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Variable
In [5]: name ="VaibhaV"

In [6]: print(name)

VaibhaV

Object Types / Data Types

Number : 1234, 3.1415, 3+4j, 0b111, Decimal(), Fraction()
String : 'spam', "Bob's", b'a\x01c', u'sp\xc4m'
List : [1, [2, 'three'], 4.5], list(range(10))
Tuple : (1, 'spam', 4, 'U'), tuple('spam'), namedtuple
Dictionary : {'food': 'spam', 'taste': 'yum'}, dict(hours=10)
Set : set('abc'), {'a', 'b', 'c'}
File : open('eggs.txt'), open(r'C:\ham.bin', 'wb')
Boolean : True, False
None : None
Funtions, modules, classes
Advance: Decorators, Generators, Iterators, MetaProgramming

Data type
int
float
Boolean
String
In [6]: num1= 1
print(type(num1))
num2= 2.303
print(type(num2))
num3= True
print(type(num3))
num4= "VaibhaV"
print(type(num4))

<class 'int'>
<class 'float'>
<class 'bool'>
<class 'str'>

Operators
Arithmatic Operator +, -, *, /
In [7]: num1, num2 = 36, 7

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In [8]: num1 + num2

43
Out[8]:

In [9]: num1 - num2

29
Out[9]:

In [10]: num1 * num2

252
Out[10]:

In [11]: num1 / num2

5.142857142857143
Out[11]:

In [12]: num1 // num2

5
Out[12]:

Relational Operator <, >, ==, !=

In [13]: num1 > num2

True
Out[13]:

In [14]: num1 < num2

False
Out[14]:

In [15]: num1 == num2

False
Out[15]:

In [16]: num1 != num2

True
Out[16]:

Logical Operator & |

In [17]: log1 = True
log2 = False

In [18]: log1 & log2

False
Out[18]:

In [19]: log1 & log1

True
Out[19]:

In [20]: log1 | log1

True
Out[20]:

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Python Tokens
Smallest meaningfull componet in program
Keywords : Special reserved words like For If Yield
Identifiers: Names used for variables, functions or objects
Literals : Costants in python
num = "Test" : here "num" is Identifier and "Test" is literal
Operators

String:
In [21]: str1 = "I love Pizza"
str1.find("Piz")

7
Out[21]:

In [22]: fruits ="Mango, Banana, Apple"

fruits.split(", ")

['Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple']

Out[22]:

List
In Python, a list is a built-in data structure that allows you to store an ordered collection
of items. These items can be of any data type, including integers, strings, floats, or even
other lists. Lists are mutable, meaning you can change their content without changing
their identity.
Here is a basic definition and example of a list in Python:
Definition:A list is defined by placing a comma-separated sequence of items within
square brackets [].
Key Characteristics:
Ordered: The items have a defined order, and that order will not change unless you
explicitly modify the list.
Mutable: You can change, add, or remove items after the list has been created.
Heterogeneous: A list can contain items of different data types.
Common Operations:
Accessing Elements: Use indexing to access individual elements.
Slicing: Use slicing to access a range of elements.
Appending: Use append() to add an element to the end of the list.
Inserting: Use insert() to add an element at a specific position.
Removing: Use remove() to remove a specific element.
Popping: Use pop() to remove an element at a specific position and return it.
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Length: Use len() to get the number of elements in the list.

In [24]: l1 = [1, "a", 2, True]

In [25]: l1[0]=100
l1

[100, 'a', 2, True]

Out[25]:

In [26]: l1.append("VaibhaV")
l1

[100, 'a', 2, True, 'VaibhaV']

Out[26]:

In [27]: l1.pop()

'VaibhaV'
Out[27]:

In [28]: l1

[100, 'a', 2, True]

Out[28]:

In [29]: l1.reverse()
l1

[True, 2, 'a', 100]

Out[29]:

In [30]: l1.insert(1, "Test")

l1

[True, 'Test', 2, 'a', 100]

Out[30]:

In [31]: l1.sort()
l1

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[31], line 1
----> 1 l1.sort()
2 l1

TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'bool'

In [32]: l2 = ['Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple']

l2.sort()
l2

['Apple', 'Banana', 'Mango']

Out[32]:

In [33]: l1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

l2 = [1, 2, 3]
l1+ l2

['a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2, 3]

Out[33]:

In [34]: l1 = [1, "b", True]

l1 * 3

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[1, 'b', True, 1, 'b', True, 1, 'b', True]
Out[34]:

Tuple
Tuple are ordered collection of elements enclosed within ()
Tuples are immutable, once created we can not update or change values of tuple
In [35]: tup1 = (1, "b", True)
tup1

(1, 'b', True)

Out[35]:

In [36]: type(tup1)

tuple
Out[36]:

In [37]: tup2 = tup1 *3

tup2

(1, 'b', True, 1, 'b', True, 1, 'b', True)

Out[37]:

In [38]: tup2[1:6]

('b', True, 1, 'b', True)

Out[38]:

In [39]: tup2[::2]

(1, True, 'b', 1, True)

Out[39]:

In [41]: tup2[2]="Test"

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[41], line 1
----> 1 tup2[2]="Test"

TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

In [42]: tup1 = ("a", "b", "c")

tup2 = (1, 2, 3)
tup1 + tup2

('a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2, 3)

Out[42]:

Dictionary
Dictionary is an unordered collection of key-value pairs enclosed with {}
Dictionary is mutable
In [43]: fruit = {"Mango": 10, 'Banana': 20, 'Apple':30}

In [44]: fruit.keys()

dict_keys(['Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple'])

Out[44]:

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In [45]: fruit.values()

dict_values([10, 20, 30])

Out[45]:

In [46]: fruit["Guava"]=40
fruit

{'Mango': 10, 'Banana': 20, 'Apple': 30, 'Guava': 40}

Out[46]:

In [47]: fruit

{'Mango': 10, 'Banana': 20, 'Apple': 30, 'Guava': 40}

Out[47]:

In [48]: f1 = {'Mango': 10, 'Banana': 20}

f2 = {'Apple': 30, 'Guava': 40}

In [49]: f1.update(f2)
f1

{'Mango': 10, 'Banana': 20, 'Apple': 30, 'Guava': 40}

Out[49]:

In [50]: f1.pop("Guava")

40
Out[50]:

In [51]: f1

{'Mango': 10, 'Banana': 20, 'Apple': 30}

Out[51]:

Set
Set ia a unordered and unindexed collection of elements enclosed with {}
Duplicates are not allowed in Set
In [52]: # Try duplicates with set
s1 = {"c", "a", "b", 1, 2, 3, "a", "b", 1, 2}
s1

{1, 2, 3, 'a', 'b', 'c'}

Out[52]:

In [53]: s1.add("Test")
s1

{1, 2, 3, 'Test', 'a', 'b', 'c'}

Out[53]:

In [54]: s1.remove("b")
s1

{1, 2, 3, 'Test', 'a', 'c'}

Out[54]:

In [55]: s1 = {'Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple', 1, 2, 'a'}

s2 = {'a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2}
s1.union(s2)

{1, 2, 'Apple', 'Banana', 'Mango', 'a', 'b', 'c'}

Out[55]:

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In [56]: s1

{1, 2, 'Apple', 'Banana', 'Mango', 'a'}

Out[56]:

In [57]: s2

{1, 2, 'a', 'b', 'c'}

Out[57]:

In [58]: s1.intersection(s2)

{1, 2, 'a'}
Out[58]:

Decision making / Conditions

In [59]: a, b= 10, 20

In [60]: if a>b:
print("A is greater than B")
else:
print("B is greater than A")

B is greater than A

In [61]: result= "A is greater than B" if a>b else "B is greater than A"
result

'B is greater than A'

Out[61]:

In [62]: tup= ("a", "b", "c")

In [63]: if "z" in tup:

print("z is in tup")
else:
print("z is not in tup")

z is not in tup

Looping Statement
To repeat task multiple times
In [64]: fruit = ['Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple']
for frt in fruit:
print(frt)

Mango
Banana
Apple

In [65]: i= 1
while i<=10:
print(i)
i+=1

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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Object Oriented Programming

Class: user defined data type
Attributes
Methods
Objects : Specific instance of a class
In [66]: class Phone:
def make_call(self):
print("Making phone call")
def play_game(self):
print("Playing game")
def set_color(self, color):
self.color = color
def set_cost(self, cost):
self.cost = cost
def show_color(self):
return self.color
def show_cost(self):
return self.cost

In [67]: p1 = Phone()

In [68]: p1.make_call()

Making phone call

In [69]: p1.play_game()

Playing game

In [70]: p1.set_color("Red")

In [71]: p1.set_cost(1000)

In [72]: p1.show_color()

'Red'
Out[72]:

In [73]: p1.show_cost()

1000
Out[73]:

Constructor
In [74]: class Phone:
def __init__(self, color, cost):
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self.color = color
self.cost = cost
def make_call(self):
print("Making phone call")
def play_game(self):
print("Playing game")

In [75]: p1 = Phone("Red", 2000)

In [76]: p1.color

'Red'
Out[76]:

Inheritance
With inheritance one class can derive the properties of another class
In [77]: class Vehicle:
def __init__(self, mileage, cost):
self.mileage = mileage
self.cost = cost

def vehicle_details(self):
print(f"Vehicle has {self.mileage} mileage and it cost ${self.cost}"

In [78]: v1 = Vehicle(27, 15000)

v1.vehicle_details()

Vehicle has 27 mileage and it cost $15000

In [79]: class Car(Vehicle):

def show_car(self):
print("I am Car")

In [80]: c1 = Car(200, 15000)

In [81]: c1.show_car()

I am Car

In [82]: c1.vehicle_details()

Vehicle has 200 mileage and it cost $15000

In [83]: class Car(Vehicle):

def __init__(self, mileage, cost, hp ):
super().__init__(mileage, cost)
self.hp = hp
def show_car(self):
print(f"I am car with mileage: {self.mileage}, cost: {self.cost}, po

In [84]: c1= Car(100, 15000, 2000)

In [85]: c1.show_car()

I am car with mileage: 100, cost: 15000, power: 2000

In [86]: c1.vehicle_details()

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Vehicle has 100 mileage and it cost $15000

Multiple Inheretance
Child inherite more than one parent class
In [93]: class Parent1:
def assign_string_1(self, name):
self.name1 = name
def show_string_1(self):
return self.name1

class Parent2:
def assign_string_2(self, name):
self.name2 = name
def show_string_2(self):
return self.name2

class Child(Parent1, Parent2):

def assign_string_3(self, name):
self.name3 = name
def show_string_3(self):
return self.name3

In [94]: c1 = Child()
c1.assign_string_1("One")
c1.assign_string_2("Two")
c1.assign_string_3("Three")

In [95]: print(c1.show_string_1())
print(c1.show_string_2())
print(c1.show_string_3())

One
Two
Three

Multi Level Inheritance

-We have Parent, Child, grand-child
In [96]: class Parent1:
def assign_name(self, name):
self.name = name
def show_name(self):
return self.name

class Child(Parent1):
def assign_age(self, age):
self.age = age
def show_age(self):
return self.age

class GrandChild(Child):
def assign_gender(self, gender):
self.gender = gender
def show_gender(self):
return self.gender

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In [97]: gc = GrandChild()

In [98]: gc.assign_name("Test")

In [99]: gc.assign_age(21)

In [100… gc.assign_gender("Male")

In [101… print(f"{gc.show_name()} is a {gc.show_gender()} aged {gc.show_age()}")

Test is a Male aged 21

File Handling
Open mode : Open text file for reading, writing and doing some other stuff
Read mode : To read the text which is already stored in your text file
Write mode : To write your text in .txt file
In [102… file = open('processed_data/test.txt', 'w')

try:
file.write('Chai aur code line 1')
finally:
file.close()

In [103… file = open('processed_data/test.txt', 'a')

try:
file.write('\nChai aur code line 2')
finally:
file.close()

In [104… file = open('processed_data/test.txt', 'r')

data_read = file.read()
total_count = len(data_read)
print(total_count)

41

Readline functions
In [105… f = open('processed_data/test.txt', 'w')
f.write("I am learning file handling")
f.write("\n Topic is file handling, read and write")

40
Out[105]:

In [106… f = open('processed_data/test.txt', 'r')

In [107… print(f.readline())

I am learning file handling

In [108… print(f.readline())

Topic is file handling, read and write

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In [109… print(f.readline())

Try Except
In [110… a =input("Enter the number 1 : ")
b =input("Enter the number 2 : ")

try:
c= int(a) + b
print(c)
except Exception as e:
print(e)

unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'

In [111… try:
c= int(a) + b
print(c)
except:
print("Error in try block")

Error in try block

Try with else clause

Else clause is used with the try clause when you want to execute the set of instructions
in the absence of exceptions in your code
In [112… a =input("Enter the number 1 : ")
b =input("Enter the number 2 : ")

try:
c= int(a) + int(b)
print(c)
except Exception as e:
print(e)
else:
print("All inputs are good, Else clause got executed!!")

