RAVEN’S PROGRESSIVE MATRICES

WHAT IS RPM?
Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) are non-verbal tests measuring an individual’s general
cognitive ability, or eductive or meaning-making abilities. The test was first published in 1938.

The test items increase in difficulty hence, progressive. It requires great mental effort and
reasoning skills.

The problems are in the form of 2x2 or 3x3 matrices hence called matrices.

It is a non-verbal test. Non-verbal tests are those that use pictures, patterns, designs to test
various psychological attributes. These tests don't rely on the use of language skills in evaluating
these attributes, that is, verbal responses are not required in these tests. Non-verbal tests can be of
two types – performance tests or paper-and-pencil tests. Raven’s Progressive Matrices is a
paper-and-pencil test of intelligence with printed non-verbal items.

The test is said to be culturally fair as it is minimally influenced by varying linguistic and ethnic
backgrounds. Can be administered individually or in groups. Versatile test as it can be used with
all age groups and diverse population (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2013). One can see the versatility of
matrices in their wide application for such groups as young children, the culturally deprived, the
language-handicapped (Saccuzzo, Johnson, & Guertin, 1994), and those suffering traumatic brain
injury (Hiscock, Inch, & Gleason, 2002). Analysis of available reliability studies shows a rather
respectable range of coefficients, from the high .70’s to low .90’s (see Raven et al.,
1998).

It is a test of a person's capacity at the time of the test to apprehend meaningless figures for
observation, see the relation between them and conceive the nature of the figure completing each
system of relations presented based on systematic method of reasoning. RPM test is based on
figural stimuli. It consists of a series of abstract diagrams or designs with a missing part. Out of
the given options, the correct missing part is to be chosen by the test-taker to complete the
design.

DEVELOPMENT

● Developed by Raven while studying genetic and environmental origins of mental

deficiency.
 ● Found comprehensive intelligence tests cumbersome to administer and difficult to
interpret scores from.
● Wanted to develop tests that were easy to administer, rooted in theory and interpretable
without complex calculations.
● Being Spearman’s student, Raven was influenced by his theories on intelligence.
● Spearman’s “g” had 2 components:
● Eductive Ability - RPM
● Reproductive Ability - Mill Hill Vocabulary Test (MHV)
● RPM was published in the UK in 1938. Originally designed to assess military recruits.

PURPOSE

● Designed to measure abstract thinking and problem-solving ability without relying on

prior knowledge or experience.
● Easier items of SPM constructed to test basic perceptual processes, such as
differentiation, recognition of similarity, and Gestalt perception (comprehending entire
patterns and not merely individual components).
● Abstract reasoning
● Analytical Skills
● Cognitive Functioning
● Problem-solving skills
● Spatial Reasoning - ability to understand objects in both two and three-dimensional terms

VERSIONS OF RPM

STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (RSPM/SPM)

● Most frequently used. Can be administered on all age groups.

● 60 items - 5 sets of 12 progressions.
● Normed for examinees of age 6 and up.

COLOURED PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (CPM)

● Coloured version - visually stimulating and holds children's attention.

● 36 items
● Children of 5-11 years of age, elderly with declining cognition and individuals with
mental impairments.
ADVANCED PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (APM)

● More complex version of Raven’s test.

● Suitable for adults and adolescents with above-average intelligence.
● Divided into 2 sets. Set I has 12 problems and Set II has 36. Time limit of 40 minutes.

LOUIS THURSTONE PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES THEORY

Psychologist Louis Leon Thurstone believed that intelligence is not a single entity, but rather a
combination of distinct primary mental abilities. He identified seven primary mental abilities that
he believed were the foundation of intelligence These include:

Associative memory: The ability to store and retrieve information, including short-term memory,
long-term memory, and working memory.

Numerical ability: The ability to solve mathematical problems. This ability is involved in rapid
arithmetic computation and in solving simple arithmetic word problems.

Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects. This ability is
involved in proofreading and in rapid recognition of letters and numbers.

Reasoning: The ability to identify patterns and relationships in information and make
generalizations based on that information. It is measured by tests, such as letter series, number
series, and word classifications, in which the examinee must indicate which of several words
does not belong with the others.

Spatial visualization: This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of objects, and how
pieces of a puzzle fit together.

Verbal comprehension: This factor involves a person’s ability to understand verbal material like
understanding words or vocabulary.

Word fluency: This ability is involved in rapidly producing words, sentences, and other verbal
material. It is measured by tests such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many
words as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of time.

