ 2
PM
■ For PM ≤ 60◦, ζ ≈ , so can also infer M p from PM.
100
Damping ratio versus PM Overshoot fraction versus PM
1 1
0.9
Damping ratio ζ

M p , overshoot

0.8 0.8
0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Phase margin Phase margin

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8.14: Preparing for control using frequency-response methods

Bode’s gain-phase relationship

■ “For any stable minimum-phase system (that is, one with no RHP
zeros or poles), the phase of G( jω) is uniquely related to the
magnitude of G( jω)”
> * +
1 ∞ dM
■ Relationship: ̸ G( jω ) = W (u) du (in radians)
o
π −∞ du
M = ln |G( jω)|
* +
ω
u = ln
ωo
dM
≈ slope n of log-mag curve at ω = ωo
du
W (u) = weighting function = ln(coth |u|/2)
4
2
π 3.5
■ W (u) ≈ δ(u). Using this re- 3
2
lationship, ̸ G( jω) ≈ n × 90◦ 2.5
W (u)

if slope of Bode magnitude- 1.5

1
plot is constant in the decade- 0.5

neighborhood of ω. 0
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6

Normalized freq. u
■ So, if ̸ G( jω) ≈ −90◦ if n = −1.
■ So, if ̸ G( jω) ≈ −180◦ if n = −2.
KEY POINT: Want crossover |G( jω)| = 1 at a slope of about −1 for good
PM. We will soon see how to do this (design!).

Lecture notes prepared by and copyright ⃝

c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli
ECE4510/ECE5510, FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 8–41
Closed-loop frequency response

■ Most of the notes in this section have used the open-loop frequency
response to predict closed-loop behavior.
■ How about closed-loop frequency response?
K D(s)G(s)
T (s) = .
1 + K D(s)G(s)
■ General approximations are simple to make. If,

|K D( jω)G( jω)| ≫ 1 for ω ≪ ωc

and |K D( jω)G( jω)| ≪ 1 for ω ≫ ωc

where ωc is the cutoff frequency where open-loop magnitude

response crosses magnitude=1.
) ) 3
) K D( jω)G( jω) )
) ≈ 1, ω ≪ ωc ;
|T ( jω)| = ))
1 + K D( jω)G( jω) ) |K D( jω)G( jω)|, ω ≫ ωc .
■ Note: ωc ≤ ωbw ≤ 2ωc .

Lecture notes prepared by and copyright ⃝

c 1998–2017, Gregory L. Plett and M. Scott Trimboli