ME 224

THERMODYNAMICS 1

TOPIC: ENERGY
 Energy is a quantity that measures the stored capacity of a body to do work.
 The total amount of energy that a system contains cannot be determined, instead, it is measured with respect to some
arbitrary datum.

UNITS FOR ENERGY AND POWER:

1 Btu = 252 cal 1 horsepower = 550 ft-lb/sec
= 0.252 kcal = 33,000 ft-lb/min
= 778 ft-lbf = 2544.4 Btu/hr
= 1055 J = 42.4 Btu/min
= 1.055 kJ = 746 watts

1 joule = 1 N-m 1 watt = 1 joule/sec

1 erg = 1 dyne-cm
1 cal = 4.1868 joule

GENERAL FORMS OF ENERGY:

 In thermodynamic analysis, it is often helpful to consider the various forms of energy that make up the total energy
of a system in two groups: macroscopic and microscopic.
 Macroscopic Forms - largely dependent on the external effects and is measured using the changes of
thermodynamic properties.
 Microscopic Forms - related on the atomic/molecular structure and properties and is measured statistically.

Potential Energy(PE)
– energy due to the body’s position or elevation from a reference datum.
𝒎𝒈𝜟𝒛
∆𝑷𝑬 =
𝒌
where:
m – mass of the body or system
g – gravitational acceleration
Δz – change of position
k – Newton’s 2nd law proportionality constant

Kinetic Energy (KE)

– energy possessed by a moving body, by virtue of its momentum.
𝒎𝜟𝒗𝟐
∆𝑲𝑬 =
𝟐𝒌
where:
m – mass of the body or system
v – velocity
k – Newton’s 2nd law proportionality constant

HEAT, INTERNAL ENERGY, FLOW ENERGY, AND ENTHALPY:

Heat (Q)
– energy in transit from a high temperature system (or surroundings) to a lower temperature one.

Internal Energy (U)

– the sum of all microscopic forms of energy.
– thestored energy within the body due to the motion of the atoms within the molecules etc.
– thesum of the potential and kinetic energy of all the particles of the system.
 The term energy was coined in 1807 by Thomas Young, and its use in thermodynamics was proposed in 1852 by
Lord Kelvin.
 The term internal energy and its symbol U first appeared in the works of Rudolph Clausius and
William Rankine in the second half of the nineteenth century, and it eventually replaced the alternative terms
inner work, internal work, and intrinsic energy commonly used at the time.

Thermal Energy
– the internal energy present in a system due to its temperature.
 The concept is not well-defined or broadly accepted in physics or thermodynamics, because the internal energy
can be changed without changing the temperature, and there is no way to distinguish which part of a system's internal
energy is "thermal".

Enthalpy (H)
– a thermodynamic potential which consists of the sum of the internal energy and flow work of the fluid
– the measurement of energy includes the internal energy, which is the energy required to create a system, and
the amount of energy required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing its volume and
pressure.
– the capacity to do non-mechanical work(e.g. fluid flow) plus the capacity to release heat.
– it describes changes in heat under constant pressure
Enthalpy:
𝒉 = 𝒖 + 𝒑𝑽
where:
h – enthalpy
u – internal energy
p – pressure
V – total volume

Flow Energy (pV or Wf)

– work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually into or out of a system (also called Flow Work).

Flow Work at a point:

𝑾𝒇 = 𝒑𝑽

Change in Flow Work :

𝟐
𝜟𝑾𝒇 = 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = ∫ 𝑽𝒅𝒑
𝟏

FORMS OF ENERGY TRANSFER:

1. Heat Transfer (Heat), Q
– an energy transfer by virtue ofthe temperature difference between the two systems or between the system and
the surroundings.
2. Work Transfer (Work), W
– an energy transfer which is measured by the product of the net force (Fd) and in the direction of the
displacement (d).

FORMS OF HEAT:
 Sensible Heat ( Q or Qs ) – heat which changes the temperature of the body without changing its phase.
 Latent Heat ( QL) – heat which changes the phase of the body without changing its temperature.

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

 Conduction – heat transfer between bodies that are in physical contact
 Convection – heat transfer due to fluid motion
 Radiation – heat transfer due to absorption/discharge of electromagnetic energy.

UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF WORK:

 “Work is said to be done by the system if the sole effect on things external to the system (to the surroundings) can
be reduced to the raising of weight.”

COMMON TYPES OF WORK TRANSFER:

 Electrical work
 Shaft work
 Flow work
 Work done in changing the area of a surface film (work by surface tension)
 Work done in stretching a wire (elastic work)
 Spring work
 Work by surface tension

CALCULATING THE WORK OF A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM:

 WORK IN A CLOSED SYSTEM ( Wn= non-flow work)

 “The non-flow work can be derived by solving the area under the curve of the process on the pressure-volume plane
(p-V plane)”

𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝒏 = ∫ 𝒑𝒅𝑽
𝑽𝟏
where:
𝑊𝑛 – non-flow work
𝑝 – pressure
𝑑𝑉 – differential volume

Characteristics of a Steady Flow System:

1. There is neither accumulation nor decrease of mass.(Conservation of Mass)

MASS FLOW RATE IN = MASS FLOW RATE OUT

 Mass Flow Rate,𝑚̇
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒎̇ =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
 Volume Flow Rate, 𝑉̇
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉̇ = = (area) x (velocity)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝒎̇ = 𝑽̇𝝆 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗
where:
𝑚̇ – mass flow rate
𝑉̇ – volume flow rate
A – cross-section area
𝑣– velocity
ρ – density

2. There is neither accumulation nor decrease of energy within the system. (Conservation of Energy)
ENERGYIN = ENERGYOUT

3. The state of a working substance at any point inside the system is the same.

 WORK IN AN OPEN SYSTEM ( WS = steady-flow work)

 Apply the conservation of energy for an open system ( ENERGY IN= ENERGYOUT)
If ENERGYIN ≠ ENERGYOUT, then ENERGYIN = ENERGYOUT + (INTERNAL ENERGY CHANGE)
 Sign convention:
+W if done by the system (if the system does work on the surroundings)
−W if done to the system (if the system utilizes work from the surroundings)
+Q if addedto the system (if the system absorbs heat from the surroundings)
−Q if rejected by the system (if the system dissipates heat to the surroundings)
 The Steady-Flow Equation of Work (Work in an Open System)
The steady flow work can be derived using the concept of a steady-flow process:
𝑷𝑬𝟏 + 𝑲𝑬𝟏 + 𝑼𝟏 + 𝑾𝒇𝟏 + 𝑸 = 𝑷𝑬𝟐 + 𝑲𝑬𝟐 + 𝑼𝟐 + 𝑾𝒇𝟐 + 𝑾𝒔
𝑾𝒔 = 𝑸 − 𝜟𝑷𝑬 − 𝜟𝑲𝑬 − 𝜟𝑼 − 𝜟𝑾𝒇
𝑾𝒔 = 𝑸 − 𝜟𝑷𝑬 − 𝜟𝑲𝑬 − 𝜟𝑯

𝑾𝒔 = 𝑸 − 𝜟𝑷𝑬 − 𝜟𝑲𝑬 − 𝜟𝑼 − 𝜟𝑾𝒇

where:
ΔPE – change in potential energy of the working substance
ΔKE – change in kinetic energy of the working substance
ΔU – change in internal energy in the system
Q – Heat transferred to the system
W s – steady flow work by the system
Flow Work (or Flow Energy) :
𝒑𝟐
𝜟𝑾𝒇 = 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = ∫ 𝑽𝒅𝒑
𝒑𝟏
Total Enthalpy :
𝜟𝑯 = 𝜟𝑼 + 𝜟𝑾𝒇
 If during the steady flow process:
𝑸 = 𝟎, no heat added to/rejected by the system
𝜟𝑷𝑬 = 𝟎, initial and final states are of the same elevation from the datum
𝜟𝑲𝑬 = 𝟎, initial and final states are of the same velocity
𝜟𝑼 = 𝟎, the total internal energy of the system does not change
 The area behind the curve of the process projected on the P-axis of the p-V plane represents the work of a steady
flow process when 𝛥𝐾𝐸 = 0, or it represents 𝛥𝐾𝐸 when 𝑊𝑠 = 0.

