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THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the relationship between heat
and work. Thermodynamics is the study of 3 E's Energy, Equilibrium and Entropy.
Basic Definitions :

System:

It is a definite quantity of matter of fixed mass and identity bounded by a
closed surface. All things other than the system is surroundings ( Both space and
matter ). There are three types of systems.
1. Closed system - There is no mass transfer between the system and
surroundings. But their is energy transfer. E.g.. compression of a gas in a
piston cylinder.
2. Open system - Both mass and energy transfer takes place. It is classified into
steady and unsteady flows. Eg. Turbine
3. Isolated system - No mass and no energy transfer takes place. E.g. All
subsystem of a power producing system
Sorroundings:
All things other than the system that are outside the wall that interact with the
system in question is called as surroundings. There are different types of walls that
are used to separate the system from the surroundings. They are rigid wall, diathermal
wall and adiabatic walls. A rigid wall does not permit the volume of the system to
change. A diathermal wall is one that will make it possible for the system to
communicate thermally with its surroundings. Two systems separated with a
diathermal wall is said to be in thermal contact. An adiabatic wall is the one that is
impermeable to thermal energy. Such a wall cuts of the thermal interaction between
between a system and surroundings.
Properties:

Properties are used to identify the state of the system and solely dependent
upon the state of system and not upon how the state was reached. A quantity is a
property if it has a exact differential. A quantity can be called a property of the
system if the changes in the value between two equilibrium states of system is same.
Properties may be directly observable or indirectly observable characteristic of a
system. Two properties, namely the temperature and entropy are unique to
thermodynamics. There are two types of properties. They are
Extensive state properties: Here the value of entire system is equal to sum of
the values of the parts of the system. They are dependent upon the mass. E.g..
Total Volume, total energy
Intensive state properties: The value of the entire system is not equal to the
sum of the parts of the system. These properties are not dependent upon the
mass. E.g.. Temperature, pressure, Density etc.
Path and point functions :
This is with reference to a system being taken
from state 1 to 2. There may be any three quasi static
process A, B, and C. Area below the curve gives the
amount of work involved in each case.
Thus the value of work depends upon the path
and not on the end state of the process. Hence work (
and also heat ) are path functions. On the contrary
thermodynamic property are point functions. These are definite values for a given
state. The change in property is independent of the path and depends on only the
initial and final states ( Exact differential )

Process:

Whenever a system undergoes a change, process is said to have taken place.
There are different types of process. They are
1. Reversible process: Is the one in which both the system and surroundings
return to their original state. All real time process are irreversible. Process are
irreversible due to turbulence, temperature gradient and Friction. In a
reversible process there should be no viscous force or coulomb friction in the
system
2. Cyclic Process: The end states are identical. The system undergoes a series of
change and returns to original condition.
3. Quasi-static Process: The system departs from the equilibrium condition only
infinitesimally.
4. Adiabatic Process : There is no heat flow between the system and
surroundings. ( = 0 )
Work and Heat:

Work is the energy in transition in which the energy flows from the system to
the surroundings.

Heat is the energy in transition which flows from one body to another body on
account of the temperature difference between the two bodies. Unit of heat is Joule

Both the Heat and work are Transient Phenomena, Boundary Phenomena and
Path functions.
Derivation for displacement work:
This derivation is valid only for quasi static
process. Consider a cylinder of area 'a' and length of
the piston is 'l'. The piston moves due to gas
pressure. Between section 1 and 2, the value of
pressure and volume is P and V. When the piston
moves the force acting on the piston is
F = pressure x area = P.a
Work done = Force x distance moved = F.dl = P.a.dl
We know that area x length = volume. Hence a.dl = v. Thus the above
equation for work done becomes P.v. Thus when a piston moves from 1 to 2 the
amount of work done is given by dw = Pdv
Internal energy:

A system undergoes a change of state in which both heat transfer and work
transfer are involve. The net energy accumulated is stored in the system. It is denoted
by the symbol U, it includes all form of energy other than kinetic and potential
energy.

Q - Heat to the system.
W - Work from the system.
( Q - W ) is the net energy stored in the system.

This ( Q - W ) is neither heat or work and is given the name, internal energy of
system. The internal energy is just a form of energy like the potential energy of an
object at some height above the earth, or the kinetic energy of an object in motion. In
the same way that potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy while
conserving the total energy of the system, the internal energy of a thermodynamic
system can be converted to either kinetic or potential energy. Like potential energy,
the internal energy can be stored in the system.
Entropy:

Entropy means transformation. It increases with the addition of heat and vice
versa. Change in entropy can be defined. Over a small range the increase or decrease
in entropy when multiplied with absolute temperature, gives the heat absorbed or heat
rejected. For any reversible process, the change in Entropy of system and
surroundings is Zero.

Entropy is the index of unavailability of energy. Energy that goes down the
sink is less available for any useful work. Entropy changes are accompanied by heat
transfers. But may also take place with out the transfer of heat. In a reversible
process, if the entropy of the system increases, then the entropy of surroundings
decreases by a equal amount. Entropy is a property like T and V.

Change in entropy of a system along two equilibrium states can be obtained by
taking the system along any reversible path connecting the states, dividing the heat
added at each point with the temperature and summing the quotients.
Energy:

It is the capacity to produce effect. There are two types of energy. They are
stored energy ( E.g.. Potential energy, Kinetic energy and Internal energy ) and
Transient energy ( Heat, work and electric energy ).
Power:
The rate of energy transfer is called as power. The unit is watts. 1 W = 1 J/s =
1 Nm/s

Throttling :

The fluid expands from high pressure to low pressure without doing any work.
There is no change in KE and PE. Hence there is no heat transfer.

Nozzles and Diffusers:

Nozzles increases the kinetic energy of flowing fluid by creating a pressure
drop. But in diffusers, the pressure is increased and Kinetic energy is decreased.

Carnot's Cycle:

It is a reversible cycle in which the ideal gas receives heat at one temperature
and rejects heat at another temperature. There are 2 isothermal and 2 reversible
adiabatic process. Efficiency of carnots cycle is given by
= W / Qa = ( Qa - Qr ) / Qa
Enthalpy:

Of a substance is defined as the sum of internal energy and flow work. h = u +
pv.

Graham's Law of Diffusion of Gas:

It states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to square
root of density.
Laws In Thermodynamics:

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

If two bodies are in equilibrium with a third body, then the two bodies are in
equilibrium with each other. Through this concept, the temperature of the system may
be measured by bringing it into thermal equilibrium with a thermometer. Following
the conversion factors between various temperatures.
R = F + 459.67
K = C + 273.15
K = 1.8 R

First Law of Thermodynamics:

This law deals with conservation of energy, which states that energy can
neither be created not destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another.

Whenever a system under goes a cyclic change the algebraic sum of work
transfer is proportional to the algebraic sum of heat transfer. Work and heat are inter
convertible.

First law could be said as law of internal energy. However the drawback in
this law is that it does not tell anything about direction of heat flow.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

For an isolated system, only those processes can take place for which the
entropy of the system increases or remains constant. Second law could be called as
law of entropy. In this there are two statements.
Lord Kelvin and Max Planck's statement of the Second Law: It is
impossible to construct a device operating in a cycle for the sole purpose of extracting
heat from a reservoir and changing it into an equal amount of work without rejecting a
part of the heat. i.e. it is impossible to devise a machine that converts 100% of heat
into work. i.e. The universe is cooling down.
Clausius' statement of the Second Law: It is impossible to construct a
device that operating in a cycle will produce no effect other than the transfer of heat
from a cooler to a hotter body. The spontaneous flow of heat from a colder body to a
hotter body is impossible.

Third Law of Thermodynamics:

It introduces the concept of absolute entropy. It states that the total entropy of
pure substances approaches 0
o
as the absolute temperature approaches 0
o
. ( It is
impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature in any physical process. )
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
When a collection of matter experiences no more changes in all its properties,
then it is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. But a real system is never in
equilibrium. To attain thermodynamic equilibrium, Mechanical, Chemical and
Thermal equilibrium should first be obtained. When a system has no unbalanced
force within it and when the force its exerts on its boundary is balanced by external
force, the system is said to be in Mechanical equilibrium. When the temperature of
the system is uniform throughout and is equal to the temperature of the surroundings,
the system is said to be in thermal equilibrium. When the chemical composition of a
system will remain unchanged, the system is said to be in chemical equilibrium.
Thermodynamic reservoirs:
There are three different types of thermodynamic reservoirs. They are work
reservoir, heat reservoir and Matter reservoir.
Work reservoir:
It is a device that we may employ to keep track of the amount of work done by
or done to a given thermodynamic system. It is a body in which every unit of energy
crossing the boundary is work energy. A work reservoir might be visualized as a
perfectly elastic spring that is compressed by the work done on it by a system, or as a
weight that is raised as the system does work upon the reservoir and lowered as the
reservoir does not work on the system.
Heat reservoir:
It serves as a heat source or heat sink, in the analysis of thermodynamic
problems. It can be considered as a body with large energy capacity so that its
temperature remains constant when heat flows into or out of it. The atmosphere
around the earth and the ocean may be considered as heat reservoirs.
Matter reservoir:
Matter, as well as heat and work can cross the boundary of an open system, the
surroundings of an open system may be imagined to contain only heat and work
reservoirs but also one or more matter reservoirs to supply and receive matter. A
matter reservoir is considered to be sufficiently larger than the system so that the
reservoir itself remains in a given equilibrium state. The atmosphere around the earth
may be considered as a matter reservoir supplying air to the engines of our
automobiles and to air separation plants.
Important Thermodynamic Process:
The below mentioned process uses the concept of U = Q - W
Process
Significance /
Example
Implications
Pictorial
Representation
Isobaric
Process
Pressure is Constant
( P = 0)
Gas heated in a
cylinder fitted with a
movable frictionless
piston. The pressure
the atmosphere and
the pressure due to the
weight of the piston
remains constant as
the gas heats up and
expands.
U is zero in a constant
pressure process. For an
ideal gas, constant pressure
work is W = PdV =
P V
Heat that flows into the
system causes the
temperature to rise. Q = m
C
p
T = mR( T
2
- T
1
)

Isothermal
Process
Temperature is
constant ( T = 0)
The gas in a cylinder
is compressed slowly
enough that heat
flows out of the gas at
the same rate at which
is being done on the
gas.
For an Ideal gas U is a
function of the
temperature, Hence U is
zero since T = 0.
Since U = 0 then W = Q.
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
= nRT, for an
isothermal process.
Work done W = PV ln(
V
2
/V
1
) which is also the
equation for Q.

Isochoric
process
Volume is constant
( V = 0)
Heating of a gas in a
rigid, closed
container.
No work is done on the gas
because W = PdV = P
( 0 ) = 0. This implies
that U= Q = m C
v
T.
V
1
= V
2
= nRT
1
/P
1
=
nRT
2
/P
2
, the ideal gas law
for constant volume
process.