3
All inputs are good, Else clause got executed!!

Try Finally keyword

Finally is a keyword which surely executes after the execution of the try except block of
statement
In [113… a =input("Enter the number 1 : ")
b =input("Enter the number 2 : ")

try:
c= int(a) + b
print(c)
except:
print("Error in try block")

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finally:
print("Finally runs post try except")

Error in try block

Finally runs post try except

In [114… a =input("Enter the number 1 : ")

b =input("Enter the number 2 : ")

try:
c= int(a) + int(b)
print(c)
except Exception as e:
print(e)
else:
print("All inputs are good, Else clause got executed!!")
finally:
print("Finally runs post try except")

3
All inputs are good, Else clause got executed!!
Finally runs post try except

Data Structures And Algorithms

Arrays
Stack
Queue
Linked List
Linear Search
Binary Search
Insersion Sort
Quick Sort
Merge Sort

Arrays:
Linear Data structure
Continous Memory Locations
Access elements randomly
Homogeneous elements i.e. similar elements ### Applications
Storing Information - linear fashion
Suitable for applications that require frequent searching ### 1-Dimentional Array
1D can be related to a row
Elements are stored one after another
Only one subscript or index is used ### Declaration and Initialization
Array declaration:
Datatype varname [size]
Can also do declaration and initialization at once:
Datatype varname [] = {ele1, ele2, ele3, ele4}; ### 2-Dimentional Array
2D can be related to a table or matrix
Elements are stored one after another i.e. one 1D array inside another.
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Two subscripts or indices are used, one row and one column.
Dimensions depends upon the number of subscripts used.
In [116… # 1D array
print("How many elements to store inside the array", end="")
num = input()
arr = []
print("\nEnter", num, "Element:", end="")
num = int(num)
for i in range(num):
element = input()
arr.append(element)
print("\nThe array elements are")
for i in range(num):
print(arr[i], end=" ")

How many elements to store inside the array

Enter 2 Element:
The array elements are
3 4

In [117… # 2D Array
r_num = int(input("Input number of rows: "))
c_num = int(input("Input number of columns: "))
twoD_arr = [[0 for col in range(c_num)] for row in range(r_num)]
# print("Enter the elements of the matrix: ")
# for i in range(r_num):
# for j in range(c_num):
# twoD_arr[i][j] = int(input())
print("The matrix is: ")
for i in range(r_num):
for j in range(c_num):
print(twoD_arr[i][j], i*j)
twoD_arr[i][j]= i*j
print(twoD_arr)

The matrix is:

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 0
0 2
0 4
[[0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 2], [0, 2, 4]]

In [119… # Array with user defined value

print(end="Enter the size of Array: ")
tot = int(input())
arr = []
print(end="Enter " +str(tot)+ " Elements: ")
for i in range(tot):
arr.append(input())
print(end="\nEnter the value to Delete: ")
val = input()
if val in arr:
arr.remove(val)
print("\nThe new array is: ")
for i in range(tot-1):
print(end=arr[i]+" ")
else:
print("\nElement doent exist in the List!")
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Enter the size of Array: Enter 3 Elements:

Enter the value to Delete:
The new array is:
2 3

In [120… # Sort elements in an array

arr = [10, 22, 38, 27, 11]
temp = 0;

#Displaying elements of original array

print("Elements of original array: ");
for i in range(0, len(arr)):
print(arr[i], end=" ");

#Sort the array in ascending order

for i in range(0, len(arr)):
for j in range(i + 1, len(arr)):
if(arr[i] > arr[j]):
temp = arr[i];
arr[i] = arr[j];
arr[j] = temp;
print();
#Displaying elements of the array after sorting
print("\nElements of array sorted in ascending order: ")
for i in range(0, len(arr)):
print(arr[i], end=" ");

Elements of original array:

10 22 38 27 11

Elements of array sorted in ascending order:

10 11 22 27 38

In [121… # Search element in an array

import array
arr = array.array('i', [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 5])
print("Elements of original array: ")
for i in range(0, 6):
print(arr[i], end=" ");
print("\r");
print("The index of first occurance of 2 is: ", end="")
print(arr.index(2))
print("The index of first occurance of 1 is: ", end="")
print(arr.index(1))

Elements of original array:

1 2 3 1 2 5
The index of first occurance of 2 is: 1
The index of first occurance of 1 is: 0

Advantages of an array
Random access elements
Easy sorting and iteration
Replacement of multiple variables ### Disadvantage of an array
Size is fixed
Difficult to insert and delete
If capacity is more and occupancy less most of the array gets wasted
Needs continous memory

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Stack
Linear data structure
It follows Last In First Out(LIFO) order
Insertion and removal of the element has done at one end
Push is used for inserting an element in a stack
Pop is used to removal an element in a stack ### Functions
push(x) - it is used to insert the element 'x' at the end of a stack.
pop() - it is used to remove the topmost/last element of a stack.
size() - gives the size/length of a stack.
top() - give reference of last element present in stack
empty() - return true for an empty stack ### Implementation of Stack Several ways
to implement stack in python
list
collections.deque
queue.LifoQueue ### Implementation of stack using list List in python can be used
as stack
append() - it is used to insert the element
pop() - it is used to remove the last element
Logic-
stack = []
stack.append("abc")
print(stack.pop())
In [122… # Implementation of stack using list
stack= []
stack.append("Welcome")
stack.append("to")
stack.append("great learning")
print(stack)
print(stack.pop())
print(stack)

['Welcome', 'to', 'great learning']

great learning
['Welcome', 'to']

Implementation of stack using deque

STACK in python are created by the collection module which provides deque class.
Append and pop operations are faster in deque as compared to list
Logic:
from collectios import deque
stack = deque()
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stack.append("abc")
print(stack.pop())
In [123… ### Implementation of stack using deque
from collections import deque
stack = deque()
stack.append("Welcome")
stack.append("to")
stack.append("great learning")
print(stack)
print(stack.pop())
print(stack)

deque(['Welcome', 'to', 'great learning'])

great learning
deque(['Welcome', 'to'])

Implementation of stack using queue

Queue module contains the LIFO queue
It is having some additional functions and works same as stack
Put function is used to insert the data in queue
Get function is used to remove the element ### Functions available in queue model
get() - it is used to remove the element from queue
maxsize() - Used to put the maximum number of items allowed in queue
empty() - It return true when queue is empty else false
full() - When queue is full returns True
put(x) - It is used to insert x in queue
qsize() - Gives size of a queue
Logic:
from queue import LifoQueue
stack = Lifoqueue()
In [124… # Implementation of stack using queue
from queue import LifoQueue
stack = LifoQueue(maxsize=3)
stack.put("Welcome")
stack.put("to")
stack.put("great learning")
print(stack)
print(stack.qsize())
print(stack.full())
print(stack.get())
print(stack.qsize())
print(stack)

<queue.LifoQueue object at 0x11a045ed0>

3
True
great learning
2
<queue.LifoQueue object at 0x11a045ed0>

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What is Queue
Linear data structure
Follows FIFO: First in first out
Insertion can take place from the rear end
Deletion can take place from front end
Queue at ticket counter, bus station
4 major operations
enqueue(ele) - used to insert element at top
dequeue() - removes the top element from queue
peekfirst() - to get first element of queue
peeklast() - to get last element of queue
All operation works in constant time i.e. 0(1)
Applications of Queue
Scheduling
Maintaining playlist
Interrupt handling ## Queue Implementation
Enqueue
Dequeue
Display
In [125… # Implementation of stack using queue
class Queue:
def __init__(self):
self.queue = []
def enqueue(self, data):
self.queue.append(data)
def dequeue(self):
if len(self.queue)<1:
return None
return self.queue.pop(0)
def display(self):
print(self.queue)
def size(self):
return len(self.queue)

In [126… q = Queue()
q.enqueue(1)
q.enqueue(2)
q.enqueue(3)
q.enqueue(4)
q.display()
q.dequeue()
q.display()

[1, 2, 3, 4]
[2, 3, 4]

Queue Implementation
A program implementation for circular queue:
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Enqueue
Dequeue
In [127… # circular queue
class MyCircularQueue():
def __init__(self, k):
self.k = k
self.queue = [None] * k
self.head = self.tail = -1

def enqueue (self, data):

if((self.tail + 1) % self.k == self.head):
print("Queue is full")
elif (self.head == -1):
self.head = 0
self.tail = 0
self.queue[self.tail] = data
else:
self.tail = (self.tail + 1) % self.k
self.queue[self.tail] = data

def dequeue(self):
if(self.head == -1):
print("Queue is empty")
elif(self.head == self.tail):
temp = self.queue[self.head]
self.head = -1
self.tail = -1
return temp
else:
temp = self.queue[self.head]
self.head = (self.head + 1) % self.k
return temp

def printCQueue(self):
if(self.head == -1):
print("No element in circular queue is found")
elif(self.tail >= self.head):
for i in range(self.head, self.tail + 1):
print(self.queue[i], end = " ")
print()
else:
for i in range(self.head, self.k):
print(self.queue[i], end = " ")
for i in range(0, self.tail + 1):
print(self.queue[i], end = " ")
print()

In [128… obj = MyCircularQueue(5)

obj.enqueue(12)
obj.enqueue(22)
obj.enqueue(31)
obj.enqueue(44)
obj.enqueue(57)
print("Initial queue values")
obj.printCQueue()

obj.dequeue()
print("After removing an element from the queue")
obj.printCQueue()

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Initial queue values
12 22 31 44 57
After removing an element from the queue
22 31 44 57

Advantages of queue
Maintains data in FIFO manner
Insersion from beginning and deletion from end takes O(1) time ### Disadvantages
of queue
Manipulation is restricted front and rear
Not much flexible

Linked List
It is collection or group of nodes
Each node contains data and reference (pointer) which contains the address of next
node.
It is linear data structure
Elements are stored randomly in memory
Why Linked List
Linked list is having more efficiency for performing the operations as compared to
list
Elements are stored randomly whereas in list at continuous memory
Accessing the elements in linked list will be slower as compared to list
Utilization of memory is higher than the list
Singly Linked List
It is traversed only in one direction
Operations of Singly Linked List
Insertion
Deletion
Traversal
Pseudo Code
Creating a node in Singly Linked List
Class Node:
def __init__(self, data):

self.data=data;
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self.reference=None;

node1= Node(7)
print(node1.data)
print(node1.reference)
Creating a clas of singly Linked list
class LinkedList
def __init__(self):

self.head=None;

In [132… # Creating a node class

class Node:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
self.next = None

n1 = Node(7)
print(n1.data)
print(n1.next)

7
None

In [133… # creation of Singly Linked List

class SinglyLinkedList:
def __init__(self):
self.head = None

sll = SinglyLinkedList()
print(sll.head)

