Faculty of Engineering

Alexandria University
Mechanical Engineering Department
Heat Transfer Branch

Lecture (3)
Reference, thermodynamics 5th edition (Yunus A. Cengel)

Dr. Mohamed A. Qassem

Spring 2016
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Energy (E)
Energy is defined as the capacity of a system to perform work or produce heat.

FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in various forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes
the Total Energy E of a system.

The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e, and is

expressed as:

Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value of the total energy.
It deals only with the change of the total energy, which is what matters in engineering
problems.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Total energy classification:
the total energy of a system can be divided in two groups:
- macroscopic energy, and
- microscopic energy.

The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole

with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic (KE) and
potential (PE) energies. It is related to motion and the influence of some
external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface tension.

The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure
of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent
of outside reference frames. The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is
called the internal energy of a system and is denoted by U.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of the system motion relative to some
reference frame.

where:
KE = kinetic energy (J or kJ)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)

or, on a unit mass basis,

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Potential Energy
Potential energy (PE) is defined as the energy of the system elevation in a
gravitational field.

where:

PE = potential energy (J or kJ)

m = mass (kg)

z = height above some reference level (m)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

or, on a unit mass basis,

Potential energy and kinetic energy are macroscopic forms of energy. They can
be visualized in terms of the position and the velocity of objects.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Specific Internal Energy
Microscopic forms of energy include those due to the rotation, vibration,
translation, and interactions among the molecules of a substance and can be
viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules. None
of these forms of energy can be measured or evaluated directly.
• The specific internal energy (u) of a substance is its internal energy per unit
mass.

where:
u = specific internal energy (J/kg).
U = total internal energy (J).
m = mass (kg).

For ideal gases: u = cv T (J/kg)

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Specific flow (PV) Energy
In addition to the internal energy (U), another form of energy exists, this form
of energy is called PV energy because it arises from the pressure (P) and the
volume (V) of a fluid.

FE =
where:
FE = specific flow energy (J/kg).
P = pressure (N/m2).
V = total volume (m3).
v = specific volume (m3/kg).
m = mass (kg).
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Specific Enthalpy (h)
Specific enthalpy (h) is defined as (h = u + P v), where u is the specific internal
energy of the system being studied, P is the pressure, and v is the specific
volume of the system.

Enthalpy is a property of a substance, like pressure, temperature, and volume,

but it cannot be measured directly. Normally, the enthalpy of a substance is
given with respect to some reference value.

For ideal gases: h = cp T (J/kg)

For example, the specific enthalpy of water or steam is given using the reference that the
specific enthalpy of water is zero at .01°C and normal atmospheric pressure.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Energy can cross the boundary of a system in two forms: heat and work and they
represent the energy gained or lost by a system during a process.

An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference.

Otherwise it is work.

• Work (W)
Kinetic energy, potential energy, internal energy, and P-V energy are forms of energy
that are properties of a system.

Work is a form of energy, but it is energy in transit. Work is not a property of a system.
Work is a process done by or on a system, but a system contains no work.

Types of work;
Moving boundary work
Mechanical (shaft) work
Spring work
Electrical work
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

where:
W = work (J or kJ)

F = force (N or kN)

s = distance (m)

If the force F is not constant,

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Moving boundary work
For piston-cylinder boundary work (for closed system);

2 2

𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑠
1 1

𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑠
𝑠2 𝑉2

𝑊12 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑠1 𝑉1

where: 𝑊12

W = work (J or kJ) P = pressure (Pa or kPa)

s = distance (m) A = cross section area (m2) V = volume (m3)

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Moving boundary work
For piston-cylinder boundary work (for closed system);
For a cycle:
𝑉2
𝑊12

𝑊12 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑣𝑒
𝑉1

𝑉1
𝑊21
𝑊21 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = +𝑣𝑒
𝑉2

Net work (𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 ) = 𝑾𝟏𝟐 + 𝑾𝟐𝟏

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
where:
W = work (J or kJ) P = pressure (Pa or kPa)

s = distance (m) A = cross section area (m2) V = volume (m3)

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Rotating Shaft Work
the work done during n revolutions is determined as: a force F acting through a
radius r generates a torque T of,

This force acts through a distance s,

which is related to the radius r by;

Then the shaft work is determined from,

The power transmitted through the shaft is;

where 𝑛 is the number of revolutions per unit time.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Spring Work
when a force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring changes.

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is

Proportional to the force applied.

where k is the spring constant and has the unit kN/m.

where x1 and x2 are the initial and the final displacements of the spring, respectively,
measured from the rest position.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Electrical Work
It can be expressed in the rate form as;

Where,
𝑊𝑒 = the electrical power (W)
V = the voltage difference (V)
I = the current (A)
R = the electric resistance (ohm)

t = time (sec.)
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT

Work is done by the system when it is produced by a turbine and thereby

generate electricity in a turbine-generator .

Work is done on the system when a pump is used to move the working fluid
from one location to another.

A positive value for work indicates that work is done by the system on its
surroundings, A negative value indicates that work is done on the system by
its surroundings.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Heat (Q)
Heat, like work, is energy in transit. The transfer of heat occurs at the
molecular level as a result of a temperature difference.
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems
(or a system and its surroundings) due to temperature difference.

A positive value for heat indicates that heat is added to the system by its
surroundings and negative when it is transferred from the system to its
surrounding.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
The heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in its
temperature is called sensible heat.

For ideal gases: 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑐 For liquids or solids:

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑐 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇

where:
Qs = sensible heat (J) m = mass (kg)
C = specific heat (J/kg. °C) ∆T = temperature change (°C)

Another type of heat is called latent heat. Latent heat is the amount of heat
added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase (between
solid and liquid/ between liquid and vapor). When latent heat is added, no
temperature change occurs.

𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚 𝐿. 𝐻
where:
Ql = ltent heat (J) L.H = latent heat (J/kg)
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Heat and work are directional quantities.
Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive; heat transfer
from a system and work done on a system are negative.

Heat and work are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).
Thank you