Adiabatic
process
No heat flows into or
out of the system ( Q
= 0 )
Compression of a Gas
in an Insulated
Cylinder.
U = W ( Since Q = 0 ).
Hence any temperature rise
or fall is due to the work
done or by the gas alone.
W = (P
1
V
1
- P
2
V
2
) / ( - 1)

Isentropic
process ( Rev.
Adiabatic
process )
Entropy is constant
( S = 0)
A heat engine in
which the working
fluid undergoes an
adiabatic reversible
cyclic process.
Any isentropic process is
also adiabatic since U
= dQ/Tand Q =
0. However, not all
adiabatic process are
isentropic.
For a reversible heat
engine, not only the change
in entropy of the working
fluid must be zero but
also U of the
environment (heat
reservoirs) must also be
zero.

Polytropic
process
PV
n
is constant
Compression or
Expansion of a gas in
a real system such as
a Turbine.
n = 0 for Isobaric process
since PV
0
= P = constant.
n = 1 for Isothermal
process since PV
1
= PV =
NKT = constant.
n = for Isovolumetric
process and
n = for Adiabatic
process.

Specific Heat:

It is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance by one
degree. There are two types, they are specific heat at constant volume ( Cv )and
Specific heat at constant pressure ( Cp ). Its unit is J/Kg/K

For air Cp = 0.24 J/Kg/K and Cv = 0.171 J/Kg/K

The ratio of Cp / Cv = Gamma. and Cp - Cv = R / j

Gas Laws:
There are 5 gas laws. All perfect gases obey all gas laws under all conditions
of pressure and temperature.
1. Boyle's law : At constant temperature PV = C. The magnitude of C depends
upon the volume of the gas.
2. Charles lay : At constant pressure V T.
3. Gay - Lussac law : At constant volume P T.
4. Joules law : Change of internal energy is directly proportional to the change in
temperature.
5. Avagadro law : Equal volumes of all gases under the same pressure and
temperature contain equal number of molecules.
Ideal Gas Real Gas
Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of
pressure and temperature.
Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of
Pressure and temperature, except at the point
where Pressure approaches absolute Zero.
The gases cannot be liquefied or solidified Can be solidified and liquefied.
Specific heat values are constant Not so, Varies with temperature and pressure.

Ideal gas equation : PV = mRT where
P is in N / m
2
V is in m
3
T is in K R is gas constant in Nm
/ Kg
o
K
Following are the assumptions for a ideal gas
Molecules occupy a negligible volume fraction.
Long range forces of attraction between the particles are negligible.
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory
Large number of molecules ~ their motion can be treated statistically.
Molecules are in continuous and rapid motion which is random, colliding
with each other and the walls of the vessel very frequently, the collision
beingelastic.
Pressure originates from the summation of large number of reacting forces as
the molecules bounce off the walls.
Combustion chamber:
Combustion Chambers convert the chemical energy stored in a liquid or
gaseous fuel to an enthalpy increase in the gas passing through them. Usually, the gas
is air, but it could be any gas with the proper components to react with the fuel. A
combustion chamber requires one initial spark to begin the combustion of the fuel in
the chamber. After that, the chamber will function as long as it has fresh fuel and gas.
The fuel combusts, or burns, in the chamber. This combustion releases large amounts
of energy to be absorbed by the gas. This increases the temperature and enthalpy of
the gas.
REFERENCES:
1. Engineering Thermodynamics, Francis F. Huang.
2. Engineering Thermodynamics, P. K. Nag.



THEORY OF METAL CUTTI NG
The metal cutting is done by a relative motion between the work piece and the
hard edge of a cutting tool. Metal cutting could be done either by a single point
cutting tool or a multi point cutting tool. There are two basic types of metal cutting
by a single point cutting tool. They are orthogonal and oblique metal cutting. If the
cutting face of the tool is at 90
o
to the direction of the tool travel the cutting action is
called as orthogonal cutting. If the cutting face of the tool is inclined at less than
90
o
to the path of the tool then the cutting action is called as oblique cutting. The
differences between orthogonal and oblique cutting is given below
Orthogonal metal cutting Oblique metal cutting
Cutting edge of the tool is
perpendicular to the direction of
tool travel.
The cutting edge is inclined at an
angle less than 90
o
to the
direction of tool travel.
The direction of chip flow is
perpendicular to the cutting
The chip flows on the tool face
making an angle.
edge.
The chip coils in a tight flat spiral The chip flows side ways in a
long curl.
For same feed and depth of cut
the force which shears the metal
acts on a smaller areas. So the
life of the tool is less.
The cutting force acts on larger
area and so tool life is more.
Produces sharp corners. Produces a chamfer at the end
of the cut
Smaller length of cutting edge is
in contact with the work.
For the same depth of cut
greater length of cutting edge is
in contact with the work.
Generally parting off in lathe,
broaching and slotting
operations are done in this
method.
This method of cutting is used in
almost all machining operations.
Elements of Metal Cutting :
Cutting speed : It is the distance traveled by work surface related to the cutting edge
of Tool
v = dN / 1000 m / min
Feed (s) : The motion of cutting edge of tool with reference to one revolution of work
piece.
Depth of cut (t) : It is measured perpendicular to axis of work piece and in straight
turning in one pass. This can be estimated from the relation
t = ( D - d ) / 2 mm
Undeformed chip (Fc) : The cross sectional area of chip before it is removed from
work piece. it is equal to the product of feed and depth of cut.
Fc = s x t mm
2