Thurstone believed that each of these primary mental abilities was relatively independent of the
others, meaning that a person could be strong in one area but weak in another

RAYMOND CATTELL THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Psychologist Cattell suggested two different forms of intelligence.

Fluid intelligence -

Cattell defined fluid intelligence as "the ability to perceive relationships independent of previous
specific practice or instruction concerning those relationships." Fluid intelligence involves being
able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered independent of
learning, experience, and education.

When you encounter an entirely new problem that cannot be solved with your existing
knowledge, you must rely on fluid intelligence to solve it.

Fluid intelligence examples include:

● Coming up with problem solving strategies

● Interpreting statistics
● Philosophical reasoning
● Solving puzzles or abstract problems

Fluid intelligence tends to decline during late adulthood. Certain cognitive skills associated with
fluid intelligence also tend to decline as people reach later adulthood.

Crystallised intelligence -

Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge that comes from prior learning and past
experiences.

Crystallized intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and
accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger.

Crystallized intelligence examples include:

● Memorizing text
● Memorizing vocabulary
● Recalling how to do something
● Remembering dates and locations

As you might expect, this type of intelligence tends to increase with age.7 The more learning and
experience you have, the more you build up your crystallized intelligence.
SPEARMAN G FACTOR THEORY

Spearman's theory of general intelligence is known as the two-factor theory and states that
general intelligence or "g" is correlated with specific abilities or "s" to some degree. All tasks on
intelligence tests, whether related to verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this
underlying g factor.

The “g” factor is linked to the general ability, while the “s” factor is linked to the specific ability.

The “g” factor reflects the capability of a person in doing the general mental ability tasks, and the
“s” factor is responsible for recognizing the specific abilities of a person.

The g-factor is often measured by intelligence tests and is considered to be a key component in
assessing cognitive ability.

Research in psychometrics has shown that cognitive abilities such as verbal ability, mathematical
ability, and spatial ability are positively correlated with each other, meaning that individuals who
score high on one test of cognitive ability tend to score high on other tests as well.

The g-factor is used to explain this positive correlation among cognitive abilities and is
considered to be a measure of general intelligence.

The two main components of general cognitive ability (g) that Raven sought to measure directly
were indeed those identified by Spearman in 1923:

(a) eductive ability (from the Latin educere, meaning ‘‘to draw out’’), the ability to make
meaning out of confusion, the ability to generate high-level, usually nonverbal, schemata
(outline) which make it easy to handle complexity; and

(b) reproductive ability—the ability to absorb, recall, and reproduce information that has been
made explicit and communicated from one person to another.

WORKING MEMORY MODEL - Baddeley and Hitch

Working memory meaning - Working memory is one of the brain’s executive functions. It’s a
skill that allows us to work with information without losing track of what we’re doing.

Central Executive - Functions as the “control system” Drives the whole system (e.g., the boss of
working memory) and allocates data to the subsystems: the phonological loop and the
visuospatial sketchpad.
Its functions involve updating and coding information replacing old information, shifting
between tasks or retrieval strategies and binding information from number of sources into
coherent episodes.

It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic, decision making and
problem-solving.

The central executive decides which information is attended to and which parts of the working
memory to send that information to be dealt with.

For example, two activities sometimes come into conflict, such as driving a car and talking.
Rather than hitting a cyclist who is wobbling all over the road, it is preferable to stop talking and
concentrate on driving. The central executive directs attention and gives priority to particular
activities.

The Phonological Loop - The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with
spoken and written material. It consists of two parts - articulatory loop and acoustic store

Acoustic store - also called phonological store and (inner ear) acts as an inner ear and holds
information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. Spoken words enter the
store directly. Written words must first be converted into an articulatory (spoken) code before
they can enter the phonological store.

Articulatory loop - also called articulatory control process and (inner voice) acts like an inner
voice rehearsing information from the phonological store. It prevents the decay of information by
continuously refreshing it in rehearsal loop

This is how we remember a telephone number we have just heard. As long as we keep repeating
it, we can retain the information in working memory.

Visuospatial Sketchpad - Also called (inner eye). The visuospatial sketchpad is a component of
working memory model which stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form. The
visuospatial sketchpad is used for navigation like for representing mental maps. Visual
information refers to what things look like. It is likely that the visuospatial sketchpad plays an
important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move
through our environment.

As we move around, our position in relation to objects is constantly changing and it is important
that we can update this information.

(For example, being aware of where we are in relation to desks, chairs and tables when we are
walking around a classroom means that we don”t bump into things too often!)
The sketchpad also displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in long-term
memory.