None

Searching Algorithms
Linear Search Algorithm
What is Linear Search
It helps you to search for an element in a linear data structure.
It checks each and every element for the element to be searched.
Since this is done in linear fashion, it is termed as linear search.
In [134… # linearSearch(arr, item)
# for each element in array
# if element == item
# return index
# return -1

def linearSearch(arr, n, x):

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for i in range(0, n):
if (array[i] == x):
return i
return -1

array =[2, 4, 0, 1, 9]
n = len(array)
x = 1
result = linearSearch(array, n, x)
if(result == -1):
print("Element not found")
else:
print("Element found at index: ", result)

Element found at index: 3

Linear search - Time complexity

Best Time complexity: O(1)
Average Time complexity: O(n)
Worst Time complexity: O(n)
Here all the elements need to be compared in worst case to search for a given
element.
Best case could be the case where the first element matched to the element to be
searched ## Linear search - Space complexity
No auxiliary space is required in linear search implementation.
Hence space complexity is : O(1)

What is Binary Search

Binary search is one of the searching technique
It is used to search an element in a sorted array
This searching technique is based on divide and conquer strategy and search space
always reduces to half in every iteration
This is very efficient technique for searching but it needs some order on which
partition of the array will occur
In [ ]: ## Binary Search - Iterative Algorithm
# binarySearch(arr, size)
# loop until beg is not equal to end
# midindex = (beg + end) / 2
# if arr[midindex] == item
# return midindex
# else if item > arr[midindex]
# beg = midindex + 1
# else
# end = midindex - 1

In [ ]: ## Binary Search - Recursive Algorithm

# binarysearch(arr, beg, end, item)
# if beg <= end
# mid = (beg + end) / 2
# if arr[mid] == item
# return mid
# else if item > arr[mid]

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# return binarysearch(arr, mid + 1, end, item)
# else
# return binarysearch(arr, beg, mid - 1, item)
# else
# return -1

In [136… # Binary search in Python

def binarySearch(arr, l, r, x):
while l <= r:
mid = l + (r - l) // 2
if arr[mid] == x:
return mid
elif arr[mid] < x:
l = mid + 1
else:
r = mid - 1
return -1

In [137… array = [3,4,5,6,7,8,9]

x = 4
result = binarySearch(array, 0, len(array)-1, x)
if(result == -1):
print("Element not found")
else:
print("Element found at index: ", result)

Element found at index: 1

Binary Search - Time Complexity O(log n)

Best time complexity: O(1)
Average time complexity: O(log n)
Worst time complexity: O(log n)
In each iteration, the search space is getting divided by 2. That means that in the
current iteration you have to deal with half of the previous iteration array. And above
steps continue till beg<end.
Best case could be the case where the first mid-value get matched to the element
to be searched.
Worst case could be the case where the last mid-value get matched to the element
to be searched.
Binary Search - Space Complexity O(1)
No auxiliary space is required in binary search implementation.
Hence space complexity is O(1).

What is insertion sort

It is one of the easiest and brute force sorting algorithms
Insertion sort is used to sort elements in either ascending or descending order
In insersion sort, we maintain a sorted part and unsorted part

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It works just like playing cards i.e. picking one card and sorting it with the cards that
we have in our hand already which in turn are sorted
With every iteration, one item from unsorted is moved to the sorted part
First element is picked and considered as sorted
Then we start picking from 2nd elements onwards and start comparing it with
elements in sorted part.
We shift the elements from sorted by one element until an appropriate location is
not found for the picked element
This continues till all the elements get exhausted.
In [138… # Insertion sort using Python
def insersion_sort(array):
for step in range(1, len(array)):
key = array[step]
j = step - 1
while j >= 0 and key < array[j]:
array[j + 1] = array[j]
j = j - 1
array[j + 1] = key
return array

In [142… data = [5,2,1,7,8]

insersion_sort(data)
print(f"Sorted data: {data}")

Sorted data: [1, 2, 5, 7, 8]

Insertion sort - Time Complexity

In the worst case, it will take n to pick all elements and then at max n shifts to set it
to the right position
In best case that is sorted array we will just poick the elements but no shifting will
take place leading it to n time complexity that is every element is traversed at least
once
Best Time complexity: O(n)
Average Time complexity: O(n^2)
Worst Time complexity: O(n^2)
Insertion sort - Space Complexity
No auxilary space is required in insertion sort implementation that is we are not
using any arrays, linked list, stack, queue etc to store our elements
Space Complexity: O(1)
Insertion sort - Analysis
Number of comparisons: O(n^2)
Number of Swaps
Stable or Unstable
Inplace or Outplace

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Quick sort
It is one of the most widely used sorting algorithm
It follows divide and conquer algorithm
Recursion is used in quicksort implementation
In each recursive call, a pivot is chosen then the array is partitioned in such a way
that all the elements less than pivot lie to the left and all the elements greater than
pivot lie to the right
After every call the chosen pivot occupies its correct position in the array which is
supposed to be in sorted order
So with each step, our problem gets reduced by 2 which leads to quick sorting
Pivot can be last element of current array, first element of current array or any
random element
In [139… ## Quick sort using python
def partition(array, low, high):
pivot = array[high]
i = low - 1
for j in range(low, high):
if array[j] <= pivot:
i = i + 1
(array[i], array[j]) = (array[j], array[i])
(array[i + 1], array[high]) = (array[high], array[i + 1])
return i + 1

## Quick sort function

def quick_sort(array, low, high):
if low < high:
pi = partition(array, low, high)
quick_sort(array, low, pi - 1)
quick_sort(array, pi + 1, high)
return array

In [140… d = [9,8,7,2,10,20,1]
print("Unsorted data: ", d)
size = len(d)
d = quick_sort(d, 0, size - 1)
print("Sorted data: ", d)

Unsorted data: [9, 8, 7, 2, 10, 20, 1]

Sorted data: [1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20]

Quick Sort - Time Complexity

Best Case: O(nlogn)
Average Case: O(nlogn)
Worst Case: O(n^2)
Partition of elements take n time and in quicksort problem is divide by the factor 2
Quick Sort - Space Complexity
O(n): basic approach
O(logn): modified approach
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It is unstable algorithm ### Quick Sort - In Place

Yes

What is Merge Sort

In merge sort problem is divided into two sub problmes in every iteration.
Hence efficiency is increased drastically
I follows divide and conquer approach
Divide break the problem in two sub problems which continues until problem set is
left with one element only
Conquer basically merges the 2 sorted array into the original array
In [141… ### Merge sort -Algorithm
# mergseSort(arr, left, right)
# if left>= right
# return
# mid = (left + right) / 2
# mergeSort(arr, left, mid)
# mergeSort(arr, mid + 1, right)
# merge(arr, left, mid, right)
# end

Merge - Algorithm
Create 2 subarrays left and right
Create 3 iterators i, j, k
Insert elements in lft and right (i& j)
k - Replace the values in the original array
Pick the larger elements from left and right and place them in the correct position
If there are no elements in either left or right, pick up the remaining elements either
from left or right and insert in original array
In [142… def merge_sort(arr):
if len(arr) > 1:
mid = len(arr) // 2
left_arr = arr[:mid]
right_arr = arr[mid:]

# Recursive call on each half

merge_sort(left_arr)
merge_sort(right_arr)

# Two iterators for traversing the two halves

i = j = k = 0

# Compare elements of left and right halves

while i < len(left_arr) and j < len(right_arr):
if left_arr[i] < right_arr[j]:
arr[k] = left_arr[i]
i += 1
else:
arr[k] = right_arr[j]
j += 1
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k += 1

# Checking if any element was left

while i < len(left_arr):
arr[k] = left_arr[i]
i += 1
k += 1

while j < len(right_arr):

arr[k] = right_arr[j]
j += 1
k += 1

def printList(arr):
for i in range(len(arr)):
print(arr[i], end=" ")
print()

In [143… if __name__ == '__main__':

arr = [11,34,2,18,33,22,88,9]
merge_sort(arr)
print("Sorted array is: ", arr)

Sorted array is: [2, 9, 11, 18, 22, 33, 34, 88]

Python For Machine Learning

Numpy
Pandas
Matplot Lib
Seaborn
Numpy
Numpy stands for Numerical python and is the core library for numeric and scientific
computing
It consists of multi-dimensional array objects and a collection of routines for
processing those arrays
In [4]: import numpy as np

arr = np.array([10, 22, 38, 27, 11])

arr

array([10, 22, 38, 27, 11])

Out[4]:

In [152… type(arr)

numpy.ndarray
Out[152]:

In [145… # Multi-dimensional
n1 = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
n1

array([[1, 2, 3],
Out[145]:
[4, 5, 6]])

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In [146… # Numpy array with zeros

n2 = np.zeros((5,5))
n2

array([[0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],

Out[146]:
[0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[0., 0., 0., 0., 0.]])

In [147… n3 = np.zeros((1,2))
n3

array([[0., 0.]])
Out[147]:

In [148… # Numpy with onces

n3= np.ones((3,2))
n3

array([[1., 1.],
Out[148]:
[1., 1.],
[1., 1.]])

In [149… # Numpy array with same number

n4 = np.full((2,2),10)
n4

array([[10, 10],
Out[149]:
[10, 10]])

In [150… # Numpy array within a range

n5 = np.arange(11, 21)
n5

array([11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20])
Out[150]:

In [151… n6 = np.arange(10,50,5)
n6

array([10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45])

Out[151]:

In [152… n7 = np.arange(50,10,-5)
n7

array([50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15])

Out[152]:

In [153… # Numpy with random numbers

n8 = np.random.randint(1, 100, 5)
n8

array([20, 99, 81, 43, 61])

Out[153]:

In [154… # Numpy with random numbers

n9 = np.random.randint(-100, -1, 5)
n9

array([-42, -83, -15, -47, -2])

Out[154]:

In [155… # Numpy shape

n10 = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
n10.shape

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(2, 3)
Out[155]:

In [156… # Numpy shape change

n10.shape = (3,2)
n10

array([[1, 2],
Out[156]:
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])

In [157… # vstack()
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
np.vstack((n1, n2))

array([[1, 2, 3],
Out[157]:
[4, 5, 6]])

In [158… # vstack()
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
n3 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
np.vstack((n1, n2, n3))

array([[1, 2, 3],
Out[158]:
[4, 5, 6],
[1, 2, 3]])

In [159… # hstack()
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
np.hstack((n1, n2))

array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
Out[159]:

In [160… # hstack()
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
n3 = np.array([4])
np.hstack((n1, n2, n3))

array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 4])
Out[160]:

In [161… # column_stack()
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
np.column_stack((n1, n2))

array([[1, 4],
Out[161]:
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])

In [162… # Numpy intersection

n1 = np.arange(10, 61, 10)
n2 = np.arange(50, 91, 10)
np.intersect1d(n1, n2)

array([50, 60])
Out[162]:

In [163… # Numpy unique in one array with respect to other array

n1 = np.arange(10, 61, 10)
n2 = np.arange(50, 91, 10)
np.setdiff1d(n1, n2)

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array([10, 20, 30, 40])
Out[163]:

In [164… # Numpy unique in one array with respect to other array

n1 = np.arange(10, 61, 10)
n2 = np.arange(50, 91, 10)
np.setdiff1d(n2, n1)

array([70, 80, 90])

Out[164]:

In [165… # Numpy Array Mathematics: total addition of all numbers

n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
n3 = np.sum([n1, n2])
n3

21
Out[165]:

In [166… # Numpy Array Mathematics: addition of all columns

n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
np.sum([n1, n2], axis =0)

array([5, 7, 9])
Out[166]:

In [167… # Numpy Array Mathematics: addition of all rows

n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])
np.sum([n1, n2], axis =1)

array([ 6, 15])
Out[167]:

In [168… # Numpy scaler Operations

# Addition
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n1+1

array([2, 3, 4])
Out[168]:

In [169… # Subtraction
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n1-1

array([0, 1, 2])
Out[169]:

In [170… # Multiplication
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
print(n1 * 2)
print(n1)

[2 4 6]
[1 2 3]

In [171… # Division
n1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
n1/2

array([0.5, 1. , 1.5])
Out[171]:

In [172… # Mathematical functions

n1 = np.array([10,22,37,41,59,63,74,85])

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print(f"Mean is : {np.mean(n1)}")
print(f"median is : {np.median(n1)}")
print(f"Standard deviation is : {np.std(n1)}")

Mean is : 48.875
median is : 50.0
Standard deviation is : 24.17352632530058

In [173… # Numpy Matrix

n1 = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
n1

array([[1, 2, 3],
Out[173]:
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

In [174… # rows
print(n1[0])
print(n1[1])
print(n1[2])

[1 2 3]
[4 5 6]
[7 8 9]

In [175… # columns
print(n1[:, 0])
print(n1[:, 1])
print(n1[:, 2])

[1 4 7]
[2 5 8]
[3 6 9]

In [176… # Matrix Transpose: Interchanging rows and columns

print(f"Original matrix is {n1}")
print(f"Transposed matrix is {n1.transpose()}")

Original matrix is [[1 2 3]

[4 5 6]
[7 8 9]]
Transposed matrix is [[1 4 7]
[2 5 8]
[3 6 9]]

In [177… # Matrix Multiplication:

n1 = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
n2 = np.array([[9,7,8], [6,5,4], [3,2,1]])
n3 = np.dot(n1, n2)
n4 = np.dot(n2, n1)
print(f"np.dot(n1, n2) : {n3}")
print(f"np.dot(n2, n1) : {n3}")
n5 = n1.dot(n2)
n6 = n2.dot(n1)
print(f"n1.dot(n2) : {n5}")
print(f"n2.dot(n1) : {n6}")

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np.dot(n1, n2) : [[ 30 23 19]
[ 84 65 58]
[138 107 97]]
np.dot(n2, n1) : [[ 30 23 19]
[ 84 65 58]
[138 107 97]]
n1.dot(n2) : [[ 30 23 19]
[ 84 65 58]
[138 107 97]]
n2.dot(n1) : [[ 93 117 141]
[ 54 69 84]
[ 18 24 30]]

In [178… # Saving and loading numpy array

n1 = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
np.save('processed_data/test.npy', n1)
n2 = np.load('processed_data/test.npy')
n2

array([[1, 2, 3],
Out[178]:
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

Pandas
Pandas stand for panel data and is the core library for data manipulation and data
analysis
It consist of single and multi dimentional data structures for data manipulation
Series Object: One-dimensional labeled array
Data-frame: Multi-dimensional labeled array
In [3]: import pandas as pd

In [180… # Series Object: One-dimensional labeled array

s1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
s1

0 1
Out[180]:
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
dtype: int64

In [181… type(s1)

pandas.core.series.Series
Out[181]:

In [182… # Changing index

s1= pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], index = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"])
s1

a 1
Out[182]:
b 2
c 3
d 4
e 5
dtype: int64

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In [183… # Series object from dictionary

d1= {"a": 1, "b": 2, "c": 3, "d": 4, "e": 5}
s2 = pd.Series(d1)
s2

a 1
Out[183]:
b 2
c 3
d 4
e 5
dtype: int64

In [184… # Change index positions

d1= {"a": 1, "b": 2, "c": 3, "d": 4, "e": 5}
s2 = pd.Series(d1, index=["b", "e", "c", "a", "d"])
s2

b 2
Out[184]:
e 5
c 3
a 1
d 4
dtype: int64

In [185… # Pandas extracting induvidual elements

s1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])
# Exctracting element at index 3
s1[3]

4
Out[185]:

In [186… # Extracting elemenst till index 4

s1[:4]

0 1
Out[186]:
1 2
2 3
3 4
dtype: int64

In [187… # Extracting elemenst from index 3 till last

s1[3:]

3 4
Out[187]:
4 5
5 6
6 7
dtype: int64

In [189… # Extracting last 3 elements

s1[-3:]

4 5
Out[189]:
5 6
6 7
dtype: int64

In [190… # Basic math operation on Series

s1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])
s1 + 5

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0 6
Out[190]:
1 7
2 8
3 9
4 10
5 11
6 12
dtype: int64

In [191… s1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

s2 = pd.Series([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
s1 + s2

0 1
Out[191]:
1 3
2 5
3 7
4 9
5 11
6 13
dtype: int64

Pandas Dataframe
Dataframe is a 2-dimentional labelled data-structure
A dataframe is a collection of series (A data-frame comprises of rows and columns)
In [192… df = pd.DataFrame({"Name": ["Meera", "Mirukali", "Ganu"], "Marks": [7, 5, 6]
df

Out[192]: Name Marks Age

0 Meera 7 7
1 Mirukali 5 8
2 Ganu 6 7

In [193… type(df)

pandas.core.frame.DataFrame
Out[193]:

In [194… iris = pd.read_csv('data/iris.csv')

iris.head()

Out[194]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa

In [195… iris.tail()

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Out[195]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

145 6.7 3.0 5.2 2.3 virginica
146 6.3 2.5 5.0 1.9 virginica
147 6.5 3.0 5.2 2.0 virginica
148 6.2 3.4 5.4 2.3 virginica
149 5.9 3.0 5.1 1.8 virginica

In [196… iris.count()

sepal_length 150
Out[196]:
sepal_width 150
petal_length 150
petal_width 150
species 150
dtype: int64

In [197… iris.shape

(150, 5)
Out[197]:

In [198… iris.describe()

Out[198]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width

count 150.000000 150.000000 150.000000 150.000000
mean 5.843333 3.054000 3.758667 1.198667
std 0.828066 0.433594 1.764420 0.763161
min 4.300000 2.000000 1.000000 0.100000
25% 5.100000 2.800000 1.600000 0.300000
50% 5.800000 3.000000 4.350000 1.300000
75% 6.400000 3.300000 5.100000 1.800000
max 7.900000 4.400000 6.900000 2.500000

In [199… # get individual data from dataframe using .iloc[]

iris.iloc[0]

sepal_length 5.1
Out[199]:
sepal_width 3.5
petal_length 1.4
petal_width 0.2
species setosa
Name: 0, dtype: object

In [202… # Get first three rows and three column

iris.iloc[:3, :3]

Out[202]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length

0 5.1 3.5 1.4
1 4.9 3.0 1.4
2 4.7 3.2 1.3

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In [201… iris.iloc[30:40, 3:]

Out[201]: petal_width species

30 0.2 setosa
31 0.4 setosa
32 0.1 setosa
33 0.2 setosa
34 0.1 setosa
35 0.2 setosa
36 0.2 setosa
37 0.1 setosa
38 0.2 setosa
39 0.2 setosa

In [203… iris.loc[30:40, ("sepal_length", "petal_length")]

Out[203]: sepal_length petal_length

30 4.8 1.6
31 5.4 1.5
32 5.2 1.5
33 5.5 1.4
34 4.9 1.5
35 5.0 1.2
36 5.5 1.3
37 4.9 1.5
38 4.4 1.3
39 5.1 1.5
40 5.0 1.3

In [204… iris.head()

Out[204]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa

In [205… # Dropping columns

iris.drop('sepal_length', axis=1)

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Out[205]: sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

0 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
1 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa
2 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa
3 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa
4 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa
... ... ... ... ...
145 3.0 5.2 2.3 virginica
146 2.5 5.0 1.9 virginica
147 3.0 5.2 2.0 virginica
148 3.4 5.4 2.3 virginica
149 3.0 5.1 1.8 virginica
150 rows × 4 columns
In [206… iris.head()

Out[206]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa

In [207… iris.drop([1,2,3], axis=0)

Out[207]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa
5 5.4 3.9 1.7 0.4 setosa
6 4.6 3.4 1.4 0.3 setosa
7 5.0 3.4 1.5 0.2 setosa
... ... ... ... ... ...
145 6.7 3.0 5.2 2.3 virginica
146 6.3 2.5 5.0 1.9 virginica
147 6.5 3.0 5.2 2.0 virginica
148 6.2 3.4 5.4 2.3 virginica
149 5.9 3.0 5.1 1.8 virginica
147 rows × 5 columns

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In [208… # print(f"Mean of Iris data is : {iris.mean()}")

iris.mean()

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[208], line 2
1 # print(f"Mean of Iris data is : {iris.mean()}")
----> 2 iris.mean()

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/frame.py:11693, in DataFrame.mean(self, axis, skipna, numeric_only, **kwa
rgs)
11685 @doc(make_doc("mean", ndim=2))
11686 def mean(
11687 self,
(...)
11691 **kwargs,
11692 ):
> 11693 result = super().mean(axis, skipna, numeric_only, **kwargs)
11694 if isinstance(result, Series):
11695 result = result.__finalize__(self, method="mean")

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/generic.py:12420, in NDFrame.mean(self, axis, skipna, numeric_only, **kwa
rgs)
12413 def mean(
12414 self,
12415 axis: Axis | None = 0,
(...)
12418 **kwargs,
12419 ) -> Series | float:
> 12420 return self._stat_function(
12421 "mean", nanops.nanmean, axis, skipna, numeric_only, **kwarg
s
12422 )

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/generic.py:12377, in NDFrame._stat_function(self, name, func, axis, skipn
a, numeric_only, **kwargs)
12373 nv.validate_func(name, (), kwargs)
12375 validate_bool_kwarg(skipna, "skipna", none_allowed=False)
> 12377 return self._reduce(
12378 func, name=name, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, numeric_only=numeric
_only
12379 )

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/frame.py:11562, in DataFrame._reduce(self, op, name, axis, skipna, numeri
c_only, filter_type, **kwds)
11558 df = df.T
11560 # After possibly _get_data and transposing, we are now in the
11561 # simple case where we can use BlockManager.reduce
> 11562 res = df._mgr.reduce(blk_func)
11563 out = df._constructor_from_mgr(res, axes=res.axes).iloc[0]
11564 if out_dtype is not None and out.dtype != "boolean":

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/internals/managers.py:1500, in BlockManager.reduce(self, func)
1498 res_blocks: list[Block] = []
1499 for blk in self.blocks:
-> 1500 nbs = blk.reduce(func)
1501 res_blocks.extend(nbs)
1503 index = Index([None]) # placeholder

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/internals/blocks.py:404, in Block.reduce(self, func)
398 @final
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399 def reduce(self, func) -> list[Block]:
400 # We will apply the function and reshape the result into a sing
le-row
401 # Block with the same mgr_locs; squeezing will be done at a hi
gher level
402 assert self.ndim == 2
--> 404 result = func(self.values)
406 if self.values.ndim == 1:
407 res_values = result

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/frame.py:11481, in DataFrame._reduce.<locals>.blk_func(values, axis)
11479 return np.array([result])
11480 else:
> 11481 return op(values, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, **kwds)

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/nanops.py:147, in bottleneck_switch.__call__.<locals>.f(values, axis, ski
pna, **kwds)
145 result = alt(values, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, **kwds)
146 else:
--> 147 result = alt(values, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, **kwds)
149 return result

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/nanops.py:404, in _datetimelike_compat.<locals>.new_func(values, axis, sk
ipna, mask, **kwargs)
401 if datetimelike and mask is None:
402 mask = isna(values)
--> 404 result = func(values, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, mask=mask, **kwarg
s)
406 if datetimelike:
407 result = _wrap_results(result, orig_values.dtype, fill_value=iN
aT)

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/nanops.py:720, in nanmean(values, axis, skipna, mask)
718 count = _get_counts(values.shape, mask, axis, dtype=dtype_count)
719 the_sum = values.sum(axis, dtype=dtype_sum)
--> 720 the_sum = _ensure_numeric(the_sum)
722 if axis is not None and getattr(the_sum, "ndim", False):
723 count = cast(np.ndarray, count)