All tools have a major and minor cutting edge. The major cutting edge
removes bulk of material. Where as the minor cutting edge gives good surface finish.
Different types of chips produced during machining process :
When the tool advances into the work piece, the metal in front of the tool is
severely stressed. The cutting tool produces internal shearing action in the metal. The
metal below the cutting edge yields and flows plastically in the form of chip.
Compression of the metal under the tool takes place. When the ultimate stress of the
metal is exceeded, separation of metal takes place. The plastic flow takes place in a
localized area called as shear plane. The chip moves upward on the face of the tool.
There are three different types of chips. They are
1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous chips and
3. Chips with built up edge.
Continuous chips :
The conditions that favor the production of continuous chips is small chip
thickness, high cutting speed, sharp cutting edge, large rake angle in cutting
tool and fine feed, smooth tool face and efficient lubricating system.
Such chips are produced while machining ductile materials like mild steel,
copper and aluminum. Because of plastic deformation of ductile material long
and continuous chips are produced.
This is desirable because it produces good surface finish, low power
consumption and longer tool life.
These chips are difficult to handle and dispose off. Further the chips coil in a
helix and curl around work and tool and may injure the operator when it is
breaking. The tool face is in contact for a longer period resulting in more
frictional heat. However this problem could be rectified by the use of chip
breakers.
Chip breakers:
During machining, long and continuous chip will affect machining. It will
spoil tool, work and machine. It will also be difficult to remove metal and also
dangerous. The chip should be broken into small pieces for easy removal, safety and
to prevent damage to machine and work. The function of chip breakers is to reduce
the radius of curvature of chips and thus break it. The upper side of continuous chips
notches while the lower side which slides over the face tool is smooth and shiny. The
chips have the same thickness through.
Discontinuous chips :
These chips are produced when cutting more brittle materials like bronze,
hard brass and gray cast iron.
Since there chips break up into small segments the friction between chip and
tool reduces resulting in better surface finish.
These are convenient to handle and dispose off.
Discontinuous chips are produced in ductile materials under the conditions
such as large chip thickness, low cutting speed, small rake angle of tool etc.
Brittle materials lack the ductility necessary for appreciable plastic chip
deformation. The amount of deformation which the chip undergoes by
deformation is limited by repeated fracturing.
If these chips are produced from brittle materials, then the surface finish is
fair, power consumption is low and tool life is reasonable however with
ductile materials the surface finish is poor and tool wear is excessive.
Chips with built up edge :
This is nothing but a small built up edge sticking to the nose of the cutting
tool. These built up edge occurs with continuous chips.
When machining ductile materials due to conditions of high local temperature
and extreme pressure the cutting zone and also high friction in the tool chip
interface, there are possibilities of work material to weld to the cutting edge
of tool and thus forming built up edges.
This weld metal is extremely hard and brittle. This welding may affect the
cutting action of tool.
Successive layers are added to the build up edge. When this edge becomes
large and unstable it is broken and part of it is carried up the face of the tool
along with chip while remaining is left in the surface being machined. Thus
contributing to the roughness of surface.
Thus the size of the built up edge, varies during the machining operation. It
first increases, then decrease and again increases.
this built up edge protects the cutting edge of tool, thus changing the
geometry of the cutting tool.
Low cutting speeds lead to the formation of built up edge, however with high
cutting speeds associated with sintered carbide tools, the build up edge is
negligible or does not exist.
Conditions favoring the formation of build up edge are low cutting speed, low
rake angle, high feed and large depth of cut. This formation can be avoided by
the use of coolants and taking light cuts at high speeds. This leads to the
formation of crater on the surface of the tool.
Single point cutting tool:
Parts of a single point cutting tool:
Part Description
Shank It is the body of the tool which is ungrounded.
Face It is the surface over which the chip slides.
Base It is the bottom surface of the shank.
Flank It is the surface of the tool facing the work piece.
There are two flanks namely end flank and side
flank.
Cutting
edge
It is the junction of the face end the flanks. There
are two cutting edges namely side cutting edge and
end cutting edge.
Nose It is the junction of side and end cutting edges.
Important angles of a single point cutting tool:
Angle Details
Top rake
angle
It is also called as back rake angle. It is the slope
given to the face or the surface of the tool. This
slope is given from the nose along the length of the
tool.
Side rake
angle
It is the slope given to the face or top of the tool.
This slope is given from the nose along the width of
the tool. The rake angles help easy flow of chips
Relief angle These are the slopes ground downwards from the
cutting edges. These are two clearance angles
namely, side clearance angle and end clearance
angle. This is given in a tool to avoid rubbing of the
job on the tool.
Cutting edge
angle
There are two cutting edge angles namely side
cutting edge angle and end cutting edge angle. Side
cutting edge angle is the angle, the side cutting edge
makes with the axis of the tool. End cutting edge
angle is the angle, the end cutting edge makes with
the width of the tool.
Lip angle It is also called cutting angle. It is the angle between
the face and end surface of the tool.
Nose angle It is the angle between the side cutting edge and end
cutting edge.
Required properties of cutting tool material:
Hot hardness:
This is the ability of the material to with stand very high temperature without
loosing its cutting edge. The hardness of the tool material can be improved by adding
molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, chromium etc which form hard carbides. High
hardness gives good wear resistance but poor mechanical shock resistance.
Wear resistance:
The ability of the tool to withstand wear is called as wear resistance. During
the process of machining, the tool is affected because of the abrasive action of the
work piece. If the tool does not have sufficient wear resistance then there are
possibilities of failure of cutting edge. Lack of chemical affinity between the tool and
work piece also improve wear resistance.
Toughness:
This property posses limitation on the hardness of the tool because of very
high hardness the material becomes brittle and weak.
Low friction:
In order to have a low tool wear and better surface finish the co-efficient of
friction between the tool and chip must be low. The thermal conductivity must be
high for quick removal of heat from chip tool interface.
In addition to the above, it must posses the following mentioned properties.
1. Mechanical and thermal shock resistance,
2. Ability to maintain the above properties at the high operating temperatures.
3. Should be easy to regrind and easy to weld the tool.
In addition to the above, high thermal shock resistance is also desirable. But
no single material fulfills all the above requirements.
Tool life:
It is an important factor in cutting tool performance. The tool can not cut
effectively for an unlimited period of time. It has a definite life. Tool life is the time
for which the tool will operate satisfactorily until it becomes blunt. It is the time
between two successive grinds. Following are the factors influencing tool life.
Cutting speed:
It has the greatest influence. When the cutting speed increases, the cutting
temperature increases. Due to this, hardness of the tool decreases. Hence the tool
flank wear and crater wear also occurs easily. The relation ship between tool life and
cutting speed is given by the Taylor's formula which states
VT
n
= C
V is the cutting speed in meters / minute
T is the tool life in minutes.
n depends on the tool and work.
C a constant.
Feed and depth of cut:
The tool life depends upon the amount of material removed by the tool per
minute. For a given cutting speed if the feed or depth of cut is increased, tool life will
be reduced.
Tool geometry:
Large rake angle reduces the tool cross section. Area of the tool which will
absorb heat is reduced. So the tool will become weak. Hence correct rake angle must
be used for longer tool life. If the cutting angle increases, more power will be
required for cutting. Clearance angle of 10
o
to 15
o
is optimal.
Other factors include the material of tool (Carbon steel, medium alloy steel,
high speed steel, molybdenum high speed steel, cobalt high speed steel, stellites,
carbides, ceramics and diamond are the commonly used tool materials.), use of cutting
fluids and work material.
Functions of cutting fluids:
1. To cool the tool and work piece and carry away the heat generated from cutting
zone. It is essential to maintain a temperature of 200
o
C for carbon tools and
600
o
C for HSS.
2. At low speeds the surface finish obtained by using cutting fluids is better than
what is obtained without using cutting fluids.
3. To wash away the chips and keep the cutting region free.
4. It helps to keep the freshly machined surface bright by giving a protective
coating against atmospheric oxygen and thus protect the finished surface from
corrosion.
5. Cutting fluids improves machinability and reduces machining forces.
6. To prevent the expansion of work piece and
7. To cause the chips to break into small parts rather than remain as long ribbons
which are hot and sharp and difficult to remove from work piece.
Requirements of cutting fluid:
A cutting fluid should posses the following properties.
1. High heat absorption to remove the heat developed immediately,
2. Good lubricating properties to have a low coefficient of friction,
3. High flash point to avoid fire hazard,
4. Stability must be high to that it does not oxidize with air,
5. It must not react with chemical and must be neutral,
6. Odorless, so that at high temperatures, it does not give a bad smell,
7. Harmless to the skin of operators,
8. Harmless to the bearings,
9. Should not have a corrosive action on the machine or work piece,
10. Cutting tool must be transparent so that the cutting action could be observed,
11. Low viscosity to permit the free flow of the cutting tool and
12. It must be economic.
Choice of a cutting fluid depends upon type of operation, material of tool and
work piece, rate of metal removal and cost of cutting fluid.
Types of cutting fluids:
Water based cutting fluids:
In this water is mixed with soluble oil and soaps. Following are the important
characteristic features.
It is a excellent cooling medium having maximum amount of specific heat,
The disadvantage in using this is that it causes rust and corrosion,
But a mixture of water and oil provides the best lubricating properties
The ratio of oil to water is different for different machining process. The usual
ratio are
Operation Ratio
Turning 1:25
Milling 1:10
Drilling 1:25
Grinding 1:50
Oil based cutting fluids:
These are fixed oil and mineral oil. Fixed oil has greater oiliness to become
gummy and decompose when heated.
To combine stability of mineral oil with lubricating properties of fixed oils they
are often mixed.
There are different types of oil based cutting fluids. They are soluble oils,
straight fatty cutting oils, sulphurised and aqueous solution.
Following are the different types of cutting fluids based on different operating
conditions.
Straight mineral oils for light duty and high speed work.
Mineral oil for light and medium duty.
Mineral oil with extreme pressure additives, such that they are suitable
for heavy duty and
Mineral oil and extreme pressure additives for the heaviest duty.
Effect of cutting fluid on cutting speed, tool life and chip concentration:
Cutting speed:
These are not only used to carry away the heat generated by also because of
the lubricating effect of the fluid on the working surface of the tool. When a cutting
fluid is sued for machining touch material the productivity may be increased from
15% to 30% more when compared with dry operation. But using cutting fluids, high
speeds may be used.
Tool life:
By using cutting fluids effectively during machining operations the tool life
increases. Carbon steel rods have less heat resistant have maximum increase in tool
life for HSS it is around 25%.
Chip concentration:
Without the use of cutting fluid chips are accumulated near the work tool
interface and are difficult to remove because of its high temperature. By the use of
cutting fluid the temperature of the chip is reduced and also the chips are washed
away from the work tool interface.
Application of cutting fluids:
The cutting fluids may be applied to the cutting tool in the following ways.
1. By hand, using brush,
2. By means of drip tank and
3. By means of a pump.
For effective use of cutting fluid and for heavy and continuous cutting the
fluid should penetrate into the cutting zone. The following are the famous methods of
cutting fluid application.
1. Flood application (Hi-jet application):
Here there is a continuous stream of cutting fluid is directed to the cutting zone
with the help of nozzle. The used cutting fluid drops into a tank at the bottom.
Before it is re-circulated by the pump, it passes through many filters to remove chips
and dirt. In some applications the cutting fluid is supplied through the tool itself and
directed along the flank face of the tool. Though economic it is not adopted
universally because the high pressure jet may be dangerous to the operation.
2. Mist method of application:

In this the cutting fluid is atomized the order of 10 - 25 m. The mist is
sprayed on cutting zone at high velocities of about 300 mpm and more under high
pressure. This method is used in all cutting operation, but is generally more useful
with high hardness work materials. The benefits of this process are listed below.
Due to high velocity the heat is dispersed immediately and maintains desired
temperature gradient near tool surface.
The surface area of coolant is greater when compared to flood application and
hence increases the cooling capacity.
Due to expansion of the mist in the issuing nozzle, it temperature falls down
considerably.
The basic components of the system are
1. Air pump with air storage,
2. Cutting fluid container
3. Piping and
4. Spray nozzle.
Benefits of cutting fluids:
Cooling:
By flowing over a tool, chip and job a cutting fluid can remove heat and
reduce temperature at he cutting zone. This reduction in temperature leads in
increase in tool life and decrease in tool wear. The cooling effect is also important in
reducing thermal expansion and distortion of work piece. The cooling action also
bring about good surface finish, increase chip curl and reduces BUE formation.
Friction reduction:
A fluid passing through the cutting zone may be subjected to any one of the
following conditions.
High temperature approaching melting point,
Clean freshly produced surface and
High local pressure approaching the hardness of the metal cut.
Under these conditions the chip may be made to react wit the fluid fro form a
low shear strength solid lubricant. This thin layer prevents the formation of the weld
between the chip and the tool and hence reduces the co-efficient of friction between
chip and tool.
Reduce shear strength:
When the co-efficient of friction is reduced there is also a decrease in shear
work, sue to the resulting increase in shear angle. An increase in shear angle results in
a decrease in shear strain giving rise to smaller shear stress and hence the net result is
a decrease of shear energy per unit volume when cutting with an increased shear
angle.
Tool geometries:
There are two distinct tool geometries. The are positive and negative rake
angles. Positive is suitable for machining soft, ductile materials (like aluminum) and
negative is for cutting hard materials, where the cutting forces are high (Hard
material, high speed and feed).

Forces on a single point cutting tool :
Following are the three forces acting on a tool
1. Axial force
2. Tangential force and
3. Radial force.

In the above figure (a) is for orthogonal cutting and figure (b) is for oblique
cutting. Wattmeter is a indirect method for measuring cutting force. More exact
method is the use of dynamometer. Of the total heat generated during machining
process, given below is the rough heat distribution.
Chip carries 70 % of heat.
Work piece carries 15 % of heat and
Tool carries the remaining 15 % of heat generated.
Tool life :
It could be defined from any of the below mentioned criteria.
Volume of material removed between two successive tool grind.
Number of work piece machined between two successive tool grinds.
time of actual cutting between 2 successive tool grinds.
Tool failure occurs by chipping or breakage or wear ( Takes place by crater
formation or by flank wear ) or deformation.
Machinability : It could be evaluated by using
Tool life
mm
3
of stock removed
Cutting force required.
Temperature of tool and chip.
Machinability Index ( % ) = ( Cutting speed of work piece for 20 mm Tool life ) / (
Cutting speed of SAE 1112 steel for 20 mm min tool life ) X 100.