(For example, the spatial layout of your house is held in LTM. Try answering this question: How
many windows are there in the front of your house?

You probably find yourself picturing the front of your house and counting the windows. An
image has been retrieved from LTM and pictured on the sketchpad.)

The Episodic Buffer - The episodic buffer acts as a “backup” store which communicates with
both long-term memory and the components of working memory.

It holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly
information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g., semantic information, musical
information).

Instead of seeing working memory as merely an extension and a useful version of short-term
memory, it appears to be more closely related to activated long-term memory.

FLYNN EFFECT

The Flynn effect is a phenomenon observed in intelligence testing, where it has been noted that
average IQ scores in the general population tend to increase over time. The phenomenon is
named after James R. Flynn, a political scientist and philosopher, who extensively studied and
documented these trends. Flynn first noticed this pattern in the 1980s when he observed that
successive generations consistently scored higher on IQ tests than their predecessors. The effect
challenges the assumption that intelligence is a fixed trait and has significant implications for our
understanding of cognitive abilities and the factors that contribute to intellectual development.

Flynn's groundbreaking work, particularly his 1987 paper titled "Massive IQ gains in 14 nations:
What IQ tests really measure," delves into the cross-cultural nature of the Flynn effect. In this
paper, Flynn highlighted that IQ scores had risen dramatically in various countries over several
decades, challenging traditional views on the stability of intelligence. He discussed the need for a
nuanced understanding of intelligence testing and questioned what exactly IQ tests measure.

The Flynn effect has been widely observed and replicated in diverse populations and has sparked
numerous theories to explain its underlying causes. Proposed explanations include improvements
in nutrition, education, access to information, and changes in the complexity of modern societies.
The ongoing debate about the causes and implications of the Flynn effect continues to contribute
to the fields of psychology, education, and intelligence research.
APPLICATIONS

● Since the test is independent of language, reading, and writing skills, and is quite simple,
The test quickly found widespread practical application. The Raven Progressive Matrices
Test is used as a basic and applied assessment instrument, and its administration can be
extended to many different fields. However, the contexts in which this test is most used
are: Teaching centers and institutions (Mills et al., 2010)
● Scores are relatively unaffected by linguistic and ethnic background and can be used as a
good predictor of success in an educational context for both children and adults. Career
guidance and personnel selection centers
● Psychological clinics: In clinical settings the reliability of the measures and lack of bias
makes them ideal tools in neuropsychological assessment, working with elderly people
and many clinical groups whose particular needs make the demands of more traditional
cognitive testing unrealistic.
● The strong theoretical background, lengthy citation count, and application across multiple
Languages, ethnic and cultural groups make them ideal tools for investigations requiring
measurements of cognitive abilities in a wide range of organizational, educational, and
clinical settings.
● Demonstrates its adaptability across various contexts, showcasing its effectiveness in
assessing cognitive abilities in individuals with ASD, identifying exceptional students,
and evaluating the cognitive capacities of elderly and impaired individuals.

ADVANTAGES

1. Culture Fairness:
The test is designed to be culturally neutral, minimizing language and cultural biases, allowing
for more equitable assessments across diverse populations (Raven, 1938).

2. Non-Verbal:
Being a non-verbal test, it measures abstract reasoning abilities without relying on language
skills, making it suitable for individuals with language barriers or disabilities (Raven, 1938).

3. Flexibility:
The test's adaptability to various age groups, from children to adults, and its use across different
settings such as clinical, educational, and occupational assessments, enhances its versatility
(Raven, 1938).

DISADVANTAGES
1. Limited Predictive Validity:
Some studies suggest limitations in predicting success in certain fields, particularly technical
professions, as it primarily measures abstract reasoning and may not adequately capture
domain-specific skills required for these roles (Smith & Johnson, 2010).

2. Practice Effects:
With repeated exposure, individuals might improve their performance not due to enhanced
cognitive abilities but because of familiarity with the test format, potentially compromising the
reliability of long-term assessments (Smith & Johnson, 2010).

3. Potential Socioeconomic Biases:

While designed to minimize cultural biases, socioeconomic factors can still influence
performance, as individuals with greater access to educational resources or experiences may
perform better (Smith & Johnson, 2010).

CRITICISMS

It's worth noting that despite its long history and widespread use, the RPM test has not been
without its critics. Some researchers have argued that the test is not a true measure of
intelligence, as it only assesses certain types of cognitive abilities and does not take into account
other important factors such as creativity, emotional intelligence, and social skills. Additionally,
some have argued that the test may be culturally biased, as it is primarily based on Western
cultural norms and values.