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/nanops.py:1686, in _ensure_numeric(x)
1683 inferred = lib.infer_dtype(x)
1684 if inferred in ["string", "mixed"]:
1685 # GH#44008, GH#36703 avoid casting e.g. strings to numeric
-> 1686 raise TypeError(f"Could not convert {x} to numeric")
1687 try:
1688 x = x.astype(np.complex128)

TypeError: Could not convert ['setosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosase

tosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetos
asetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosase
tosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetosasetos
asetosasetosasetosasetosasetosaversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorvers
icolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolo
rversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorvers
icolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolo
rversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorvers
icolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolo
rversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorversicolorvers
icolorvirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirgin

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icavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginica
virginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavir
ginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirgin
icavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginica
virginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavirginicavir
ginica'] to numeric

In [209… iris.median()

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[209], line 1
----> 1 iris.median()

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/frame.py:11706, in DataFrame.median(self, axis, skipna, numeric_only, **k
wargs)
11698 @doc(make_doc("median", ndim=2))
11699 def median(
11700 self,
(...)
11704 **kwargs,
11705 ):
> 11706 result = super().median(axis, skipna, numeric_only, **kwargs)
11707 if isinstance(result, Series):
11708 result = result.__finalize__(self, method="median")

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/generic.py:12431, in NDFrame.median(self, axis, skipna, numeric_only, **k
wargs)
12424 def median(
12425 self,
12426 axis: Axis | None = 0,
(...)
12429 **kwargs,
12430 ) -> Series | float:
> 12431 return self._stat_function(
12432 "median", nanops.nanmedian, axis, skipna, numeric_only, **k
wargs
12433 )

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/generic.py:12377, in NDFrame._stat_function(self, name, func, axis, skipn
a, numeric_only, **kwargs)
12373 nv.validate_func(name, (), kwargs)
12375 validate_bool_kwarg(skipna, "skipna", none_allowed=False)
> 12377 return self._reduce(
12378 func, name=name, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, numeric_only=numeric
_only
12379 )

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/frame.py:11562, in DataFrame._reduce(self, op, name, axis, skipna, numeri
c_only, filter_type, **kwds)
11558 df = df.T
11560 # After possibly _get_data and transposing, we are now in the
11561 # simple case where we can use BlockManager.reduce
> 11562 res = df._mgr.reduce(blk_func)
11563 out = df._constructor_from_mgr(res, axes=res.axes).iloc[0]
11564 if out_dtype is not None and out.dtype != "boolean":

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/internals/managers.py:1500, in BlockManager.reduce(self, func)
1498 res_blocks: list[Block] = []
1499 for blk in self.blocks:
-> 1500 nbs = blk.reduce(func)
1501 res_blocks.extend(nbs)
1503 index = Index([None]) # placeholder

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/internals/blocks.py:404, in Block.reduce(self, func)
398 @final
399 def reduce(self, func) -> list[Block]:
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400 # We will apply the function and reshape the result into a sing
le-row
401 # Block with the same mgr_locs; squeezing will be done at a hi
gher level
402 assert self.ndim == 2
--> 404 result = func(self.values)
406 if self.values.ndim == 1:
407 res_values = result

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/frame.py:11481, in DataFrame._reduce.<locals>.blk_func(values, axis)
11479 return np.array([result])
11480 else:
> 11481 return op(values, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, **kwds)

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/nanops.py:147, in bottleneck_switch.__call__.<locals>.f(values, axis, ski
pna, **kwds)
145 result = alt(values, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, **kwds)
146 else:
--> 147 result = alt(values, axis=axis, skipna=skipna, **kwds)
149 return result

File /opt/anaconda3/envs/genAI_env/lib/python3.11/site-packages/pandas/cor
e/nanops.py:787, in nanmedian(values, axis, skipna, mask)
785 inferred = lib.infer_dtype(values)
786 if inferred in ["string", "mixed"]:
--> 787 raise TypeError(f"Cannot convert {values} to numeric")
788 try:
789 values = values.astype("f8")

TypeError: Cannot convert [['setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 's

etosa' 'setosa' 'setosa'
'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa'
'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa'
'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa'
'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa'
'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa' 'setosa'
'setosa' 'setosa' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor' 'versicolor'
'versicolor' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica'
'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica' 'virginica']] to numeric

In [210… iris.min()

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sepal_length 4.3
Out[210]:
sepal_width 2.0
petal_length 1.0
petal_width 0.1
species setosa
dtype: object

In [211… iris.max()

sepal_length 7.9
Out[211]:
sepal_width 4.4
petal_length 6.9
petal_width 2.5
species virginica
dtype: object

Matplotlib
Matplotlib is a python library used for data visualisation
In [6]: import numpy as np
from matplotlib import pyplot as plt

In [213… x = np.arange(1,11)
x

array([ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10])
Out[213]:

In [214… y= 2 * x
y

array([ 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20])

Out[214]:

Line Graph:
A line graph is a visual representation of data that shows how values change over time or
in relation to another variable. It consists of points connected by straight lines.
Key components of a line graph:
X-axis: Represents the independent variable (often time).
Y-axis: Represents the dependent variable (the value being measured).
Data points: Represent specific values at different points on the x-axis.
Line segments: Connect the data points to show trends and patterns. ### When to
use a line graph:
To show trends over time: For example, temperature changes, stock prices, or
population growth.
To compare multiple data sets: For example, sales of different products over time.
To identify patterns and correlations: For example, the relationship between hours
studied and exam scores.
In [215… plt.plot(x,y)
plt.title("Line Graph")
plt.xlabel("x-label")

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plt.ylabel("y-label")
plt.show()

In [216… x = np.arange(1,11)
y = 2 * x
y2 = 3 * x
plt.plot(x,y, color='r', linestyle=':', linewidth=3)
plt.plot(x,y2, color='b', linestyle=':', linewidth=3)
plt.title("Line Graph")
plt.xlabel("x-label")
plt.ylabel("y-label")
plt.grid(True)
plt.show()

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In [217… x = np.arange(1,11)
y = 2 * x
y2 = 3 * x

# plt.title("Line Graph")
# plt.xlabel("x-label")
# plt.ylabel("y-label")
# plt.grid(True)

plt.subplot(1,2,1)
plt.plot(x,y, color='r', linestyle=':', linewidth=3)
plt.subplot(1,2,2)
plt.plot(x,y2, color='b', linestyle=':', linewidth=3)

plt.show()

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Bar Plot
A bar plot is a type of chart or graph that represents categorical data with rectangular
bars. The length of each bar is proportional to the value it represents.
Key components of a bar plot:
X-axis: Represents the categories or groups of data.
Y-axis: Represents the values or frequency of each category.
Bars: Rectangular shapes whose height or length corresponds to the data value. ##
Types of bar plots:
Vertical bar plot: Bars are oriented vertically.
Horizontal bar plot: Bars are oriented horizontally.
Stacked bar plot: Multiple bars are stacked on top of each other to show the
composition of a category.
Grouped bar plot: Bars are grouped together to compare multiple categories. ###
When to use a bar plot:
To compare values across different categories.
To show the distribution of categorical data.
To visualize changes in values over time (using grouped or stacked bar plots).
In [218… x = np.arange(1,11)
y = 2 * x
plt.bar(x,y)
plt.title("Bar Plot")
plt.xlabel("x-label")
plt.ylabel("y-label")
plt.show()

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In [219… studets= {"VaibhaV": 90, "Sheetal": 90, "Meera": 95}

names = list(studets.keys())
marks = list(studets.values())
plt.bar(names,marks)
plt.title("Marks of student")
plt.xlabel("Names")
plt.ylabel("Marks")
plt.grid(True)
plt.show()

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In [220… # Horizontal Bar Plot

plt.barh(names,marks, color='g')
plt.title("Marks of student")
plt.xlabel("Marks")
plt.ylabel("Names")
plt.grid(True)
plt.show()

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Scatter Plot
A scatter plot is a type of graph that displays the relationship between two numerical
variables. Each data point is represented by a dot on the graph, with the position of the
dot determined by its values for the two variables.
Key components of a scatter plot:
X-axis: Represents one numerical variable.
Y-axis: Represents the other numerical variable.
Data points: Represent individual observations, with their position determined by
their values on the x and y axes. ### When to use a scatter plot:
To explore the relationship between two numerical variables.
To identify patterns or trends in the data.
To detect outliers or unusual data points. ### Examples of scatter plots:
Relationship between height and weight.
Correlation between study hours and exam scores.
Distribution of house prices based on square footage. ### Advantages of scatter
plots:
Easy to visualize the relationship between two variables.
Can reveal patterns, trends, and outliers.
Useful for exploratory data analysis.
In [222… # Scatter plot
x = np.random.randint(1,20,10)
print(f"x: {x}")

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y = np.random.randint(1,20,10)
print(f"y: {y}")
plt.scatter(x,y)
plt.show()

x: [13 5 14 9 6 3 1 19 15 4]
y: [ 2 5 9 13 12 19 6 17 11 8]

In [223… x = np.random.randint(1,20,10)
print(f"x: {x}")
y = np.random.randint(1,20,10)
print(f"y: {y}")
plt.scatter(x,y, color='r', marker='*', s=100)
plt.show()

x: [16 9 2 18 12 5 14 1 9 10]
y: [12 16 7 17 15 6 3 11 19 11]

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In [7]: x = np.random.randint(1,20,10)
print(f"x: {x}")
y = np.random.randint(1,20,10)
print(f"y: {y}")
y2 = np.random.randint(1,20,10)
print(f"y2: {y2}")
plt.scatter(x,y, color='r', marker='*', s=100)
plt.scatter(x,y2, color='g', marker='.', s=100)
plt.show()

x: [12 9 17 7 12 17 8 17 3 14]
y: [13 6 2 17 17 7 8 6 3 16]
y2: [ 5 19 14 9 13 10 8 19 11 2]

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In [8]: plt.subplot(1,2,1)
plt.scatter(x,y, color='r', marker='*', s=100)
plt.subplot(1,2,2)
plt.scatter(x,y2, color='g', marker='.', s=100)
plt.show()

In [9]: plt.subplot(2,1,1)
plt.scatter(x,y, color='r', marker='*', s=100)
plt.subplot(2,1,2)
plt.scatter(x,y2, color='g', marker='.', s=100)
plt.show()

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Histogram
A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data. It's
similar to a bar chart, but there are key differences:
Bars are adjacent: Unlike bar charts, the bars in a histogram touch each other to
indicate continuous data.
Horizontal axis represents intervals: The x-axis shows ranges of values, called bins
or class intervals.
Vertical axis represents frequency: The y-axis shows the number of data points that
fall within each bin. ### Key uses of a histogram:
Understanding data distribution: It helps visualize the shape, center, and spread of
data.
Identifying outliers: Unusual data points can be easily spotted.
Comparing distributions: Histograms can be used to compare different datasets.
In [10]: # Histogram

x = np.random.randint(1,11,20)
print(f"x: {x}")
plt.hist(x)
plt.show()

x: [ 2 4 9 8 9 2 6 2 5 6 7 5 6 1 5 2 10 3 5 8]

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In [11]: x = np.random.randint(1,100,20)
print(f"x: {x}")
plt.hist(x, color='r', bins=10)
plt.show()

x: [65 53 93 6 82 14 63 1 53 87 66 50 76 15 18 33 99 80 69 27]

In [12]: iris= pd.read_csv('data/iris.csv')

print(iris.head())
x= iris['petal_length']
plt.hist(x, color='g', bins=50)
plt.show()

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sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species
0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa

Box Plot
A box plot (also known as a box-and-whisker plot) is a graphical representation of the
distribution of a dataset. It provides a visual summary of five key statistical measures:
Minimum: The smallest value in the dataset (excluding outliers).
First quartile (Q1): The value below which 25% of the data lies.
Median (Q2): The middle value of the dataset.
Third quartile (Q3): The value below which 75% of the data lies.
Maximum: The largest value in the dataset (excluding outliers). ### How to interpret
a box plot:
The box: Represents the interquartile range (IQR), which contains the middle 50% of
the data.
The line within the box: Indicates the median.
The whiskers: Extend from the box to the minimum and maximum values (excluding
outliers).
Outliers: Data points that fall outside the whiskers are often represented as
individual points. ### Why use a box plot?
Quick overview of data: Provides a summary of the distribution at a glance.
Comparison of groups: Multiple box plots can be used to compare different
datasets.
Identification of outliers: Unusual data points can be easily spotted.
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In [14]: # Box Plot

x= np.random.randint(20,50,20)
y= np.random.randint(20,50,20)
z= np.random.randint(10,70,30)
print(f"x: {x}")
print(f"y: {y}")
print(f"z: {z}")
data= list([x,y,z])
plt.boxplot(data)
plt.show()

x: [43 42 43 23 43 48 26 31 47 21 47 24 34 34 34 39 38 24 43 35]
y: [25 38 25 20 42 36 37 41 46 32 36 45 39 27 43 31 37 28 23 30]
z: [14 24 43 32 23 55 20 48 43 40 26 52 30 62 43 59 43 35 66 49 28 10 24 47
30 28 43 46 36 35]

Violin Plot
A violin plot is a statistical graphic for comparing probability distributions. It combines
elements of a box plot and a kernel density plot.
Key components:
Density plot: The shape of the violin represents the probability density of the data.
Box plot: Typically overlaid on the violin, showing the median, quartiles, and
sometimes outliers. ### Advantages of violin plots:
Shows distribution: Provides a detailed view of the data distribution, including
peaks, valleys, and skewness.
Comparison: Effective for comparing distributions across different groups.
Outlier detection: Can help identify potential outliers. ## When to use a violin plot:
When you want to visualize the distribution of numerical data.
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When comparing distributions between multiple groups.