TOOL FAILURE:
A tool is said to fail when it losses its usefulness though wear, breakage,
chipping and deformation. During the machining operation high temperatures are
reached and leads to the softening of tool point. At a high temperature localized phase
transformation occurs. This gives rise in residual stress due to which cracks appear on
tool point and it is more prone to failure. In some cases tool point may even melt and
is frequently accompanied by sparking and hence can be easily recognized.
Thermal cracking occurs when there is a steep temperature gradient due to
intermittent cutting. Failure can be reduced by the proper selection of cutting
parameters.
Wear of cutting tools:
Flank wear ( or edge wear ):
This type of wear takes place when machining materials like cast iron or when
the feed is less than 0.15 mm / rev. The worn region at the flank is called as
wear land. This wear land is measured with the help of brinell microscope.
The work and the tool are in contact at the cutting edge only. Usually wear
appears on the clearance face of the tool and is mainly the result of friction and
abrasion.
Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge, which eliminates
some clearance on relief.
Flank wear is a progressive form of detoriotion and will result in failure in spite
of best precautions.
There are three stages in flank wear. They are primary, secondary and tertiary
stage. In the primary stage wear is rapid due to high stress at tool point. In
secondary stage, wear is less and linear. In the third and final stage called as
the tertiary stage the wear increases leading to catastrophic failure.
Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the work piece, shearing of micro
welds between tool and work material and abrasion by fragments of build up edge
plowing against the clearance face of the tool are some of the causes of this wear.
Crater wear ( or face wear ):
This is caused by the pressure of the chip as it slides up the face of the cutting
tool. Due to the pressure of the sliding chips the cool face wears out gradually.
On the faces of the tool there is a direct contact of tool with the chip. Wear
takes place in the form of cavity or crater, which as its origin above the cutting
edge.
The crater occurs on the rake face and does not actually reach the cutting edge
by ends near the nose.
This type of wear takes place when cutting ductile material. This wear
weakens the tool. Cutting temperature is increased. Friction and cutting force
will also increase. When the crater becomes large the tool will totally fail.
Severe abrasion between chip and tool interface and high temperature in the
tool-chip interface reaching the softening (or melting temperature) of tool resulting in
increased rate of wear. These are the two causes of crater wear.
To combat crater wear, tool manufacturers can increase the chemical stability
of the tool material, as when they added titanium carbide (TiC) to tungsten carbide
(WC) in the first successful steel-cutting carbide tool. Applying a hard coating to put a
hard, inert barrier between tool and work piece at high cutting speeds will also
minimize crater wear. Tool geometry can also make a difference. A positive-rake tool
will reduce tool pressure and decrease contact between the chip and the insert, and the
reduction in pressure and contact can reduce crater wear.
Nose wear:
This is similar to flank wear in certain operations like finish turning. It takes
place at the nose of the tool. When the nose of the tool is rough, abrasion and friction
between the tool and work piece will be high. Due to this, too much heat is
generated. Also more cutting force is required. As a result the nose of the tool wears
quickly. This is more pre-dominant than flank wear.
Breakage:
Because of high pressure acting on cutting edge of a tool there ay be
immediate failure. Breakage is usually attributed to mechanical shock, thermal shock,
thermal cracks and fatigue.
Chipping:
The cutting edge may crumble due to improper relief angle, excess clearance
and insufficient support of the tool. This could also happen if the work piece is very
hard. It is a microscopic form of breakage due to loss of many small particles caused
due to unhoned carbide edges, excessive vibration and chatter.
Deformation:
When a heavy load is applied close to the cutting edge of tool the surface
becomes indented while the adjacent face shows a bulge. Because of which crack
occurs on periphery of indentation and finally leads to failure.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. The useful tool life of a HSS tool at 18 m/min is 3 hours. Calculate the tool life
when the tool operates at 24 m/min.
Solution:
VT
n
= C

V = 18 m/min
T = 3 x 60 = 180 min
Constant C = 18 x ( 180 )
0.125
= 34.45 ( Here n = 0.125 )
Now V = 24 m/min.
T = ( 34.45 / 24 )
1/0.125

= 18 minutes.





GRINDING
Grinding is a finishing process used to improve surface finish, abrade hard
materials, and tighten the tolerance on flat and cylindrical surfaces by removing a
small amount of material. In grinding, an abrasive material rubs against the metal part
and removes tiny pieces of material. The abrasive material is typically on the surface
of a wheel or belt and abrades material in a way similar to sanding. On a microscopic
scale, the chip formation in grinding is the same as that found in other machining
processes. The abrasive action of grinding generates excessive heat so that flooding of
the cutting area with fluid is necessary. Following are the reasons for using grinding
operation.
The material is too hard to be machined economically. (The material may have
been hardened in order to produce a low-wear finish, such as that in a bearing
raceway.).
Tolerances required preclude machining. Grinding can produce flatness
tolerances of less than 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in) on a 127 x 127 mm (5 x 5 in)
steel surface if the surface is adequately supported.
Machining removes excessive material.
Principle of Operation:
To grind means to abrade, to war away by friction or to sharpen. In
manufacturing it refers to the removal of metal by an abrasive wheel rotating at high
speeds and working on the external or internal surface of a metallic or other part hard
enough to be abraded, rather than indented by the grinding wheel. The action of the
grinding wheel is similar to that of a milling cutter. The grinding wheel is composed
of many small abrasive particles bounded together, each one acting as a miniature
cutting point.
Grinding removes metal from the work piece in the form of small chips by the
mechanical action of abrasive particles bonded together in a grinding wheel.
Grinding operations :
Following are the different grinding operations that could be performed.
1. Grinding flat surface
2. Grinding vertical surface
3. Grinding slot
4. Grinding angular surfaces
5. Grinding a radius
6. Cutting off.
TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES:
Grinding machines are designed principally for finishing parts having
cylindrical, flat or internal surfaces. The kind of surface machined largely determines
the type of grinding machine. Following is the classification of various types of
grinding machines.
1. Surface grinding machine:
It is a precision grinding machine to produce flat surfaces on a work piece. It
is more economical and practical method of accurately finished flat surfaces than
filling and scraping. The grinding is done on the circumference of the plain wheel.
Area of contact is less. Following are the different types of surface grinders. In
general, following are the parts of any grinding machine.
Base: It has a driving mechanism ( hydraulic device, tank and motor. ) It has column
at the back for supporting the wheel head.
Saddle: It is the frame. It carries the table in its cross wise movement. It is used to
give cross-feed to the work. It can be moved by hand feed or auto-feed.
Table: It is fitted on the saddle. It reciprocates along the guide ways to proved the
longitudinal feed to the work. It has 'T' slots for clamping purposes. It is moved by
hand or auto-feed.
Wheel head: It is mounted on the column. It can be moved vertically up and down to
accommodate work piece of different lengths. The wheel rotates at a constant speed
of 1500 m / min.
Horizontal spindle reciprocating table
Horizontal spindle rotary table



Vertical spindle reciprocating table Vertical spindle rotary table


Specification of surface grinder:
Maximum diameter of the wheel that can be held one the spindle.
Maximum size of the job that can be ground.
The type of drive of the work table ( Hydraulic / electrical )
2. Centered Grinding:

Grinding for surfaces of rotation (axially symmetric surfaces) can be either
centered or centerless. Centered grinding involves fixturing the part on a spindle axis
as it is ground, as illustrated below. This configuration can be compared to fixturing a
part on a lathe with or without a tail stock. The abrasive material is on a grinding
wheel that rotates in a direction such that rolling or sliding contact occurs where the
wheel and work piece touch. Centered grinding is accurate and stable, but set-up takes
time and through-put suffers.

3. Centreless Grinding:
Center less grinding is similar to centered grinding except that there is no
spindle. This allows high through-put since parts can be quickly inserted and removed
from the process. Out of the two wheels the large wheel is the grinding wheel, and
the smaller one is the pressure wheel. In operation, the pressure exerted by the
grinding wheel on the work forces the work against the work rest and regulating
wheel. The regulating wheel is of rubber bonded abrasive having the frictional
characteristics to rotate the work at its own rotational speed.
The axial movement of the work piece past the grinding wheels is obtained, by
tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angel from horizontal. An angular adjustment
of 0
o
to 10
o
is provided in the machine for this purpose. There are three main types of
center less grinding.

Through-feed grinding:

In through-feed grinding, the part rotates between the grinding wheel and a
regulating wheel as shown below. For through-feed grinding, one or both wheels of
the centerless grinding machine are canted out of the horizontal plane, as shown
below. This imparts a horizontal velocity component to the work piece, so that outside
feed mechanisms are not necessary.

The grinding wheel is canted with respect to the other two axes so that a
component of its surface velocity pushes the part in the direction shown below. This
auto feeding characteristic is useful for rapidly processing many parts in quick
sequence. Because of the axial movement, through-feed parts can only have right
circular cylindrical ground surfaces. The wheel cannot be dressed to grind more
complex shapes.

In-Feed Grinding:

It is used for jobs that, because of a shoulder or some other obstruction on the
part, can only enter the machine so far and then, after the grinding is done, must be
with drawn. In-feed grinding differs from through-feed grinding in that the part is not
fed axially so that the ground surface does not need to be a right circular cylinder. The
grinding wheel can be dressed to accommodate the part. Once the work piece part is
in place, the grinding wheel is fed in radially.

Because of the set up time involved for each part, in-feed grinding does not
have the high throughput of through-feed grinding. In-feed grinding is illustrated
below.

End-Feed Grinding:

In end-feed grinding, the part moves in axially between the grinding wheels,
stops for grinding, and then moves out again. The wheel can be dressed to form more
complex shapes, but the part can only get progressively smaller in diameter. End-feed
grinding is illustrated below.

Advantage:
Center less grinding is used when large quantities of the same part are
required. Production is high and cost are relatively low because there is not need to
drill center holes nor to mount the work in holding device. Almost an material can be
ground with this technique. Minimum time is lost in loading and unloading. Since no
axial force is acting on the work piece, long slender work pieces can be used without
being distorted.
Large grinding wheels are used and hence wear is less and minimum amount
of adjustment. A low order of skill is required to attend the centerless grinding much
of the time.
4. Cylindrical grinder:
It produces a cylindrical or conical shape on a work piece. The work piece is
mounted between centers or in a chuck and the face of the grinding wheel passes over
the external surface of the revolving work piece. There are two types of cylindrical
grinders. They are
Plain cylindrical grinders:
These are the machines that are designed for simple external grinding. The
wheel head is made to operate to and from the work table but cannot be swiveled.
The work table holds the work head and tail stock and can be swiveled for slight
tapers. The head stock is rigidly attached to the work table and cannot be swiveled. It
is located to the left of the operator. These grinders are used to produce
Plain or stepped surface,
External cylinders.
Tapers,
Concave or convex radii,
Under cuts and
Form grinding by dressing the grinding wheel the desired shape.
Universal cylindrical grinders:
It is different from the above grinder in the sense that the wheel head can be
swiveled on its base and can be fed to and from the table. The upper work table can
be swiveled and is equipped with scales and adjusting screws for setting the table to
produce slight tapers. Steep tapers may be ground by swiveling the headstock on its
base. The universal grinding machine is a tool room machine.
5. Internal Grinder:
It is designed to facilitate the finishing of holes. There are three type of
internal grinders. They are
Work rotating type machine is commonly used in tool and die rooms. In this
grinder, the wheel head may be stationary with a reciprocating work table or
the wheel head may reciprocate and the work table remains stationery.
Planetary internal grinder is where the wheel spindle is arranged that besides
rotating on its axis it can be made to run eccentrically, thus making it possible
to grind large holes of varying diameter depending upon how much the wheel
spindle is made to run eccentric. The work is mounted on a table which has
vertical, horizontal and longitudinal adjustments similar to those of the plain
milling machine.
Centreless internal grinder works on a roller chucking principle in which the
rollers hold the work and impart the rotary motion to the work. The wheel
head has reciprocating motion and may be fed in and out by hand. This
machine issued for work of a repetitive nature.
6. Tool and cutter grinder:
In a machine shop, many of the operations are done by single point cutting
tools or multipoint cutting tools called as milling cutters. The cutting tools become
blunt and becomes important to carry out re-sharpening. This is done in tool rooms
where a tool and cutter grinder is sued for this purpose. A universal tool and cutter
grinder is used to re-sharpen reamers, taps, single point tools dies and punches. A tool
and cutter grinder is also used as a surface, grinding, cylindrical grinding and internal
grinding machine with the help of certain attachments.