COMMON CONTROL VOLUMES:

Nozzle – a flow passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the velocity of a fluid increases in the direction of flow.
Diffuser – a flow passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the fluid decelerates in the direction of flow.
Throttling Device – a flow passage with a restriction, usually a valve or a porous plug, which reduces the pressure of a
fluid while keeping the enthalpy constant.
Compressor – a machine used for increasing the pressure of a gas or vapor.
Pump – a machine that draws a fluid into itself through an entrance port and forces the out through the exhaust port by
raising the fluid’s pressure.
Mechanical Fan – a device used to produce flow within a fluid, typically a gas such as air.
Turbine – a device in which work is developed as a result of a fluid passing through a set of blades attached to a shaft
free to rotate.
Heat Exchanger – a device for transferring heat from one fluid to another without allowing them to mix.
CONCEPT OF ENERGY

Common Forms of Energy

1. A mass of 5 kg is 100 m above a given datum where local g = 9.75 m/sec 2. Find the gravitational force in
newtons and the potential energy of the mass with respect to the datum.

2. The combined mass of car and passengers travelling at 72 km/hr is 1500 kg. Find the kinetic energy of this
combined mass.

3. There are required 203.4 N-m of work to stretch a spring 7.62 cm from its free length. Find the spring
constant.

4. A spherical soap bubble of radius r is formed by blowing through a blow pipe. If r = 6 in. and the surface
tension, T = 15 dyne/cm, find the work input in overcoming the surface tension in the bubble.

5. The flow energy of 5 ft3 of a fluid passing a boundary to a system is 80,000 ft-lb. Determine the pressure at
this point.

Conservation of Mass (Steady Flow System)

1. Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single mixture. These data apply at the
entrance section: For one gas, A 1 = 75 in2, 𝑣1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft3/lb. For the other gas, A2 = 50 in2, m2 =16.67
lb/s, ρ2 = 0.12lb/ft3. At the exit: 𝑣3 = 350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb.
Calculate: (a) the velocity of flow at section 2 and (b) the flow and area at the exit.

Conservation of Mass (Non-Steady Flow System)

1. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical tank is receiving water (density of water = 62.1 lb/ft 3) at the rate of
300 gpm and is discharging through a 6-in. ID line with a constant speed of 5 fps. At a given instant, the tank is
half full. Calculate the water level and the mass change in the tank 15 min. later.

Work in a Control Mass (Closed System)

1. An ideal substance obeys the relation pV = 100 where V is in ft3 and p is in psia. Evaluate the reversible
non-flow work done on or by the substance as the pressure increases from 10 psia to 100 psia.

2. An ideal substance obeys the relation pV1.4 = 100 where V is in ft3 and p is in psia. Evaluate the reversible
non-flow work done on or by the substance as the pressure increases from 10 psia to 100 psia.

Work in a Control Volume (Open System)

1. A centrifugal pump operating under steady flow conditions delivers 2,270 kg/min of water from an initial
pressure of 82,740 Pa to a final pressure of 275,800 Pa. The diameter of the inlet pipe to the pump is 15.24 cm
and the diameter of the discharge pipe is 10.16 cm. What is the work? (State whether work is done by or to the
control volume)

2. An air compressor receives 272 kg/min of air at 99.29 kPa and a specific volume of 0.026 m 3/kg. The air
flows steady through the compressor and is discharged at 689.5 kPa and 0.0051 m3/kg. The initial internal
energy of the air is 1,594 J/kg; at discharge, the internal energy is 6,241 J/kg. The cooling water circulated
around the cylinder carries away 4,383 J/kg of heat. The change in kinetic energy is 896 J/kg increase. Sketch
an energy diagram. Compute the work.

3. Steam is supplied to a fully loaded 100-hp turbine at 200 psia with u1 = 1,163.3 Btu/lb, v1 = 2.65 ft3/lb, and
𝑣1 = 400 fps. Exhaust is at 1 psia with u 2 = 925 Btu/lb, v2 = 294 ft3/lb and 𝑣2 = 1,100 fps. The heat loss from the
steam in the turbine is 10 Btu/lb. Neglect potential energy change and determine (a) the work per pound of
steam and (b) the steam flow rate in lb/hr.

4. Steam enters a diffuser at h1 = 3550 kJ/kg, and expands in a steady-flow process with h2 = 3243 kJ/kg. Find
the exit velocity.