Some of the most compelling arguments against the Raven's Matrices Test include:

1. Cultural bias: Although the test is designed to minimize the influence of linguistic and
cultural factors, critics argue that it may still contain cultural biases. For instance, the
abstract patterns and images used in the test may be more familiar to individuals from
certain cultural backgrounds, giving them an advantage over others. Additionally,
exposure to certain types of educational systems and experiences, such as those that
emphasize visual-spatial learning, may impact performance on the test.
2. Overemphasis on visual-spatial intelligence: The Raven's Matrices primarily assess
visual-spatial reasoning abilities. While this is an important aspect of fluid intelligence,
critics argue that the test does not fully capture the range of cognitive abilities that
contribute to overall intelligence. Other forms of intelligence, such as verbal,
mathematical, or social intelligence, are not directly assessed by the Raven's Matrices.
 3. Limited scope of fluid intelligence measurement: Although the Raven's Matrices Test is
designed to measure fluid intelligence, it may not capture all aspects of this cognitive
domain. Fluid intelligence is a complex construct that encompasses various cognitive
processes, such as attention, working memory, and mental flexibility. By focusing on
abstract reasoning and pattern recognition, the test may not fully assess an individual's
fluid intelligence capabilities.
4. Test anxiety and performance pressure: Like any standardized test, performance on the
Raven's Matrices may be influenced by test anxiety and pressure to perform well.
Individuals who experience anxiety during testing may not perform to the best of their
abilities, resulting in an inaccurate assessment of their fluid intelligence.
5. Lack of ecological validity: Critics argue that the Raven's Matrices Test may not
accurately represent the types of problem-solving and reasoning tasks that individuals
encounter in everyday life. The abstract nature of the test items may not translate to
real-world situations, limiting the ecological validity of the test as a measure of fluid
intelligence.

However, many researchers have defended the RPM test, arguing that it is a valid measure of
intelligence and that it has been shown to be reliable and valid across different cultures and
educational backgrounds.

LIMITATIONS

1. Reliance on Abstract Reasoning:

The test primarily assesses abstract reasoning abilities, potentially overlooking other cognitive
domains such as verbal reasoning, memory, or spatial abilities, which could limit its
comprehensive evaluation of an individual's cognitive skills (Carpenter et al., 2015).

2. Age Dependency:
While adaptable to various age groups, the test might show age-related performance variations.
Younger individuals might face challenges due to less developed reasoning abilities, while older
adults might encounter difficulties due to cognitive decline (Carpenter et al., 2015).

3. Lack of Contextualization:
The test evaluates raw cognitive ability without considering the context in which these abilities
are applied. This absence of real-world context might limit its applicability in predicting practical
problem-solving skills or performance in specific job roles (Carpenter et al., 2015).

SIMILAR SCALES
 ● Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): This widely used test assesses various
cognitive abilities, including similarities to RPM in its non-verbal reasoning sections.
● Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test: Designed to minimize cultural and verbal
influences, it assesses abstract reasoning abilities similar to RPM.
● Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests: Tests like the Culture Fair Test, Naglieri Nonverbal Ability
Test (NNAT), and the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) emphasize non-verbal
reasoning and abstract thinking.
● Matrix Reasoning Tests: Various intelligence tests include matrix reasoning sections
similar to RPM, such as those found in the Differential Ability Scales (DAS) and the
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC).

RESEARCH PAPER

1. Neural Substrates of Fluid Reasoning: An fMRI Study of Neocortical Activation during

Performance of the Raven's Progressive Matrices Test

The research examined brain activation, as measured by functional magnetic resonance

imaging, during problem solving in seven young, healthy participants. Participants solved
problems selected from the Raven's Progressive Matrices Test, a test known to predict
performance on a wide range of reasoning tasks. In three conditions, participants solved
problems requiring (1) analytic reasoning; (2) figural or visuospatial reasoning; or (3) simple
pattern matching that served as a perceptual–motor control. Right frontal and bilateral parietal
regions were activated more by figural than control problems. Bilateral frontal and left parietal,
occipital, and temporal regions were activated more by analytic than figural problems. All of
these regions were activated more by analytic than match problems. Many of these activations
occurred in regions associated with working memory. Figural reasoning activated areas involved
in spatial and object working memory. Analytic reasoning activated additional areas involved in
verbal working memory and domain-independent associative and executive processes. These
results suggest that fluid reasoning is mediated by a composite of working memory systems.