GRINDING WHEELS:
A grinding wheel may be considered as a multipoint cutting tool with a cutting
action similar to that of a milling cutter except that the cutting points are irregularly
shaped and randomly distributed over the active face of the wheel. In order to make
the grinding wheel suitable for different work situations, the features such as abrasive,
grain size, grade, structure and bonding materials can be varied.
Those grains which actually perform the cutting operation are called active
grains. In peripheral grinding, each active grain removes a short chip of gradually
increasing thickness in a way that is similar to the action of a tooth on a slab milling
cutter. Because of irregular shape of the grains, there is considerable plowing action,
between each active grain and the new work surface. The plowing results in
progressive wear, causing the formation of worn areas on the active grains. As
grinding proceeds the number and size of these worn areas increase, thus increasing
the interference or friction, resulting in an increase in the force acting on the grain.
Eventually this force become large enough to tear the work grain from the bond of the
wheel and thus expose a new cutting edges. Thus grinding wheel has self sharpening
characteristics.
A grinding wheel consists of an abrasive that does the cutting and a bond that
holds the abrasive particles together. There are two types of abrasives. They
are Natural and Artificial abrasives. The natural abrasives are emery and corundum.
These are impure forms of aluminum oxide. Artificial abrasives are silicon carbide
and aluminum oxide. The abrasives are selected depending upon the materials to be
ground. Following are important criteria in grinding wheel manufacture.
Grain size: The number indicating the size of the grit represents the number of
openings in the sieve used to size the grain. Larger the grit size number, finer the grit.
Grade: Indicates the strength of the bond and, therefore the hardness of the wheel. In
a hard wheel the bond is strong and it securely anchors the grit in place, and therefore,
reduces the rate of wear. In a soft wheel, the bond is weak and he grit is easily
detached resulting in a high rate of wear.
Structure: This indicate the amount of bond present between the individual abrasive
grains, and the closeness of the individual grains to each other. An open structure will
cut more freely. That is, it will remove more material in a give time and produce less
heat.
Bond: Is a substance which, when mixed with abrasive grains holds them together,
enabling the mixture to be shaped in the form of the wheel, and after suitable
treatment to take on the form of the wheel and the necessary mechanical strength for
its work. The degree of hardness possessed by the bond is called as 'grade' of the
wheel, and this indicates the ability of the bond to hold the abrasive grains in the
wheel. There are several types of bonding materials used for making wheels.
Types of bonding:
Vitrified bonding ( V ):
Vitrify means to change into glass by heat and fusion. Thus when clay,
feldspar or flint are mixed with the abrasive grains and heated to 1200
o
C, the ceramic
material melts and forms a lass like coating and bonding agent for the grains. The
forming of wheels is mostly done by the puddled or pressed process.
In puddled process, the correct proportion of grain and bonding material are
mixed wet and poured into a molt to dry. The wheel is then shaped on a machine
operating on the principle of potters wheel. The wheel are then charged into a kiln for
the burning process which takes 2 - 3 weeks. In pressed process the grains and
bonding clay are mixed in a semi-dry state and the wheel moulded under pressure.
But this process the wheels can be made under better control as regards density,
giving a wider range of grades.
It has high porosity and strength which makes this type of wheel suitable for
high rate of stock removal. It is not adversely affected by water, acid, oils at ordinary
temperature conditions.
Silicate bonding ( S ):
Silicate wheels have a milder action and cut with less hardness than vitrified
wheels. For this reason they are suitable for grinding fine edge tools, cutlery etc.
Shellac bonding ( E ):
This is used for heavy duty, large diameter wheels where a fine finish is
required. These are expensive and comparatively very rare. They are used where
their exceptionally cool cutting abilities are essential to prevent burn damage or to
provide very fine finish. Applications include metallurgical sample cutting and Tool
& Cutter grinding for reclaiming broken slot and end mills. Shellac wheels may be
made to 3 mm or less in thickness. Shellac wheels posses considerable elasticity.
Rubber bonding ( R ):
This is used where a small degree of flexibility is required on the wheel as in
the cutting of the cutting off wheels. They produce good quality of cut with minimal
of burr formation. This could be uses in places where there is polishing of metals
such as ball bearing races and for cutoff wheels where burr and burn must be avoided.
Resinoid bonding ( B ):
This is used for high speed wheels. Such wheels are used in foundries for
dressing castings. Resinoid bond wheels are also used for cutting off parts. They are
strong enough to with stand considerable abuse. Resinoid bond is made from
powdered synthetic resin used as phenol formaldehyde. This is mixed pressed and
heated to 177o C. After cooling, this makes a wheel which is less brittle, tougher and
more flexible than the vitrified bond and which can be run up to 2900 m/min.
Wheel structure:
Wheel structure defines how "open" or "closed" the wheel surface is. An
"open" wheel is one with the grits spaced relatively far apart, a "closed" wheel is one
with the grits spaced close together. For conventional wheels, it is assigned a number,
normally between 1 [most closed] and 15 [most open]. It is a measure of the
percentage of grit by volume. The less volume of grit, the more open the wheel
structure is with more space for coolant and chip clearance.
Vitrified bond wheels naturally have a certain amount of porosity in their
structure. The porosity level can typically be up to 50%. The structure can be
artificially changed to increase the porosity level by introducing an additional material
when the grit and bond are mixed together before firing. This material is in particle
form of a specified size. During firing of the wheel, this material is removed to leave
pores of the same size as the original particles. This type of wheel is called an induced
porosity wheel. The wheel then contains natural porosity plus induced porosity as
shown in the figure. Induced porosity wheels provide additional space for chip
clearance and for coolant. They are particularly useful for grinding processes which
have a long arc of contact between wheel and component. For this reason, they are
used almost invariably for creep feed grinding. They are also used for the grinding of
rubbers, plastics and polyurethane.

Types of Lay:
Each method will produce a characteristic finished determined by the lay of
the surface of the work piece after the grinding operation. A straight wheel with
reciprocating motion produces fine straight lines on the work piece. Where as a cup
wheel with reciprocating motion will produce curving lines. A cup wheel with
rotating work piece will produce concentric circles.
Marking system for grinding wheels:
Standard wheel markings specify all the important wheel characteristics. The
marking system comprises of seven symbols which are arranged in the following
order.
E.g.. 51 - A46 H5V8
51 - Manufacturers symbol for abrasive
AA - Type of abrasive grit
46 - Grain size
H - Grade
5 - Structure
V - Type of bond
8 - Manufacturers own mark.
Specification of grinding wheels:
A grinding wheel is specified by the marking, shape, outside diameter, bore
diameter, thickness etc. A recessed wheel is specified with all the above given
particulars plus the diameter of the recess and the depth of the recess.
Selection of grinding wheel:
For grinding a job the right grinding wheel is to be selected. The selection of a
grinding wheel will depend on the following factors.
Material to be ground: For grinding high tensile material an aluminum oxide wheel,
and for low tensile material silicon, a carbide wheel should be selected. For grinding
hard materials a soft wheel and for grinding soft material, a hard wheel is chosen.
Amount of stock to be removed: When the stock of material to be removed is more
with heavy cuts select a coarse grain, open structured and hard grade wheels. For
removing less stock of material with light cut, select fine dense structured soft wheel.
Finish required: Rough finish requires coarse grains and open structure. High finish
requires fine grain and dense structure.
Area of contact: The are of contact depends on the size of the work piece, the grinding
wheel and the nature of operation. When the area of contact is more a soft grade and
coarse grain wheel is to be selected. For less area of contact select hard grade and fine
grain wheel.
Type of grinding operation: The selection of grinding wheel is affected by the
grinding operation to be done. The wheel shape and size are to be selected on the
basis of the grinding operation such as surface, cylindrical or tool grinding.
Wheel speed: Generally the speed at which a grinding wheel is to be used will be
marked on the wheel by the manufacturer. Select a soft wheel for high speed and a
hard wheel for low speed.
Work speed: Select a hard wheel for high work speed and a soft wheel for low work
speed.
Condition of the machine: For rigid and new machines, select a soft grade and open
structured wheel. For light and old machines, select a hard grade and dense structured
wheel.
Personal factor: A skilled person can do the operation effectively, even if there is a
slight deviation in the selection. But for a semi skilled labor, perfect selection is
essential.
Method of cooling: If better cooling is required select an open structured wheel.
Always the coolant should be directed at the cutting areas to minimize the heat and to
wash away the grain particles.
Balancing of grinding wheels:
When a new grinding wheel is used it should be checked for balancing. Most
manufacturers balance their wheels before selling them. For checking the balance of
the grinding wheels, it is mounted at the center of a perfect straight and round spindle,
the assembly then being rested on level knife-edge ways on a lathe bed or on a special
stand. For the test to be really satisfactory the wheel should be mounted on its won
spindle. The wheel is then rolled a little and left. Any out of balance will result in the
wheel coming to the rest with the heavy side underneath.
Balancing may be achieved by adding lead weight to the light side. This may
be accomplished by removing small amounts of the wheel beneath the flanges and
then filling the hole thus made with lead. The wheel is mounted on its own spindle
kept on knife edge ways, and again give a slight push, allowing it to roll back and
forth until it comes to rest, which it will do with the heavy portion of the wheel at the
bottom. Continue adding weight from the wheel, until it is balanced. This will be
evident when the wheel rolls to a gentle sop with no apparent tendency to roll
backward.

Types of grinding fluid:
There are 5 main types of grinding fluid. Of these four are water based and
the other is a neat oil. With the water based fluids, the main constituent is water with
a concentrate added to a specified percentage. The concentrate should always be
added to the water, rather than the other way round, so that a stable emulsion will be
formed.
1. Emulsion: The concentrate normally has an oil content of 30-80%. When
mixed with water, oil droplets are formed and these are dispersed evenly
throughout the fluid. Droplet size is typically 3-8 um, which gives the fluid a
milky appearance.
2. Semi-synthetic: The concentrate contains both oil and a synthetic lubricant.
The oil content is in the range 4-30%.
3. Micro-emulsion: The concentrate has an increased emulsifier system to reduce
the oil droplet size to less than 2 um. This makes the fluid transparent. Oil
content in the concentrate can be up to 60%.
4. Synthetic: The concentrate contains no oil and a clear solution is formed. It can
contain non-mineral lubricity materials at levels between 0 and 60%. With no
oil content, a rust inhibitor is an essential additive.
5. Neat oil: The main constituent is a mineral oil. The type of base oil determines
the viscosity. The viscosity affects the power required from the coolant pump
and friction losses in the pipe work. A higher viscosity requires more pumping
power and loses more velocity through friction in the pipes. The type of base
oil, and the viscosity, selected depends on the application. Values of viscosity
can range from 2 to 100 cSt @ 40
o
C, with 80% of applications in the range
6 to 40 cSt @ 40
o
C. Additives are usually included, with the types of additive
depending on the application.

