CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher has used several studies conducted by

previous researchers as well as some books and articles related to
researcher topic about the effects of single parenting on students’
academic performance in Secondary School in Arusha City.

2.2.1 SINGLE PARENTING

Single parenting as is called is becoming a rapidly growing phenomena
in both the developed and developing nations of the world. Studies show
that in some States alone, there are four single parents to every ten
parents and there are two single parents for every ten (10) adults”
(Memon et al., 2010). Since the parents jointly take the decision of
single parenting, one voice is mostly ignored and it is that of the child. It
was reliably gathered that single parenting has major consequence on the
child’s mental, social, emotional, behavioral, financial and psychological
outcomes (Duke, 2000). In fact, single parenting faces many challenges
which have significant effects to a student as it has been identified in this
paragraph.
The direct effect of being raised by a single parent is especially visible in
child’s thinking and mental mindset. Psychologists and advocates have
validated this over time. Tests and observations have consistently
concluded and found that single parenting makes schoolchildren more
aggressive and rebellious. Hence, these are transferred on their
educational needs for survival in the society. Experts say the behavior
could be the outcome of the anger and limitation the child experiences
while growing up. These are obvious reasons to make the child feel
abnormal, different and unaccepted (Mathu, 1999). Actually, children
being raised by single parent face many limitations which lead influence
their academic performance.

In similar veins, the research conducted by Usakli (2013), on

Comparison of children with single and Two Parents in terms of
Behavioral Tendencies in Turkey”, it is found out that, the children with
single parents are less assertive and more aggressive and submissive in
schools which lead to poor academic performance than children with
two parents.

As a matter of fact, Families, teachers, school administrators and school

counselors should be aware of the behavioral tendencies of single parent
children.

As a result of the impact of single parenting Fadeiye (1985), argues that,

in two parent homes, both parents should play roles in child education.
With regards to this, the father is to provide the necessary tools for the
educational advancement, while the mother is supposed to supplement
the father's efforts in this regard. When the father is absent and the
mother is not privileged enough to cater for all the basic needs as well as
supervised the academic performance of the child, the child will be
backward or withdrawn.

Where both parents exist due care and socialization with children should
be exercised in the best way possible (Ortese, 1998). This is because the
process of socialization that starts from the family depends on the effort
of both parents playing a complimenting role in the child’s upbringing.
Such a child is likely to achieve self-actualization while the other from a
single parent suffers deprivation and denial of some rights and
opportunities. This customarily affects the way the student socializes in
school and seat with those who will help such child learn (Curran,
1991). This implies that most of children from two parents achieve self-
actualization as the result they tend to do well in the studies.

Additionally, Battle (1998) noted that, when the mother is absent and the
father is not privileged enough, the education of the child will face the
same problems. A child from homes where the father and the mother are
present will be well taken care of and socialized in the best way
possible.
This is because the process of socialization depends on both parents
playing complimentary roles in bringing up the child. Such a child is
likely to achieve self-actualization later in life but, children from single-
parent families are likely to go through deprivation and denial of some
rights and opportunities, which may have remarkable effects on their
performance in real life situations (Cummings & Davis, 1994). As
matter of fact, a single parent faces doubled responsibilities requiring
time, attention and money of the parent as children can be affected in
their studies.

According to Ortese (1998), single parents and their children may have
need of professional help through counseling. Counselors can give
reasonable advice to the child and the single parent to make sure every
small conflict is resolved timely. Absence of this is transmitted into the
school and as such, affects the academic performance of such learner.
Therefore, it is a difficult situation for any child to be raised by one
parent, though few of these children can perform well in their studies.

On the other hand, Fadeiye, (1985) pointed out that; both parents play a
complimentary role in child’s education. Where however, the father is
absent from the home and the mother is not privileged enough to cater
for all the basic needs as well as supervise the academic performance of
the child, he or she (the child) will be backward or withdrawn. The same
thing occurs when the mother is absent and the father is not privileged
enough (Ortese, 1998). In fact, both mother and father are responsible to
guide academic performance of the child in all aspects.

A single parent faces doubled responsibilities requiring more time,

attention, and money, which of course may not be enough.

The stress of having to find the necessity of life such as food, shelter and
clothing for the family by a single parent consequently places them at
risk of becoming detached from their children, and compromises their
ability to succeed in their academics. Bowles (1989) attachment theory
suggests that, insecure attachment (which is likely to be seen in the
relationships between absent single parents and their children) can result
in the ineffectiveness of parenting strategies, as in an overwhelming
amount of stress on parents as they endeavor to carry out their academic
responsibilities and vice versa. However, Single parenting have negative
effects on the academic achievements of the adolescents, talents,
abilities and interest may not be fully developed to allow them to
achieve self-actualization in life.