2. Identifying Academic Potential in Students from Under-represented Populations: Is Using

the Ravens Progressive Matrices a Good Idea?
Increasing concern has been focused on the under-representation of African-American
and Hispanic students in programs for the academically talented. The Raven's Progressive
Matrices (RPM) has been suggested as a possible instrument to help remedy this situation,
although little research has been conducted about its viability in identifying academic potential in
minority populations. A sample of low-income minority students was given the Raven's
Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) along with a more traditional measure of academic
aptitude (The School and College Ability Test) to compare the ability of each to identify students
who might profit from advanced-level coursework. There were differences among ethnic groups
in results of both tests, but a significantly higher proportion of minority children scored at a high
level on the RPM than on the traditional mcasure. In addition, the RPM does appear to be a
useful instrument for identifying academic potential in students with limited English proficiency
However, there are still issues and concerns surrounding the use of the APM as the sole
instrument for selecting students to participate in special programs stressing high-level academic
standards and content. The RPM appears to hold more promise as a general screening
instrument, to be used in conjunction with other measures to identify students with academic
potential who could profit from special programs designed to enhance their academic skills.

METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This is a nonverbal intelligence test. It is a test suitable for comparing people with
respect to their immediate capacities for observation and clear thinking.
RPM is a test of a person's capacity at the time of the test to apprehend
meaningless figures for observation, see the relation between them and conceive
the nature of the figure completing each system of relations presented based on
systematic method of reasoning. Factor Analysis suggests that this test measures
largely general factors.

The scale consists of 60 problems divided into 5 sets - A, B, C, D and E. Each set has 12
problems. In each set problems become progressively more difficult. The scale can be
given as a self-administered, individual or group test. A person's total score provides an
index of his intelligence capacity.

Methodology

Problem: To determine the level of intelligence or capacity of perceptual accuracy

and analytical reasoning of the subject.

Plan: To administer Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. Score Responses and

determine the percentile rank and grade of the subject.

Materials Used:

l. RPM Test Booklet

2. Answer Sheets,
3. Writing Materials
4. Scoring Key
 5. Norms
6. Stop Clock

Procedure: The subject is seated comfortably in a well-ventilated and bright

room. The booklet along with the answer sheet is placed in front of the subject
and the instructions are given with the example of the first pattern. It is ensured
that the subject has understood the instructions before starting the test. With the
signal 'Start' allows the subject to work. There is no time limit. Generally, the
subjects complete the test within an hour.

Instructions: " On every page of the booklet there is a pattern with a piece
missing. You have to choose which of the pieces below is the right one to
Complete the pattern. When you think you have found the right piece, write its
corresponding number next to the problem number in the answer sheet. If you
make a mistake, or want to change your answer, put a cross through the incorrect
answer and write the corresponding number Of the correct answer on your answer
sheet. Go on like this by yourself until you get to the end of the booklet. They are
quite simple in the beginning and get difficult progressively. If you attend to the
pattern with concentration, they get less difficult, Work at your own pace. Do not
miss any item. Do not turn back. Begin with the 'start ' signal. There are 60
problems and 12 in each set.”

Precautions:

1. Ensure that the subjects have understood the instructions clearly, before
starting the test.
2. Problems should be solved one after the other.
3. All the problems in the test booklet should be attempted by the subject.

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULT

l. Score the Answers with the reference to the key.

2. Total number of problems solved correctly constitutes the subject's raw score.

3. Convert the raw score into percentile points.

4. Consistency score is found by calculating the difference between the subject's score on each
set from that of the normal expected score.

Consistency Score = Subject's Score- Normal Expected Score

Note: If the subject's score on any. of the sets deviates by more than 2 from the normal expected
score, his/her total score on the scale cannot be accepted at its. face value, as a consistent
estimate of his general capacity for intellectual activity

5. Compute the total and mean for the total raw score for the group

6. Subjects are graded according to norms.

Point for Discussion

l. Discuss the consistency Scores

2. Discuss the subject score with reference to the group mean .

PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES

Reliability:
● Internal Consistency:RPM exhibits high internal consistency, typically measured using
Cronbach's alpha. Studies show alpha coefficients ranging from 0.80 to 0.90, indicating
strong reliability, suggesting that items within the test are measuring the same construct
consistently.
● Test-Retest Reliability:Test-retest reliability assesses the stability of scores over time.
Studies have demonstrated moderate to high test-retest reliability for RPM, with
correlations ranging between 0.70 to 0.90 over intervals of weeks or months. This
suggests that individuals tend to score consistently when retested.
● Split-Half Reliability:Split-half reliability measures the consistency between two halves
of the test. RPM shows robust split-half reliability, with coefficients typically exceeding
0.80, indicating a high level of internal consistency across different sections of the test.