GLAZING, LOADING, WHEEL DRESSING AND DRESSING TOOLS:
Glazing:
When the surface of a grinding wheel develops a smooth and shining
appearance, then it is said to be glazed. This indicates the abrasive particles on the
wheel face are not sharp. These are worked down to their bond level.
Loading:
When soft materials like aluminium, copper, lead etc are ground the metal
particles get clogged between the abrasive particles. This condition is called as
loading. The effects of glazing and loading are almost same. Following are the
effects.
Excessive cutting pressure between wheel and work.
More heat generation,
Burning of the ground surface,
Poor surface finish,
Inaccuracies in the size and shape of the work piece and
Wheel breakage.
Causes of glazing:
Wrong selection of grade and size,
High wheel speed,
Feed too fine
Dirty coolant
A glazed or loaded grinding wheel can be reused after removing the glazed or
loaded particles from the grinding wheel face.
Grinding wheel dressing:
Dressing is an operation to change the cutting action of a wheel or to
recondition its grinding surface. Mostly dressing and truing are done at the same
time. Grinding wheels should be dressed and trued regularly to improve
Work production,
Wheel performance and
Grinding economy.
Dressing Truing
Refers to the removing of clogs and
blunt abrasive grains from the
surface of the grinding wheel.
Dressing exposes the cutting edges
which restore the correct cutting
action of the wheel. Dressing is
done on a glazed or loaded wheel to
recondition it.
Refers to the shaping of the wheel
to make it run concentric with the
axis. When a new grinding wheel
is mounted, it must be trued
before use to remove the run out.
Truing is done on the wheel
which is out of shape due to long
use. Sometime a wheel is also
trued to change the shape of the
grinding wheel face for a specific
grinding operation like form
grinding.
There are three types of wheel dressers. They are
Diamond,
Steel and
Abrasive.
Dressing tools:
A diamond dressing tool has a hard diamond point mounted in a metal shank.
The shank is fitted in a tool holder for location on the grinding machine to perform
dressing. Diamond dressers are most effective for precision grinding wheels. The low
feed of a diamond dresser can glaze the wheel. They are specified by their weight in
carats. Usually 0.5 carat to 1 carat diamond is used for dressing up to 300 mm
diameter of wheels.
Steel dressers for dressing a grinding wheel have rotary cutting surfaces made
from hard steel. They are held in place against the grinding wheel by hand and moved
across the face of the grinding wheel to do the dressing. The tool rest or other rigid
support must be used during this operation.
When only light dressing is required abrasive sticks are used. There are
abrasive materials made in the form of square or round sticks or put in metal tubes for
convenient handling. This type of dresser is more common in tool and cutter grinders
where truing and dressing is necessary.
Measurement of Grinding process:
There are two types of measurement. Those that are necessary to check
component quality and those that can be used to check efficiency of the grinding
process.
Measuring quality: There are three main checks on component quality.
[1] Accuracy: This involves overall dimensions and profile shape.
[2] Surface finish: This is often specified as a value of a surface roughness parameter.
Ra is probably the most common, other parameters such as Rz and Rt are also used.
As well as conforming to a measured value, visual appearance is also important in
some applications. This may mean avoiding vibration or chatter marking and deep
scratches.
[3] Component material condition: In many grinding applications it is essential to
avoid grinding burn (also called grinding abuse). This usually means damage to the
material structure of the component. There are three degrees of abuse:
[a] Rehardening burn. This is the most severe type of grinding damage.
It produces a hard, brittle layer on the surface. This is often associated
with grinding cracks.
[b] Temper burn. This is a softening of the material through overheating
during grinding. It is less severe than re hardening burn. Requirements
vary from no temper burn allowed to no check required. In between,
specifications are sometimes laid down for the amount of surface
softening that can be allowed.
[c] Residual stress. Grinding can leave stresses in the component
material, even when there is no burn. This can be critical for certain
applications such as gears and bearings, since fatigue life can be
affected.
Rehardening burn and temper burn are commonly assessed using a Nital etch.
Temper burn shows up as a darker area. Re hardening burn shows up as a lighter area,
usually surrounded by an area of temper burn. Residual stress measurement is not
common, but may become more so, as component quality requirements become more
stringent. Specialized equipment is needed.
Measuring grinding efficiency:
The following are three ways in which grinding efficiency can be measured,
additional to the quality checks above. These have not traditionally been measured,
but the trend is to add these to quality checks as a way of improving the control of the
grinding process and as a means of ensuring defects do not occur, rather than leaving
inspection to discover them and then scrap the component.
[1] Grinding power: A measurement of grinding power will show how efficiently the
wheel is cutting. A blunt or worn wheel will tend to rub so creating friction and
increased grinding power. This can be used to indicate when dressing is required.
Grinding power can also be used to detect if burn is likely to occur, since in some
cases, the start of burn can be related to a specific level of grinding power.
[2] Grinding ratio: This is defined as the ratio of the volume of component material
removed to the volume of the wheel consumed in the process. It is therefore a measure
of the efficiency with which the wheel is being used. This measurement can be used to
check if the wheel specification is correct. A low grinding ratio may mean the wheel
is too soft and is therefore breaking down too easily under the grinding forces. Care is
needed here, as too hard a wheel can sometimes give a low grinding ratio as well. Too
hard a wheel encourages chips to stick to the wheel surface and this can cause grits to
fall out too soon.
[3] Vibration: Vibration can be caused by many factors including a low stiffness
machine, too high a work speed, too hard a wheel, faulty bearings, out-of-balance, etc.
It usually leads to more efficient cutting as the vibration gives a self-dressing effect.
However, it is detrimental to surface finish, wheel life and machine life. Also, it often
causes excessive noise.
Grinding speed, feed and depth of cut:
Grinding speed:
It is the rate of travel of the wheel surface past a point on the work piece.
Wheel speed is otherwise called surface speed. It is expressed in terms of meters per
second.
N = V x 1000 / x d
V - Surface speed in meters / second.
D - Diameter of the wheel in mm.
N - RPM of the machine spindle.
1000 - to convert mm to meters.
60 - to convert RPM to revolution per second.
Feed:
In grinding refers to the movement of the wheel per stroke across the work
surface. The feed in grinding depends on the work speed, wheel width and the finish
required. It is generally 3/4th to 2/3rd of the wheel face width for rough grinding and
1/4th to 1/8 of the wheel face width in case of the finish grinding. When feed is high
the wheel wear increases surface finish deteriorates and the dimensional accuracy of
the work piece is affected.
Depth of cut:
It is the thickness of the material removed in surface grinding for one cut.
Depth of cut depends on the cutting load, power of the machine and finish required.
Generally the depth of cut is 0.02 to 0.03 mm for rough cut and 0.005 to 0.01 mm for
finish cut.



UNITS AND CONSTANT
Definitions:
Nominal size:
The size designation used for general identification. The nominal size of a
shaft and a hole are the same. This value is often expressed as a fraction.
Basic size:
The exact theoretical size of a part. This is the value from which limit
dimensions are computed. Basic size is a four decimal place equivalent to the
nominal size. The number of significant digits imply the accuracy of the dimension.
example: nominal size = 1 1/4
basic size = 1.2500
Design size:
The ideal size for each component (shaft and hole) based upon a selected fit.
The difference between the design size of the shaft and the design size of the hole is
equal to the allowance of the fit. The design size of a part corresponds to
the Maximum Material Condition (MMC). That is, the largest shaft permitted by the
limits and the smallest hole. Emphasis is placed upon the design size in the writing of
the actual limit dimension, so the design size is placed in the top position of the pair.
Tolerance:
The total amount by which a dimension is allowed to vary. For fractional
linear dimensions we have assumed a bilateral tolerance of 1/64 inch. For the fit of a
shaft/hole combination, the tolerance is considered to be unilateral, that is, it is only
applied in one direction from design size of the part. Standards for limits and fits state
that tolerances are applied such that the hole size can only vary larger from design
size and the shaft size smaller.
Basic hole system:
Most common system for limit dimensions. In this system the design size of
the hole is taken to be equivalent to the basic size for the pair (see above). This
means that the lower (in size) limit of the hole dimension is equal to design size. The
basic hole system is more frequently used since most hole generating devices are of
fixed size (for example, drills, reams, etc.) When designing using purchased
components with fixed outer diameters (bearings, bushings, etc.) a basic shaft system
may be used.
Allowance:
The allowance is the intended difference in the sizes of mating parts. This
allowance may be: positive (indicated with a "+" symbol), which means there is
intended clearance between parts; negative("-"), for intentional interference: or
"zero allowance" if the two parts are intended to be the "same size".
Base and Supplementary Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Molecular substance mole mol
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
Derived Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Space and Time
Area square meter m
Volume cubic meter m
Velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second per second m/s
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s
Angular acceleration radian per second per second rad/s
Frequency hertz Hz (cycle/s)
Rotational speed revolution per second
revolution per minute
r/s
r/m
Mechanics
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m
Momentum kilogram meter per second kgm/s
Moment of inertia kilogram meter squared kgm
Force newton N (kgm/s)
Torque, moment of force newton meter Nm
Energy, work, heat quantity joule J (Nm)
Power watt W (J/s)
Pressure, stress pascal Pa (N/m)
Heat
Customary temperature degree Celsius C
Thermal conductivity watt per meter Kelvin W/(mK)
Entropy joule per Kelvin J/K
Specific heat joule per kilogram Kelvin J/(kgK)
Light
Luminous flux lumen lm (cdsr)
Illumination lux lx (lm/m)
Luminance candela per square meter cd/m
Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity square meter per second m/s
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity pascal second Pas

Quantity Equivalent Dimensions S.I. units
Mass M
Kilogram
(kg)
Length L Metre (m)
Time T Second (s)
Frequency cycles/unit time T
-1
Hertz (Hz)
Area length x width L
2
m
2

Volume length x height x width L
3
m
3

Density Mass/unit volume ML
-3
kg/m
3

Velocity Distance/unit time LT
-1
m/s
Acceleration Velocity/unit time LT
-2
m/s
2

Force mass x acceleration MLT
-2
Newton
Weight mass x gravitational acceleration MLT
-2
Kilogram
Pressure or
Stress
force/unit area ML
-1
T
-2
Pascal (Pa)
Moment of
Inertia
mass x length
2
ML
2
kg m
2

Work force x distance ML
2
T
-2
Joule (J)
Energy Work capacity ML
2
T
-2
Joule (J)
Potential Energy
mass x gravitational acceleration x height
raised
ML
2
T
-2
Joule (J)
Kinetic Energy 1/2 mass x velocity
2
ML
2
T
-2
Joule (J)
Power Work/unit time ML
2
T
-3
Watt (W)
Momentum Mass x velocity MLT
-1