In a report by Rothstein, (2004) suggested that, the need for these critical
issues to be looked into, as it does more harm than good to the proper
and successful educational development of the school learners. The
researcher was of the opinion that students raised by single parents may
live a worthwhile life or otherwise depending on the circumstance, level
of maturity or love shown to them by the environment they find
themselves. Thus, a child could have mental feelings when s/he has a
close relationship with the ouster parent and this indirectly affects the
emotions of such child. This, the researcher expressed that such a child
or children can be taken out of the environment and must likely return
after sometimes when s/he has fully recovered.

In this kind of situation, the affected child or children may need to be

kept busy with objects or things around that would make him or she to
be happy at all times (Coon et al., 1993). On the part of helping the
affected students to socialize and be provided with social rights and
opportunities, the school and the society would not be exempted through
the assistance they should offer as a form of support to the custodian
parents.

When they team up with them, the students would thus become a better
person in life and succeed academically (Akinsanye et al., 2011). The
family structure, ideally, provides a sense of security and stability that is
necessary for children. When there is a breakdown in the family
structure, children and their ability to function ordinarily or achieve
academically drop. In some situations, the child no longer has two
parents to depend on (Grissmer, 2003). they have to rely on one parent
to meet most, if not all their needs. With limited finances, time and
availability parents are less likely to provide the adequate support a child
needs to perform to the best of their ability (Musgrave, 2000). Indeed,
Parent has vital roles to play in the life of a child as well as in their
academic achievement.

The involvement of a parent on a child determines the future of such

child. Parenting involvement is a catch-all term for many different
activities including at ‘home,’ good parenting, helping with homework,
talking to teachers, attending school functions, through to taking part in
school governance. When schools work together with families to support
learning, children tend to succeed not just in schools but also throughout
life” (Memon et al., 2010). Unfortunately, the problem arise when one
parent is suddenly absent and sometimes not there at all in taking over
his/her family anymore. “The absence of one parent adds the burden of
taking care/parenting to the one who remain with the family. The lack of
potentiality of the absent parent affects so much not only the academic
performance of the child but also the future of the child (Rouse &
Barrow, 2006). However, growing up in a single-parent family is
frequently viewed as a risk factor in a child and it has negative impact in
his/her academic journey, Single parent families are now a common
phenomenon within our community due to dearth, divorce and other
factors.

Millar, Jane and Ridge, Tess, (2001) postulated that, “more than 60%.
Children born since 1984 will spend an average of 5 years of their
childhood in a single-parent family”, while Knox, (1996) was of the
opinion that 30% of all children in the United States spend their entire
lives with single parents. Despite this, statistics questions about the
impact of single-parent families on a child's academic performance and
the ways single parents can help their children succeed in school remain
unanswered (MacDonald, 1997).

It would be not be prudent to conclude however, that such negative

outcomes were the direct consequence of the parents in the home or, as
has been suggested on occasion, the absence of a father figure in a
child's life (Millar, Jane and Ridge, Tess 2001). Instead, children are
adversely affected by circumstances that concur with single-parent
family configurations (such as economic disadvantage, residential
instability, and inter-parental conflict) or the consequence of such
configurations (such as disrupted parenting).

Such circumstances are not uniformly present in the lives of all single-
parent families. Consequently, children from different types of single-
parent families are at differential risk for adverse outcomes associated
with their living arrangements. A greater percentage of single parent
families (57.4% in 1999) than two-parent families (6.3%) live below the
poverty line (Duke, 2000). Therefore, the percentage of single-parent
families below the poverty line is highest for single mothers and lowest
for widowed mothers.
In addition, a higher percentage of single mothers than single fathers live
below the poverty line. Economic disadvantage is linked with lower
academic achievement and increased behavioral problems among
children. Fewer economic resources are also linked with residential
instability, which further contributes to children's academic and
behavioral difficulties. Differences in well-being for children from
single parent families versus two-parent families typically disappear
when differences in economic circumstances are taken into account
(Millar and Ridge, 2001). Therefore, single parented students’ education
performances are poor as it has been associated with poor attendance,
drop out of school, and engaging in bad behaviors.

Families that attain their single-parent status through marital dissolution

are disproportionately more likely to experience both residential
instability and higher rates of inter-parental conflict (both prior and
subsequent to marital disruption) due to change in circumstances and
relationships (Park & Kem, 2011). Children who are exposed to inter-
parental conflict are more likely to have trouble with regard to
psychological and behavioral adjustment and academic achievement.
Again, once levels of inter-parental conflict are taken into account,
differences in well-being for children from single parent families versus
two-parent families are reduced (Duke, 2000). Finally, children from all
family types are at risk when they experience parenting that is
inadequate in terms of warmth, control, or monitoring.
Eamon, (2005) states that, less than optimal parenting is more likely to
be observed in families that are experiencing economic stress and among
adolescent mothers (although a large part of this association may be
explained by the greater likelihood that adolescent single mothers will
experience economic disadvantage). Psychologist Mavis Hetherington
has found that the parenting skills of mothers tend to diminish in the
years immediately following divorce, and children who are exposed to
such disruptions in parenting experience concurrent psychological,
behavioral, and academic difficulties (Gustafson et al., 2011). It shows
that challenges that single parented students face in attaining secondary
education are not only multiple but also complex.