Validity:

● Content Validity: Content validity ensures that the test adequately covers the domain it
intends to measure. The RPM has undergone extensive content validation by experts in
cognitive psychology. It covers a broad range of abstract reasoning tasks, ensuring it
assesses various aspects of non-verbal cognitive ability.
● Construct validity: RPM demonstrates strong construct validity, correlating significantly
with other measures of intelligence, such as standardized IQ tests like the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Studies consistently report moderate to high correlations
(ranging from 0.50 to 0.70) between RPM scores and measures of general intelligence.
 ● Predictive Validity: Predictive validity assesses the ability of the test to predict future
performance in related tasks. High RPM scores have been associated with success in
academic settings, problem-solving abilities, and performance in various cognitive tasks,
indicating its predictive validity for cognitive aptitude.
● Convergent and Discriminant Validity: RPM scores show significant correlations with
other measures of cognitive ability, supporting its convergent validity. Additionally, it
demonstrates discriminant validity by distinguishing between individuals with varying
cognitive abilities.

Inclusion Criteria:

● Age Range:RPM is applicable across various age groups, typically starting from around 5
years old.Books or articles on cognitive assessment or intelligence testing often mention
the age applicability of RPM across various developmental stages. Look for
comprehensive textbooks on cognitive assessment or intelligence testing authored by
experts in psychometrics.

● Cognitive Abilities:Individuals should possess basic cognitive abilities necessary to

engage in non-verbal problem-solving tasks.References discussing the cognitive skills
required for engaging in non-verbal problem-solving tasks, especially related to RPM,
can be found in textbooks on cognitive development or intelligence testing.

Exclusion Criteria:

● Severe Cognitive Impairment:RPM might not be suitable for individuals with severe
cognitive impairments that hinder their ability to engage in non-verbal reasoning
tasks.Textbooks or articles focusing on psychometric assessments or intelligence testing
may detail the exclusion of individuals with severe cognitive impairments from tests like
RPM. Authors specializing in cognitive assessment or developmental psychology might
provide insights.

● Sensory Impairments: Visual or perceptual impairments might affect an individual's

performance on visual-based tasks like those in the RPM.Books or articles discussing the
impact of sensory impairments on cognitive assessments, especially visual-based tasks
like RPM, can be found in literature related to special education or assessment
accommodations for individuals with disabilities.
REFERENCE

● Mills, C. J., Ablard, K. E., & Brody, L. E. (1993). The raven's progressive matrices: Its
usefulness for identifying gifted/talented students. Roeper Review
● Raven, J. C. (1938). The Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Change and Stability Over
Culture and Time. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 1-48.
● Smith, J. A., & Johnson, B. (2010). Limitations of the Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test
in Predicting Success in Technical Fields. Journal of Applied Psychology, 25(2), 215-230.
● Carpenter, P., Just, M., & Shell, P. (2015). Limitations of the Raven’s Progressive
Matrices Test: An In-depth Analysis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 30(4), 521-535.
● Adaface. (2023, October 16). Science behind the Raven's Progressive Matrices Test.
Adaface. from https://www.adaface.com/blog/ravens-progressive-matrices/
● Smith, J. A. (January 2008). The Raven Progressive Matrices Tests: Their Theoretical
Basis and Measurement Model. Research Gate. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255605513_The_Raven_Progressive_Matrices_
Tests_Their_Theoretical_Basis_and_Measurement_Model
● de Winter, J. C. F., Dodou, D., & Eisma, Y. B. (2023). Responses to Raven matrices:
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https://doi.org/10.1177/03010066231178149
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applications, and issues (6th ed., pp. 339–342). essay, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
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testing: History, principles, and applications (7th ed., pp. 217–220). essay, Pearson.
● Cherry, K. (2022). Theories of intelligence in Psychology. Verywellmind.
https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035
● Neural substrates of fluid reasoning: An fmri study of neocortical activation during
performance of the Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test. Cognitive Psychology.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010028597906599
● Mills, C. J. (n.d.). Identifying Academic Potential in Students from Under-represented
Populations: Is Using the Ravens Progressive Matrices a Good Idea? - sage journals and
Sherri L. Tissot. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001698629503900404
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