To complement box plots by providing more detailed information.
In [15]: plt.violinplot(data, showmedians=True)
plt.show()

Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circular statistical graphic which is divided into slices to illustrate
numerical proportions. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice is proportional to the
quantity it represents. All sectors will sum up to 100%.
Best used for:
Showing the composition of a whole.
Comparing the relative sizes of different categories.

Donut Chart
A donut chart is similar to a pie chart, but with a hole in the center. This allows for
additional information to be displayed in the center, such as totals or averages.
Best used for:
The same purposes as a pie chart, with the added benefit of displaying additional
information in the center.
Important note: While pie and donut charts are visually appealing, they can be difficult to
interpret when there are too many categories. In such cases, other chart types like bar
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charts or column charts might be more effective.

In [16]: # Pie-Chart
#Dictionary of fruits and their quantity
fruits = {'apple': 10, 'banana': 15, 'orange': 20, 'grape': 25, 'pineapple':

# Create a pie chart

plt.pie(fruits.values(), labels=fruits.keys(), autopct='%1.1f%%')
plt.show()

In [17]: # Pie-Chart
#Dictionary of fruits and their quantity
fruits = {'apple': 10, 'banana': 15, 'orange': 20, 'grape': 25, 'pineapple':
# Dictinary of colors for above furits
colors = {'apple': 'red', 'banana': 'yellow', 'orange': 'orange', 'grape':

# Create a pie chart

plt.pie(fruits.values(), labels=fruits.keys(), autopct='%1.1f%%', colors=col
plt.show()

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In [18]: # Donughnut-Chart
#Dictionary of fruits and their quantity
fruits = {'apple': 10, 'banana': 15, 'orange': 20, 'grape': 25, 'pineapple':
# Dictinary of colors for above furits
colors = {'apple': 'red', 'banana': 'yellow', 'orange': 'orange', 'grape':

# Create a donughnut chart

plt.pie(fruits.values(), labels=fruits.keys(), autopct='%1.1f%%', colors=col
plt.show()

Seaborn
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Seaborn is built on top of matplotlib hence , we need to import both seaborn and
matplotlib to use seaborn

Seaborn: A Python Visualization Library

Seaborn is a Python data visualization library built on top of Matplotlib. It provides a
high-level interface for creating attractive and informative statistical graphics.
Key Features:
High-level interface: Simplifies the process of creating complex visualizations.
Statistical graphics: Specializes in creating plots that effectively communicate
statistical insights.
Attractive defaults: Offers visually appealing styles and color palettes.
Integration with Pandas: Works seamlessly with Pandas DataFrames. ### Why use
Seaborn?
Explore data: Quickly visualize relationships and patterns within your dataset.
Communicate findings: Create visually compelling plots to share insights with
others.
Save time: Benefit from pre-built functions and customization options. ### Common
Plot Types:
Categorical plots: Countplot, barplot, boxplot, violinplot, swarm plot, catplot
Distribution plots: Distplot, histplot, kdeplot, rugplot
Relational plots: Scatterplot, lineplot, relplot
Matrix plots: Heatmap, clustermap, pairplot
By leveraging Seaborn's capabilities, you can effectively explore and understand
your data through visually appealing and informative plots.
In [19]: import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import seaborn as sns
from matplotlib import pyplot as plt

Seaborn Lineplot
Seaborn's lineplot function is used to visualize relationships between variables where
one of the variables is continuous. It's particularly useful for visualizing trends over time
or other continuous variables.
Key Features and Parameters:
x and y: Specify the variables for the x and y axes.
data: The dataset to be used.
hue: Separates observations into multiple lines based on a categorical variable.
style: Uses different line styles to distinguish between categories.
size: Adjusts the thickness of lines based on a numerical variable.
markers: Adds markers to the line plot.
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ci: Controls the confidence interval around the line. ### Additional Customization:
Color palettes: Use palette parameter to set custom colors.
Line styles: Control line styles using style parameter.
Marker styles: Customize marker appearance with markers parameter.
Axes labels and title: Add labels and titles using plt.xlabel, plt.ylabel, and plt.title.
By effectively utilizing Seaborn's lineplot function and its parameters, you can
create informative and visually appealing line plots to explore your data.
In [20]: # Line Plot
fmri = sns.load_dataset("fmri")
print(fmri.head())
sns.lineplot(x="timepoint", y="signal", data=fmri)
plt.show()

subject timepoint event region signal

0 s13 18 stim parietal -0.017552
1 s5 14 stim parietal -0.080883
2 s12 18 stim parietal -0.081033
3 s11 18 stim parietal -0.046134
4 s10 18 stim parietal -0.037970

In [21]: # Line Plot

fmri = sns.load_dataset("fmri")
print(fmri.head())
sns.lineplot(x="timepoint", y="signal", data=fmri , hue="region", style="eve
plt.show()

subject timepoint event region signal

0 s13 18 stim parietal -0.017552
1 s5 14 stim parietal -0.080883
2 s12 18 stim parietal -0.081033
3 s11 18 stim parietal -0.046134
4 s10 18 stim parietal -0.037970

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In [22]: # Line Plot

fmri = sns.load_dataset("fmri")
print(fmri.head())
sns.lineplot(x="timepoint", y="signal", data=fmri , hue="event")
plt.show()

subject timepoint event region signal

0 s13 18 stim parietal -0.017552
1 s5 14 stim parietal -0.080883
2 s12 18 stim parietal -0.081033
3 s11 18 stim parietal -0.046134
4 s10 18 stim parietal -0.037970

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In [23]: # Line Plot

fmri = sns.load_dataset("fmri")
print(fmri.head())
sns.lineplot(x="timepoint", y="signal", data=fmri , hue="event", style="even
plt.show()

subject timepoint event region signal

0 s13 18 stim parietal -0.017552
1 s5 14 stim parietal -0.080883
2 s12 18 stim parietal -0.081033
3 s11 18 stim parietal -0.046134
4 s10 18 stim parietal -0.037970

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Seaborn Bar Plot

Seaborn's barplot function is used to visualize the relationship between a categorical
variable and one or more continuous numerical variables. It represents an estimate of
central tendency for a numeric variable with the height of each rectangle and indicates
the uncertainty around that estimate using error bars.

Key Parameters:
x: The name of the categorical variable to be used on the x-axis.
y: The name of the numerical variable to be aggregated and visualized.
data: The dataset to be used.
hue: Optional categorical variable for creating multiple bars within each category.
estimator: Function to aggregate the y-value (default is np.mean).
ci: Confidence interval to display (default is 95%).
palette: Color palette for the bars.
errorbar: Type of error bar to display (default is 'ci').

Additional Customization:
orient: To create horizontal bar plots.
saturation: Adjust the color saturation.
ax: To plot on a specific matplotlib axes.
Other aesthetic parameters from Matplotlib can be used for further customization.

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Seaborn's bar plot is a versatile tool for visualizing categorical data and understanding
relationships between categorical and numerical variables. By exploring the different
parameters and customization options, you can create informative and visually
appealing bar plots.
In [24]: sns.set_theme(style="whitegrid")
pokemon = pd.read_csv('data/pokemon.csv')
print(pokemon.head())
sns.barplot(x="legendary", y="speed", data=pokemon, palette="vlag")
plt.show()

number name type1 type2 total hp attack defense

\
0 1 Bulbasaur Grass Poison 318 45 49 49
1 2 Ivysaur Grass Poison 405 60 62 63
2 3 Venusaur Grass Poison 525 80 82 83
3 3 Mega Venusaur Grass Poison 625 80 100 123
4 3 Gigantamax Venusaur Grass Poison 525 80 82 83

sp_attack sp_defense speed generation legendary

0 65 65 45 1 False
1 80 80 60 1 False
2 100 100 80 1 False
3 122 120 80 1 False
4 100 100 80 1 False
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2.py:4: FutureWarning:

Passing `palette` without assigning `hue` is deprecated and will be removed

in v0.14.0. Assign the `x` variable to `hue` and set `legend=False` for the
same effect.

sns.barplot(x="legendary", y="speed", data=pokemon, palette="vlag")

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In [25]: sns.barplot(x="legendary", y="sp_defense",hue="generation", data=pokemon, pa

plt.show()

In [26]: sns.barplot(x="legendary", y="sp_defense", data=pokemon, color="orange")

plt.show()

In [27]: iris =pd.read_csv('data/iris.csv')

iris.head()
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Out[27]: sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa

Seaborn Scatterplot
Seaborn's scatterplot function is used to visualize the relationship between two
numerical variables. Each data point is represented by a marker, and the position of the
marker on the x and y axes corresponds to the values of the two variables.
Key Parameters:
x: The name of the numerical variable to be used on the x-axis.
y: The name of the numerical variable to be used on the y-axis.
data: The dataset to be used.
hue: Optional categorical variable for grouping data points by color.
style: Optional categorical variable for grouping data points by marker style.
size: Optional numerical variable for controlling the size of the markers.
palette: Color palette for the scatter plot.
alpha: Transparency of the markers.
Additional Customization:
markers: Customize the marker style.
edgecolor: Set the color of the marker edges.
linewidth: Adjust the width of the marker edges.
s: Manually set the marker size.
Seaborn's scatterplot is a versatile tool for exploring relationships between numerical
variables. By using the various parameters, you can create informative and visually
appealing scatter plots to understand your data.
In [28]: sns.scatterplot(x="sepal_length", y="petal_length", style="species", data=i
plt.show()

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Seaborn Histogram
Seaborn's histplot function is used to visualize the distribution of a numerical variable. It
counts the number of observations that fall within discrete bins and represents this
count with rectangular bars.

Key Parameters:
data: The dataset to be used.
x: The name of the numerical variable to be plotted.
y: Optional variable for bivariate histograms.
hue: Optional categorical variable for creating multiple histograms.
bins: Number of bins for the histogram.
kde: Whether to plot a kernel density estimate (KDE) curve.
stat: The statistic to compute in each bin (e.g., 'count', 'density', 'probability').
common_norm: Whether to normalize histograms when using hue.
element: The visual representation of the data (e.g., 'bars', 'step', 'poly')

Additional Customization:
Color palettes: Use the palette parameter to set custom colors.
Binning: Control the number of bins with the bins parameter.
Density estimation: Adjust the KDE bandwidth with kde_kws.
Axes labels and title: Add labels and titles using plt.xlabel, plt.ylabel, and plt.title.