CONVERSIONS
Millibar (mb): 1 mb = 100 Pa; 1 Pa = 0.01 mb
Celsius:
o
C = K 273.15; K =
o
C + 273.15
Fahrenheit:
o
F = 9/5(
o
C) + 32;
o
C = 5/9(
o
F-32)
USEFUL NUMERICAL CONSTANTS
Universal Gas Constant (R) 8.3143 J K
-1
mol
-1

Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( ) 56.696 x 10
-9
W m
-2
K
-4

Planck constant (h) 0.66262 x 10
-33
J s
Velocity of light (c) 299.8 x 10
6
m s
-1

Wiens constant 2897 m
Acceleration due to gravity 9.80665 m s
-2

Molecular weight of dry air 28.97 g mol
-1

Density of dry air 1.209 kg m
-3

Specific heat of air at constant pressure (C
p
) 1004 J K
-1
kg
-1

Gas constant for dry air (R
d
) 287 J kg
-1
K
-1

Standard atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa
Gas constant for water vapor (R
v
) 461 J kg
-1
K
-1

Specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure 1952 J K
-1
kg
-1












Basic termsBasic terms for Mechanical Engineering
List of basic terms for Mechanical Engineering

1. Torque or Turning Force
2. Couple
3. Moment
4. Stress
5. Strain
6. Spring
7. Specific Weight
8. Specific Volume
9. Specific Gravity
10. Specific Heat
11. Viscosity
12. Buoyancy
13. Discharge of Fluid
14. Bernoulli's Equation
15. Device for Fluid
16. Mach Number
17. Hydraulic Machine
18. Draft Tube
19. Thermodynamics Law-
zeroth law
First law
second law
20. Entropy
21. calorific value of fuel
22. Boiler/Steam Generator
23. Superheater
24. Air Preheater
25. Boiler Draught
26. Nozzle
27. Scavenging
28. Supercharging
29. Turbocharging
30. Governor
31. Flywheel
32. Rating of fuel-
S.I. engine
C.I. engine
33. Stoichiometric Mixture/ Stoichiometric Ratio
34. Heat Transfer
35. Thermal Conductivity
36. Heat Exchanger
37. Refrigeration
38. 1 tonne Refrigeration
39. Humidification
40. Dehumidification
41. Gear Train
42. Gyroscopic Couple
43. Heat Treatment
44. Ferrous-Metal
45. Non-ferrous metal
46. Allowance
47. Tolerance
48. Clearance
49. Stiffness
50. Toughness
51. Fatigue
52. Nuclear Fission
53. Nuclear Fussion
54. Welding
55. Machine Tool
56. Cutting Tool
57. Indexing
58. Jig
59. Fixture

Details

Torque or Turning Force:
It is the total amount of force which is required to create acceleration on moving substance.

Couple:
Two forces those acts on equally,parallely & oppositely on two separate points of same
material.

Moment:
It is the amount of moving effect which is gained for action of turning force.

Stress:
It is the force that can prevent equal & opposite force. That means, it is the preventing force.
If one force acts on outside of a material, then a reactive force automatically acts to protest
that force. The amount of reactive force per unit area is called stress. e.g. Tensile Stress,
Compressive Stress, Thermal Stress.

Strain:
If a force acts on a substance, then in that case if the substance would deform. Then the
amount of deformation per unit length of that substance is called strain.

Spring:
It is one type of device which is being distorted under certain amount of load & also can also
go to its original face after the removal of that load.
Its function:
To store energy.
To absorb energy.
To control motion of two elements.

Stiffness:
Load per unit deflection. The amount of load required to resist the deflection.

Specific Weight:
Weight per unit volume of the fluid.

Specific Volume:
Volume per unit mass of the fluid.

Specific Gravity:
It is the ratio of specific weight of required substance to specific weight of pure water at 4
degree centigrade temperature.

Specific heat:
The amount of heat required to increase 1 unit temperature of 1 unit mass.

Viscosity:
Dynamic Viscosity:
The amount of resistance of one layer of fluid over other layer of fluid.

Kinematic Viscosity:
It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density.

Buoyancy:
When a body is immersed in a liquid, it is lifted up by a force equal to weight of liquid
displaced by the body. The tendency of liquid to lift up an immersed body is buoyancy. The
upward thrust of liquid to lift up the body is called buoyancy force.

Bernoulli's Equation:
P/ +V/2g +Z = Constant
Where, P = pressure,V = velocity,Z = Datumn Head

Devices for fluid:

Venturimeter:
It measures discharge of fluid.
Notches :
It measures discharge of fluid.
Orifice meter:
It measures discharge of fluid.
Pitot tube :
It measures velocity of fluid.

Mach Number:
It is the ratio of the velocity of fluid to the velocity of sound.
M=1 ----------------- Sonic flow
M> (1-6) ----------- Super-Sonic flow
M>6 ---------------- Hyper-Sonic flow

Fluid discharge/Fluid flow:
Quantity of fluid flowing per second.
(through a section of pipe/ through a section of channel)
Q=AV
where, V= velocity of fluid,A= cross-sectional area of pipe/channel
Note: 1m = 1000 L1 cusec = 1 ft/sec1 ft = 0.3048 m

Hydraulic Machine:
Turbine,Pump,Compressor etc.

Draft tube:
It attaches with reaction turbine . Its function is to reduce energy loss from reaction turbine
& it also reduce pressure at outlet which is must blow the atmospheric pressure.

Themodynamics Law:
Zeroth Law
First Law of Thermodynamic
Second Law of thermodynamic

Zeroth Law:
If two body are in thermal equilibrium with a third body then these two body are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

First Law of Thermodynamics:
In a closed system, work deliver to the surrounding is directly proportonal to the heat taken
from the surrounding.And also, In a closed system, work done on a system is directly
proportonal to the heat deliver to the surrounding.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:
It is impossible to make a system or an engine which can change 100 percent input energy
to 100 percent output.

Entropy:
It is a thermodynamic property.
ds = dq/T
where, ds = change of entropy, dq = change of heat, T = Temperature.
In adiabatic process, entropy can not change. Actually,lacking or mal-adroitness of
tranfering energy of a system is entropy.

Calorific Value of fuel:
It us the total amount of heat obtained from burning 1 kg solid or liquid fuel.

Boiler/Steam
Generator:
It is a clossed vessel which is made of steel. Its function is to transfer heat to water to
generate steam.

Economiser:
It is a part of boiler. Its function is to heat feed water which is supplied to boiler.

Superheater:
It is a part of boiler. Its function is to increase temperature of steam into boiler.

Air-Preheater:
It is a part of boiler. Its funtion is to preheats the air to be supplied to furnace and it recover
heat from exhaust gas.

Boler Draught:
It is an important term for boiler. It is the difference of pressure above and below the fire
grate. This pressure difference have to maintain very carefully inside the bolier. It actually
maintaind the rate of steam generation. This depends on rate of fuel burning. Inside the
boiler rate of fuel burning is maintained with rate of entry fresh air. If proper amount of fresh
air never entered into the boiler, then proper amount of fuel inside the boiler never be burnt.
So, proper fresh air enters into the boiler only by maintaining boiler draught.

Nozzle:
Nozzle is a duct of varying cros-sectional area. Actually, it is a passage of varying cross-
sectional area. It converts steam's heat energy into mechanical energy. It is one type of
pipe or tube that carrying liquid or gas.

Scavenging:
It is the process of removing burnt gas from combustion chamber of engine cylinder.

Supercharging:
Actually, power output of engine depends on what amount of air enter into the engine
through intake manifold. Amount of entry aiy if increased, then must be engine speed will
increased. Amount of air will be increased by increasing inlet air density. The process of
increasing inlet air density is supercharging. The device which is used for supercharging is
called supercharger.Superchargeris driven by a belt from engine crakshaft. It is installed in
intake system.

Turbocharging:
Turbocharging is similar to the supercharging. But in that case tubocharger is installed in
exhaust system whereas supercharger is installed in intake system. Turbocharger is driven
by force of exhaust gas. Generally, turbocharger is used for 2-stroke engine by utilizing
exhaust energy of the engine, it recovers energy otherwise which would go waste.

Governeor:
Its function id to regulate mean speed of engine when there are variation in the load. If load
incrases on the engine, then engine's speed must decrease. In that case supply of working
fluid have to increase. In the otherway, if load decrease on the engine, then engine' speed
must increase. In that case supply of working fluid have to decrease.Governor automatcally,
controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with varying load condition.

Flywheel:
It is the one of the main parts of the I.C. engine. Its main function id to store energy in the
time of working stroke or expansion stroke. And, it releasesenergy to the crankshaft in the
time of suction stroke, compression stroke & exhaust stroke. Because, engine has only one
power producing stroke.

Rating of fuel:
S.I. Engine:
Octane number. Octane number indicates ability of fuel to resist knock.

C.I. Engine:
Cetane Number. Cetane number indicates ability of ignition of diesel fuel. That means, how
much fast ignites diesel fuel.

Stoichiometric ratio:
It is the chemically correct air-fuel ratio by volume. By which theoratically sufficient oxygen
will be gotten to burn all combustible elements in fuel completely.

Heat Transfer:
It is a science which deals with energy transfer between material bodies as a result of
temperature difference.There are three way to heat transfer such as-
ConductionConvectionRadiation

Thermal Conductivity:
It is the quantity of heat flows between two parts of solid material by conduction. In this case
following consideration will be important fact-
Time------ 1 sec
Area of that solid material-------- 1 m
Thickness of that solid material------ 1m
Temperature difference between two parts of that material------ 1k

Heat Exchanger:
It is one type of device which can transfer heat from one fluid to another fluid. Example-
Radiator, intercooler, preheater, condenser, boiler etc.

Refrigeration:
It is the process of removing heat from a substance. Actually, extraction of heat from a body
whose temperature is already below the temperature of its surroundings.

1 tonne of refrigeration:
It is amount of refrigeration effect or cooling effect which is produced by uniform melting of 1
tonne ice in 24 hours from or at 0 degree centigrade or freezing 1 tonne water in 24 hours
from or at 0 degree centigrade.

Humidification:
It is the addition of moisture to the air without change dry bulb temperatur.

Dehumidification:
It is the removal of moisture from the air without change dry bulb temperature.

Gear Train:
Meshing of two or more gear. It can transmit power from one shaft to another shaft.

Heat Treatment:
Operation involving heating and cooling of a metal in solid state for obtaining desirable
condition without being changed chemical composition.Its object-increase hardness of
metal.increase quality of metal ( heat, corrosion,wear resistance quality )improve
machinability.

Ferrous Metal:
1. Cast Iron - (2-6.67)%C, Si, Mn, P, S
2. Steel - (0-2)%C
3. Wrought Iron - 99.5% Fe

Non-Ferrous Metal:
1. Brass - (Cu+Zn)
2. Bronze -
(Sn+Cu) ------ Tin Bronze
(Si+Cu) ------- Silicon Bronze
(Al+Cu) ------- Aluminium Bronze

Allowance:
It is the difference between basic dimension of mating parts. That means, minimum
clearance between mating parts that can be allowed.

Tolerance:
It is the difference between upper limit of dimension. It is also the permissible variation
above and below the basic size. That means maximum permissible variation in dimensions.

Clearance:
It is the difference in size between mating parts. That means, in that case the outside
dimension of the shaft is less than internal dimension of the hole.

Stiffness:
It is the ability to resist deformation.

Toughness:
It is the property to resist fracture.

Fatigue:
When a material is subjected to repeated stress below yield point stress, such type of failure
is fatigue failure.

Nuclear Fission:
It is a nuclear reaction by which one big nucleous divided into two or more nucleous.

Nuclear Fussion:
It is also a nuclear reaction by which one big nucleous will produced by adding two small
nucleous.

Welding:
It is the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metal by fusion.

Arc Welding -
* need D.C current
* produced (6000-7000) Degree Centegrade Temperature
Gas Welding -
* Oxy - acetylene flame join metals
* Oxygen & acetylene gas works
* produced 3200 Degree Centegrade Temperature

Machine Tool:
It is the power driven tool. It cut & form all kinds of metal parts.
Example - 1. Lathe2. Drill Press3. Shaper4. Planer5. Grinding6. Miling7. Broaching8. Boring

Cutting Tool:

Tool Materials for Cutting Tool:
1. High Carbon Steel
2. High Speed Steel (W+Cr+V)
3. Carbide (W Carbide+Ti Carbide+Co Carbide)
Indexing:
It is the method of dividing periphery of job into equal number of division. Actually, it is the
process of dividing circular or other shape of workpiece into equal space, division or angle.

Jig:
It is one type of device which hold & locate workpiece and also guide & control cutting tool.
It uses in drilling, reaming and tapping.

Fixture:
It is one type of device which hold and locate workpiece. It uses in miling, grinding, planning
& turning.












In majority of machine members, the damping capacity of the material should be zero.
At quite low temperatures (say -75c) the notched bar impact value of steel decreases
significantly.
The crest diameter of a screw thread is same as major diameter.
If d is the diameter of bolt hole then for a flanged pipe joint to be leak proof, the circumferential
pitch of the bolts should be 20d - 30d.
Muntz metal contains copper-zinc.
A Babbitt is antimony bearing lead or tin alloy.
Steel balls for ball bearing are manufactured by cold heading.
The blow off pressure of a safety value is 106% of boiler working pressure.
A foundation bolt with a circular end is secured to the floor by means of a steel cotter. If the pull
on the bolt is 14000 kg, the diameter of the bolt should be 60 mm.
In case knuckle joint the pin is most likely to fail in double shear.
The key is cut is both shaft and hub is case of sunk key.
Splines are used when axial relative motion between shaft and hub is necessary.
Splined shafts are generally used in automobiles.
Universal coupling/Hooks joint is used for non-collinear shafts.
In flange coupling the weakest element should be key.
Turn buckle has left hand threads on one end and right hand threads on other end.
Elastic nut is a locking device that has hard fiber or nylon cotter is recessed in the nut and
becomes threaded as the nut is screwed on the bolt causing a tight grip.
Treating the weld as a line, the moment of inertia about center of gravity of a circular weld of
diameter d, would be d
3
/4.
A single ply leather belt running at a belt velocity of 300 ft/min is likely to transmit per inch of width
4.0 HP.

For butt welding of two plates each of which is 25 mm thick, the best process would be electro
slag welding.
The compression members tend to buckle in the direction of least radius of gyration
The diameter of a washer is generally slightly more than the diameter of the bolt.
A reinforced concrete beam is considered to be made up of heterogeneous material.
According to Eulers theory the critical length of a column is given by P
c
=
2
EI/L
2 .

Rankine formula is valid up to slenderness ratio of 120.
Slenderness ratio of a column is length of strut/least radius of gyration.
In hydrodynamics bearing the oil film pressure is generated only by the rotation of the journal.
If P = bearing pressure on projected bearing area, z = absolve viscosity of lubricant, and N =
speed of journal, then the characteristic number is given by ZN/p.
The rated life of bearing changes inversely as cube of load.
The oiliness bearing does not need external supply of lubricant.
In cross or regular lay ropes direction of twist of in stands is opposite to the direction of twist of
stands.
Gears for wrist watches are generally manufactured by helix angle.
The type of cam used for low and moderate speed engines is generally harmonic
The form coefficient of a spring is capability to store energy.
Coriolis component of acceleration is found in wit worth-quick return motion
Cold working of material increase the fatigue strength.
A Babbitt is antimony bearing lead or tin alloy
Addendum of a cycloidal gear tooth is epicycloids


Spiral gears are suitable for transmitting small powers
As pump speed increases its NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) requirement increases
If pump NPSH requirements are not satisfied, it will be cavitated
Bush roller chain is used in motor cycle.
The working load for a chain for crane application is expressed in terms of diameter of link in cm
and given by 500 multiplied by square of diameter.
If a square key and shaft are to be of the same material and or of equal strength, the length of
key would be 1.23d, d=diameter of shaft
In a standard coarse thread bolt the stress concentration is maximum at root.
Fatigue strength of a surface may be increased by polishing the surface
The maximum deflection allowed in gantry girders is L/1000
The maximum size of the fillet weld that can be used at 3 mm
The maximum size of fillet weld that can be made in single pass in 6 mm
A rolled steel flat designated as 50 ISF 8 means the flat is 50 mm wide and 8 mm thick.
The column splice is used for increasing length of column
The minimum thickness steel member exposed to weather and accessible for painting is 10 mm
For determination of allowable stress in axial compression, IS: 800-1962 has adopted secant
formula
For accurately, cut gears operating at velocities upto 20 m/sec, the velocity factor v, is given by
6/6+v
Zero axial thrust is experienced in herinnghbone gears
In order to realize the advantage of fluid friction, it is essential to have parallel oil film in bearing
A Shaft rotating in anti-clockwise direction at slow speed inside a bearing will be towards left side
of bearing and making metal to metal contact
Bearing characteristics number relating Z-absolute viscosity of lubricant, N-speed of journal and
p-bearing pressure on projected bearing area is ZN/p

A kinematics chain needs a minimum of 4 link and 4 turning pairs.
If the frequency of oscillation on earth is n then the frequency of oscillation on the moon will be
n/6.
The biflar suspension method is used to find out moment of inertia.
The total number of instantaneous centers for a mechanism of n link is equal to n(n-1)/2.
In case of an elliptical trammel two pairs turn and two pairs slide.
A shaft revolving in a bearing forms a lower pair.
For kinematic chains formed by lower pair the relation between the number of link L and the
number of joint J is given by L = 2/3 (J+2).
The mechanism used to enlarge or reduce moments for reproducing drawings to different scales
is called pantograph.
The number of links in a pantograph is to 4.
If a practical of a link has a velocity that changes both in magnitude and direction at any instant,
then it must have two components of acceleration e.g., centripetal. And tangential.
The Kleins method of construction for reciprocating engine mechanism utilities a quadrilateral
similar to the diagram of mechanism for reciprocating engine.
In elliptical trammels have two pairs turning and two pairs sliding.
When a ship travel in a sea, the effect of the pitching is more dangerous.
If is angle of friction, the limiting value of tan will be .
Multiple collars are provided on a flat collar pivot bearing to distribute the axial load due to limiting
bearing pressure on a collar.
Slip in belt drive is different between the linear speed of the rim of pulley and the belt on it.
In case of flat belt drive the length of belt in case of gross belts depends on the sum of the
diameters of pulleys.
A pantograph is a mechanism having lower pairs.
Kinematic pairs are those pairs that have two elements that allow relative motion.
A cam with a roller follower would constitute higher pair.
Peaucellier mechanism has eight links.
Hart mechanism has six links.
For a kinematic chain to be considered as mechanism one link should be fixed.
The cam angle is the angle of rotation of the cam for a definite displacement of the follower.
Kleins construction is used to find out acceleration of various parts.
For a stable governor there is one radius of the governor weight for each equilibrium speed.
In case of a governor isochronous is only one equilibrium which is constant for all radii of rotation
of the bells within the working range.
Module can be expressed in mm.
The bipolar suspension method I used to find out moment of inertia.
Instantaneous centre of rotation of a link in a four bar mechanism lies on a point obtained by
intersection of extending adjoining links.
A reverted gear train is one in which the first and last gear are on the same shaft.
In case of spur gears the flank of the tooth is the part of the tooth surface lying below the pitch
surface.
In case of cross helical worm the axes of two shafts are non parallel-non-interesting.
In case of gears the addendum is given by one module.
Gears for watches are generally manufactured by stamping.
A cam where in the follower reciprocates or oscillates in plane parallel to the axis of the cam is
called cylindrical cam.
Rope break Dynamometers uses no lubricant.
Tesla fluid friction dynameters used for power measurement when the speed is high and the
viscous force is small.
Hydraulic Dynamometers is widely used for absorption of wide range power at wide range of
speed.
The secondary disturbing force because of inertia of reciprocating mass is given by W/g
2
r/n
cos .
In a balancing machine the units for unbalance measurements are gm-cm.
In a hartnell governor if the stiffness of spring is increased the governor will become less
sensitive.
The supply of working fluid to the engine to suit the load conditions can be controlled by governor.
The governor used in gramophone is of pickening type.
A porter governor could be classified as dead weight type governor.
The function of a governor is to adjust variation of speed by varying the input to the engine.
If D and T be the pitch circle diameter and no. of teeth of a gear, then its circular pitch p = D/T.
If D
1
and T
1
be the diameter and no. of teeth of gear 1 and D
2
and T
2
the corresponding value of
other gear in mesh, then ratio N
1
/N
2
, will be equal to D
2
/D
1
.
A scott-russel mechanism is made up of sliding and turning pairs.
Ackerman steering gear is made up of turning pairs.
A sliding crank chain is made up of three turning and one sliding pairs.
A motor car takes a bend of certain radius in right hand direction when moving at some speed. If
engine rotates in a clockwise direct when viewed from front, then because of centrifugal force
reaction on outside wheel is increased and on inside wheels decreased.
If be the static deflection of shaft under the gravity load, then natural frequency of the system in
case of the longitudinal and transverse vibration is equal to 1/2 g/.
Cold working increased the fatigue strength.
Coaxing is the procedure of increasing fatigue limit by overstressing the metal by successively
increasing loadings.
The notch angle of the Izod impact test specimen is 45
0
.
In vickers hardness testing, the pyramid indentor apex is 40
0
.