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Seaborn's histplot is a versatile tool for understanding the distribution of your data. By
combining it with other Seaborn functions and Matplotlib customizations, you can create
informative and visually appealing histograms.
In [29]: # SNS histogram or Distribution plot
diamond = sns.load_dataset("diamonds")
diamond.head()

Out[29]: carat cut color clarity depth table price x y z

0 0.23 Ideal E SI2 61.5 55.0 326 3.95 3.98 2.43
1 0.21 Premium E SI1 59.8 61.0 326 3.89 3.84 2.31
2 0.23 Good E VS1 56.9 65.0 327 4.05 4.07 2.31
3 0.29 Premium I VS2 62.4 58.0 334 4.20 4.23 2.63
4 0.31 Good J SI2 63.3 58.0 335 4.34 4.35 2.75

In [30]: sns.distplot(diamond['price'])
plt.show()

/var/folders/8h/zprf7hjs319_78816p34b90c0000gn/T/ipykernel_41370/425555065
2.py:1: UserWarning:

`distplot` is a deprecated function and will be removed in seaborn v0.14.0.

Please adapt your code to use either `displot` (a figure-level function wit
h
similar flexibility) or `histplot` (an axes-level function for histograms).

For a guide to updating your code to use the new functions, please see
https://gist.github.com/mwaskom/de44147ed2974457ad6372750bbe5751

sns.distplot(diamond['price'])

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In [31]: sns.distplot(diamond['price'], hist=False)

plt.show()

/var/folders/8h/zprf7hjs319_78816p34b90c0000gn/T/ipykernel_41370/418129790.
py:1: UserWarning:

`distplot` is a deprecated function and will be removed in seaborn v0.14.0.

Please adapt your code to use either `displot` (a figure-level function wit
h
similar flexibility) or `kdeplot` (an axes-level function for kernel densit
y plots).

For a guide to updating your code to use the new functions, please see
https://gist.github.com/mwaskom/de44147ed2974457ad6372750bbe5751

sns.distplot(diamond['price'], hist=False)

In [32]: sns.histplot(x="price", data=diamond, kde=True)

<Axes: xlabel='price', ylabel='Count'>

Out[32]:

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In [33]: sns.histplot(diamond['price'], kde=True, color="red")

<Axes: xlabel='price', ylabel='Count'>

Out[33]:

In [34]: sns.histplot(diamond['price'], kde=True, color="red", bins=50)

<Axes: xlabel='price', ylabel='Count'>

Out[34]:

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In [35]: sns.distplot(diamond['price'], kde=True, color="orange", bins=50, vertical=T

/var/folders/8h/zprf7hjs319_78816p34b90c0000gn/T/ipykernel_41370/975780176.
py:1: UserWarning:

`distplot` is a deprecated function and will be removed in seaborn v0.14.0.

Please adapt your code to use either `displot` (a figure-level function wit
h
similar flexibility) or `histplot` (an axes-level function for histograms).

For a guide to updating your code to use the new functions, please see
https://gist.github.com/mwaskom/de44147ed2974457ad6372750bbe5751

sns.distplot(diamond['price'], kde=True, color="orange", bins=50, vertica

l=True)
<Axes: xlabel='Density', ylabel='price'>
Out[35]:

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In [36]: ##JointPlot

sns.jointplot(x="price", y="carat", data=diamond, hue="color")

plt.show()

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In [37]: iris = pd.read_csv('data/iris.csv')

sns.jointplot(x="sepal_length", y="petal_length", data=iris, hue="species")

plt.show()

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In [38]: sns.jointplot(x="sepal_length", y="petal_length", data=iris, kind="reg")

plt.show()

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Seaborn Boxplot
Seaborn's boxplot function is used to visualize the distribution of numerical data across
different categories. It provides a compact representation of the data, showing the
median, quartiles, and potential outliers.
Key Parameters:
x: The name of the categorical variable to be used on the x-axis.
y: The name of the numerical variable to be visualized.
data: The dataset to be used.
hue: Optional categorical variable for creating multiple boxplots within each
category.
width: Width of the boxes.
palette: Color palette for the boxes.
whis: Determines the length of the whiskers.
showfliers: Whether to show outliers.

Additional Customization:
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orient: To create horizontal boxplots.

saturation: Adjust the color saturation.
ax: To plot on a specific matplotlib axes.
Other aesthetic parameters from Matplotlib can be used for further customization.
Seaborn's boxplot is a powerful tool for comparing distributions across different
categories. By exploring the different parameters and customization options, you can
create informative and visually appealing boxplots.
In [39]: # BOXPLOT
churn = pd.read_csv('data/Telco-Customer-Churn.csv')
churn.head()

Out[39]: customerID gender SeniorCitizen Partner Dependents tenure PhoneService MultipleL

0 7590- No p
VHVEG Female 0 Yes No 1 No se
1 5575-
GNVDE Male 0 No No 34 Yes
2 3668-
QPYBK Male 0 No No 2 Yes
3 7795- No p
CFOCW Male 0 No No 45 No se
4 9237-
HQITU Female 0 No No 2 Yes
5 rows × 21 columns
In [40]: sns.boxplot(x="Churn", y="tenure", data=churn)
plt.show()

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In [41]: sns.boxplot(x='InternetService', y='MonthlyCharges', data=churn)

plt.show()

In [42]: sns.boxplot(x='Contract', y='tenure', data=churn, palette="Set1")

plt.show()

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/var/folders/8h/zprf7hjs319_78816p34b90c0000gn/T/ipykernel_41370/209491317
7.py:1: FutureWarning:

Passing `palette` without assigning `hue` is deprecated and will be removed

in v0.14.0. Assign the `x` variable to `hue` and set `legend=False` for the
same effect.

sns.boxplot(x='Contract', y='tenure', data=churn, palette="Set1")

In [43]: sns.boxplot(x='Contract', y='tenure', data=churn, palette="Set1", linewidth=

plt.show()

/var/folders/8h/zprf7hjs319_78816p34b90c0000gn/T/ipykernel_41370/384559801.
py:1: FutureWarning:

Passing `palette` without assigning `hue` is deprecated and will be removed

in v0.14.0. Assign the `x` variable to `hue` and set `legend=False` for the
same effect.

sns.boxplot(x='Contract', y='tenure', data=churn, palette="Set1", linewid

th=3)

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In [44]: sns.boxplot(x='Contract', y='tenure', data=churn, palette="Set1", linewidth=

plt.show()

/var/folders/8h/zprf7hjs319_78816p34b90c0000gn/T/ipykernel_41370/184676387.
py:1: FutureWarning:

Passing `palette` without assigning `hue` is deprecated and will be removed

in v0.14.0. Assign the `x` variable to `hue` and set `legend=False` for the
same effect.

sns.boxplot(x='Contract', y='tenure', data=churn, palette="Set1", linewid

th=3, order=['Two year','Month-to-month', 'One year'])

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GenAI
Generative AI, or Gen AI, functions by employing a neural network to analyse data
patterns and generate new content based on those patterns.
Discriminative Classifies data in a way similar to judge
Generative AI Create, transforms or generates its own content like an artist

Introduction to Generative AI Applications

Overview:
Generative AI refers to algorithms that enable machines to produce content that is
not only new and original but also reflective of the data they were trained on.
Includes models like GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks), VAEs (Variational
Autoencoders), and Transformer-based models (e.g., GPT).
Significance:
Creativity Boost: Enhances creative processes by providing novel content ideas.
Efficiency: Automates content creation, saving time and resources.
Personalization: Generates personalized content for users in various applications.

Development Environment Setup

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Setting up the development environment:

Step 1: Open Command Line Interface (CLI)
For Windows: Use Command Prompt or PowerShell.
For macOS/Linux: Use Terminal.
Step 2: Install Libraries using pip
pip install numpy
pip install flask
pip install streamlit
pip install torch torchvision torchaudio
pip install transformers
pip install python-dotenv
Step 3: Create a .env file Create a file named .env at the root of your project. Inside,
add your environment variables in the format KEY=VALUE, one per line:
API_KEY=your_api_key
DATABASE_URL=your_database_url
SECRET_KEY=your_secret_key
Important: Make sure to add .env to your .gitignore file to prevent committing
sensitive information to your version control system.
Step 4: Load the environment variables In your Python script, import the dotenv
module and load the .env file:
from dotenv import load_dotenv
import os
load_dotenv()
### Access environment variables api_key = os.environ.get('API_KEY')
database_url = os.environ.get('DATABASE_URL')
secret_key = os.environ.get('SECRET_KEY')

Verify the Installation

Step 1: Check Python Installation
Open CLI and type: python --version
Ensure it returns the installed version of Python.
Step 2: Verify Library Installations
Open Python interactive shell: python
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Import each library to ensure they are installed correctly:

import numpy
import flask
import streamlit
import torch
import transformers

Introduction to OpenAI GPT API

API Features
Text generation, completion, and conversation capabilities.
Fine-tuning and customization for specific tasks.
Getting Started
Sign up for an API key on the OpenAI website.
Refer to the API documentation for detailed instructions.

Flask ChatGPT App

Basic Setup:
Objective: Build a basic chat application using Flask and OpenAI GPT API.
Components:
Flask for web framework.
OpenAI GPT API for generating responses.
Let's explore more with a demo !!

Step 1: Setting Up the Environment

First, make sure you have Python and the required libraries installed. You can create a
virtual environment and install the necessary packages:
python -m venv venv
source venv/bin/activate # On Windows use "venv\Scripts\activate"
Explanation:
python: This invokes the Python interpreter. Depending on your system setup, you
might need to specify python3 instead of python to use Python 3.
-m venv: This option tells Python to run the venv module as a script. The venv
module is used to create virtual environments.
venv: This is the name of the directory where the virtual environment will be
created. You can name this directory anything you like, but venv is a common
convention.
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Create a new directory for your project

mkdir gtp_chat_app
cd gpt_chat_app

Step 3. Create the main flask application file (app.py)

In [ ]: from flask import Flask, request, jsonify, render_template
import requests
import time

from dotenv import load_dotenv

import os

load_dotenv()

# Access environment variables

# OpenAI API key (Note: It's best to keep API keys secure and not hardcode t
OPENAI_API_KEY = os.environ.get('OPENAI_API_KEY')

# Initialize the Flask application

app = Flask(__name__)

# Define the route for the home page

@app.route('/')
def index():
return render_template('index.html') # Render the 'index.html' template

# Define the route for the chat endpoint, which accepts POST requests
@app.route('/chat', methods=["POST"])
def chat():
# Get the user's message from the JSON payload of the request
user_input = request.json.get('message')
print(f"Received message: {user_input}") # Debugging statement to print

# Get the response from GPT-3

response = get_gpt_response(user_input)
print(f"GPT-3 response: {response}") # Debugging statement to print the

# Return the GPT-3 response as a JSON object

return jsonify({'response': response})

def get_gpt_response(user_input, retry_count=3):

# Set up the headers for the API request
headers = {
'Authorization': f'Bearer {OPENAI_API_KEY}',
'Content-Type': 'application/json'
}

# Set up the data for the API request

data = {
'model': 'gpt-3.5-turbo-16k', # Use a current model
'messages': [{'role': 'user', 'content': user_input}], # User's inp
'max_tokens': 300 # Limit the response length
}
for attempt in range(retry_count):
response = requests.post('https://api.openai.com/v1/chat/completions

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if response.status_code == 200:
try:
# Return the content of the first choice in the response
return response.json()['choices'][0]['message']['content']
except (KeyError, IndexError) as e:
print(f"Error parsing response JSON: {e}") # Print the erro
print(f"Response JSON: {response.json()}") # Print the full
return "An error occurred while processing the response from
elif response.status_code == 429:
# Handle rate limiting errors
print(f"Request to OpenAI failed with status code: {response.sta
print(f"Response: {response.text}")
if attempt < retry_count - 1:
print("Retrying...")
time.sleep(2 ** attempt) # Exponential backoff before retry
else:
return "You have exceeded your current quota. Please check y
else:
# Handle other errors
print(f"Request to OpenAI failed with status code: {response.sta
print(f"Response: {response.text}")
return "An error occurred while communicating with OpenAI."

# Run the Flask application

if __name__ == '__main__':
app.run(port=5000, debug=True) # Run the app in debug mode

Step 4: Use the index.html

Always keep all html file in templates folder
Step 5: Run the Flask Application
python app.py
For Output: Open your web browser and go to http://127.0.0.1:5000 to see the GPT chat
application in action.

Flask Text-to-Image App

Introduction to Text-to-Image Generation:
Text-to-image generation involves creating images from textual descriptions using AI
models.
Significance:
Enhances creativity and design processes.
Useful in various fields like advertising, entertainment, and virtual environments.
Implementation in Flask
Objective: Build a web application that converts text descriptions into images.
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Components:
Flask for the web framework.
OpenAI
HTML/CSS for the front-end interface.
Prerequisites:
Python installed on your system.
Required libraries: flask, openai.
API Key from OpenAI
Let's explore more with a demo !!

Step 1: Setting Up the Environment

Install Python (if not already installed).

Step 2: Create a virtual environment

python -m venv venv
python: This invokes the Python interpreter. Depending on your system setup, you
might need to specify python3 instead of python to use Python 3.
-m venv: This option tells Python to run the venv module as a script. The venv
module is used to create virtual environments.
venv: This is the name of the directory where the virtual environment will be
created. You can name this directory anything you like, but venv is a common
convention.

Step 3: Activate the virtual environment

venv\Scripts\activate

Step 4: Install Flask and OpenAI

pip install flask openai

Step 5: Create a project directory

mkdir flask_text_to_image cd flask_text_to_image

Step 6:
(app.py)Create the main Flask application file
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In [ ]: # Import necessary libraries from Flask and OpenAI

from flask import Flask, request, jsonify, render_template
import openai

# Initialize the Flask application

app = Flask(__name__)

# Set your OpenAI API key here

openai.api_key = 'your_openai_api_key' # Replace 'your_openai_api_key'

@app.route("/")
def home():
# Render the 'index.html' template when the home page is accessed
return render_template('text_to_image.html')

# Define the route for the generate_image endpoint, which accepts POST reque
@app.route('/generate_image', methods=['POST'])
def generate_image():

# Get the 'prompt' from the JSON payload of the POST request
prompt = request.json.get('prompt')

# Use the OpenAI API to generate an image based on the prompt

response = openai.Image.create(
prompt=prompt, # The text prompt for generating the image
n=1, # Number of images to generate
size="512x512" # Size of the generated image
)
image_url = response['data'][0]['url']

# Return the image URL as a JSON response

return jsonify({'image_url': image_url})

# Run the Flask application

if __name__ == "__main__":
# Start the Flask app in debug mode, which provides detailed error messa
app.run(debug=True)

Imports:
Flask, request, jsonify, render_template from the Flask framework for handling web
requests and rendering HTML templates
Openai for inretacting with the Open AI API.
App Initialization:
app = Flask(name) # initializes the Flask application.
openai.api_key =
'your_openai_api_key' # sets the OpenAI API key.
Routes
@app.route('/') # The home route renders the index.html template when accessed. This
is the main page of the application. def home(): return render_template('index.html')

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@app.route('/generate_image', methods=['POST']) # This route handles POST requests

to generate an image based on a provided prompt. The prompt is extracted from the
request's JSON payload. def generate_image(): prompt = request.json.get('prompt') #
Extracts the prompt from the JSON request body.
response = openai.image.create(prompt=prompt, n=1,
size="512x512") # Uses the OpenAI API to generate an image.
The parameters specify that one image (n=1) of size 512x512
pixels should be generated.

image_url = response['data'][0]['url'] # Extracts the URL of

the generated image from the API response.

return image_url

Returning the Image URL:

return jsonify({'image_url': image_url}) # Returns the image URL as a JSON response

Running the App:

if name == 'main':
app.run(debug=True) # Runs the Flask application in debug
mode, which is useful for development as it provides detailed
# error messages and automatically
reloads the server when code changes are detected.

Step 7 : Create a simple client side HTML interface:

In [ ]: <!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Text-to-Image Generator</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Text-to-Image Generator</h1>
<div>
<label for="prompt">Enter your description:</label>
<input type="text" id="prompt" name="prompt">
<button onclick="generateImage()">Generate Image</button>
</div>
<div id="image-container"></div>
<script>
async function generateImage() {
const prompt = document.getElementById('prompt').value;
const responseDiv = document.getElementById('image-container');
const response = await fetch('/generate_image', {
method: 'POST',
headers: {

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'Content-Type': 'application/json'
},
body: JSON.stringify({ prompt: prompt })
});
const data = await response.json();
const img = document.createElement('img');
img.src = data.image_url;
responseDiv.innerHTML = '';
responseDiv.appendChild(img);
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

Step 8: Run the application:

$ python app.py
Quick Recap:
Environment Setup: Install Python, Flask, and OpenAI.
Basic Flask Setup: Create a simple Flask application.
Text-to-Image Functionality:
Integrate OpenAI's text-to-image generation API.
Create a route to handle image generation.
Develop a simple HTML interface for user interaction.
Run and Access the Application: Start the Flask server and interact with the text-to-
image application through the web.

LangChain Apps
Overview:
LangChain streamlines the development process for applications that utilize LLMs
by offering a modular and extensible architecture.
It supports a wide range of use cases, from chatbots and personal assistants to
complex NLP tasks and data analysis.
The framework is built to be highly customizable, allowing developers to tailor it to
their specific needs and integrate it with various external data sources and APIs.
Let's understand more with the help of LangChain Case Study.
Personalized Story Generator:
This project will take inputs like character names, settings, and themes from the user
and generate a unique story using a text generation model like GPT-3.5.
Steps to Create the Project:
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1. Set Up Environment
2. Collect User Inputs
3. Generate Story Using AI Model
4. Display the Generated Story

Step 1. Set Up Environment

Install required libraries
pip install openai langchain

Step 2. Collect User Inputs

Create a script to collect inputs from the user.
def get_user_inputs():
print("Welcome to the Personalized Story Generator!")
character_name = input("Enter the main character's name:
")
setting = input("Enter the setting of the story: ")
theme = input("Enter the theme of the story (e.g.,
adventure, mystery): ")
return character_name, setting, theme

Step 3. Generate Story Using AI Model

story_generator.py
# Import necessary classes and functions from langchain and
user_input modules
from langchain import Chain, Prompt, TextModel
from user_input import get_user_inputs

# Function to generate a story based on character name,

setting, and theme
def generate_story(character_name, setting, theme):
# Create a template for the story prompt with
placeholders for character name, setting, and theme
prompt_template = f"Create a story with the following
details:\n\n" \
f"Main Character: {character_name}\n" \
f"Setting: {setting}\n" \
f"Theme: {theme}\n\n" \
f"Story:\n"
# Create a Prompt object using the template
prompt = Prompt(template=prompt_template)

# Initialize a TextModel object with a specific model

name and API key
# Replace "your_openai_api_key" with your actual OpenAI
API key

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model = TextModel(model_name="gpt-3.5-turbo",
api_key="your_openai_api_key")

# Create a Chain object that uses the prompt and model in

a pipeline
chain = Chain(pipeline=[prompt, model])

# Run the chain with the initial input (which is empty in

this case)
output = chain.run(input_data={})

# Return the generated story output

return output

# Main block to execute the script

if __name__ == "__main__":
# Get user inputs for character name, setting, and theme
character_name, setting, theme = get_user_inputs()

# Generate a story based on the user inputs

story = generate_story(character_name, setting, theme)

# Print the generated story

print("\nGenerated Story:\n")
print(story)

Step 4. Display the Generated Story

python story_generator.py
Quick Recap:
Environment Setup:
Install Python and required libraries (langchain, openai).
Ensure you have your OpenAI API key.
Basic Script Setup:
Create the main script (story_generator.py).
Story Generation Functionality:
Integrate OpenAI's GPT-3 for text generation.
Create a function to generate a story based on user inputs (character name, setting,
theme).
Develop a simple user input module to get inputs.
Run and Generate the Story:
Execute the script.
Provide the required inputs when prompted.
View the generated story printed in the console.
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LangChain Apps
Overview:
LangChain streamlines the development process for applications that utilize LLMs
by offering a modular and extensible architecture.
It supports a wide range of use cases, from chatbots and personal assistants to
complex NLP tasks and data analysis.
The framework is built to be highly customizable, allowing developers to tailor it to
their specific needs and integrate it with various external data sources and APIs.

Selenium : Automation Testing

Once we develop a software component/product, we have to analyze and inspect its
features and also evaluate the component for potential errors and bugs so that when it
gets delivered in the market, it is free of any bugs and errors. It is the point where we
need extensive testing of the software.
Testing is done when the application is built, is ready to test and deployed in the test
servers/environments.

(Manual Testing)
Manual testing means the (web) application is tested manually by QA testers. Tests need
to be performed manually in every environment, using a different data set and the
success/failure rate of every transaction should be recorded.
Manual testing is mandatory for every newly developed software before automated
testing. This testing requires great efforts and time, but it gives the surety of bug-free
software.

Challenges in Manual Testing

Manual Testing requires more time and more resources.
GUI objects size differences and color combinations, etc., are not easy to find in Manual
Testing.
Executing the same tests again and again is a time-consuming and tedious process.

Automation Testing:
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As the name suggests, automation testing takes software testing activities and executes
them via an automation toolset or framework. In simple words, it is a type of testing in
which a tool executes a set of tasks in a defined pattern automatically.
This automation testing method uses scripted sequences that are executed by testing
tools. Automated testing tools execute examinations of the software, report outcomes,
and compare results with earlier test runs.

What is Selenium?
Selenium was introduced by Jason Huggins in 2004. Jason Huggins, an Engineer at
Thoughtworks, was doing his work on some web application and he suddenly required
testing.
Testing done using Selenium is often referred to as Selenium Testing.
Selenium is an open-source tool and portable framework that is used for automating the
tests administered on web browsers. It is only used for testing web applications such as
Shopping Carts, Email Programs like Gmail, Yahoo.

Why Selenium with Python?

Python runs very faster and makes use of indentation to initiate and end blocks.
It is very simple as well as compact as compared to other programming languages.
The most important tool for easy user interfaces, WebDriver, has strong bindings for
Python.
Runs rapidly when compared to other programming languages.
The programming language is also free and available as open source.
Whoever needs it can easily download and use it freely in any environment.
Easy to code and easy to read

Advantages of Selenium Testing

Various programming languages are supported to write the test scripts
Selenium supports various browsers like Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome etc.
Selenium supports parallel test execution.
Selenium is an open source software.
Selenium supports different operating systems like Windows, Linux, Mac etc.

Limitations of Selenium Testing

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Selenium supports web-based applications only.

The instability of new features. They may work or may not.
Selenium can't perform testing on images.
Captchas are not automated using Selenium.
Barcodes can't be automated using Selenium.

Summary : Let's quickly recap:

In Python Fundamentals, we discussed the introduction and installation of Python,
variables, data types, operators, Python tokens, flow control statements, and basic
data structures like Tuple, List, Dictionary, and Set.
Advanced Python concepts focused on object-oriented programming, inheritance,
exception handling, and file handling in Python.
Data Structures and Algorithms covered arrays, stacks, queues, linked lists, linear
and binary search, insertion sort, quick sort, and merge sort.
Python for ML introduced libraries such as Numpy, Pandas, Matplotlib, and Seaborn.
Python for Generative AI provided an overview of generative AI concepts and
Python's application in this field.

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