As mothers adjust to their new single-parent status, however, their

parenting improves, as does their children's well-being. However, some
research suggests that the factor that has the greatest impact on student
achievement is not family structure but income (Schnabel & Schnabel,
2002). Relying on the data above, single parenting has increased
dramatically of late and this trend has the possibility of depriving many
schoolchildren the opportunity to make academic excellence now and in
the future (Feinberg & Hetherington, 2001).

Studies that consider the influence of both family configuration and

income find that there is little difference in the academic performance of
children from two-parent and single-parent homes when family income
is equal (Maurice, 2008). Nigeria statistical Data vol. 1 (2005) showed
that, about 35% of Nigerian children live in single parenting homes.
Therefore children from single parent families face many challenges
throughout their development.

2.2.2 CAUSES OF SINGLE PARENTING

The increase of single parenthood is not a phenomenon isolated to the

western world. Even in Nigeria and other developing countries, there
have been a high percentage of single parents within the population
caused by one factor or the other or combination of more than one. As in
any country, single parenthood arises because of the following major
causes: Divorce, Death or estrangement of a spouse and early pregnancy
(Duke, 2000).

2.2.3 DIVORCE

The trend of increasing divorce rates has virtually continued for more
than 100years (Bumpass, 1990). According to Advanced Learners’
Dictionary (2006), divorce is the legal ending of a marriage between a
man and a woman in a law-court by their counsels.

The dramatic increase in the number of divorces since the 1950s seems
now to have leveled off starting at the beginning of 1980 in the United
States (Goldstein, 1999). In any event, the current level of divorce is
high and it is assumable that the majority of recent first marriages will
not last a life time, although a stable marriage remains the ideal
(Bumpass, 1990;Jallinogo, 2000).Different social circumstances,
personal attributes and even genetic aspects may contribute to the risk of
divorce.

McGue and Lykken (1992) found in their twin family study a

significantly higher concordance for divorce among monozygotic twins
compared to dizygotic twins. Based on this notion, they concluded that
there exists a strong genetic component in the etiology of divorce, at
least in the familial transmission of divorce. The researcher
hypothesized that this genetic influence is mediated largely by inherited
personality characteristics, such as impulsivity and moral conviction.
The study further suggested that cultural factors influence the threshold
for divorce while within given culture, variations in underlying
aggregate risk are strongly influenced by genetic factors.

In 2006, a single parent, 80% of which were headed by a female, headed

12.9 million families in the U.S. In the United Kingdom, there are 5.9
million single parents as of2005, with 3.1 million children. About 1 out
of 4 families with dependent children are single parent families, nine
percent of which have a male single-parent.

Though, majorities of the victims of single parenting across U.S, U.K

and parts of African continent are females (U.S. Census Bureah, 2010).
In South Korea, there is a strong societal disapproval of unmarried
mothers. In 1985, more than 25,000 children were products of a home
run by a single parent.

September 1990 data shows that 73 percent of children in South Africa

come from broken homes and 150,000 children had been affected by
divorce in the last four years (Locoh, 2000).

These figures surely have shot up by now. However, the problem with
divorce is that it is not only the marriage that disintegrates but also the
children who are separated from one or both of the parents creating an
imbalance in their educational pursuit. A nation like South Africa is one
of the worst hit countries with predominantly a patriarchal society and
children have consequently suffered greatly due to absent fathers.

2.2.4 DEATH OR ESTRANGEMENT OF A SPOUSE

According to Wilson, (1993) losing a partner is very stressful for the

parent. The psychological well-being of single parents in Nigeria has
been very poor primarily because of the reason on why the partner was
lost. According to the researcher, this is often worsening by the positions
of the lost one in the family and the society especially in the eastern part
of Nigeria. The problem is compounded where properties of the
deceased are involved resulting in the exclusion of the woman and the
children to their fate. This being the case, had forced many children out-
of-school or resulted to poor academic performance in the latter years.
However, the families soon might have forgotten the cause of the death
such as illness, assassination, accidents, and natural occurrence.

In South Africa, AIDS is the predominant reason of single parenthood

across every of her society and families. Mostly affected by this already
are the two layers of the population pyramid. This pyramid consists of
those in the five year old age bracket and 19 – 45 age brackets.

To salvage this situation, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and

human rights groups have resulted to help widows by providing cash and
vocational training. Assistance aimed at making them self –employed,
and self-reliant to provide a better future for their children, though the
problem of large number of children left with the widow has not helped
the situation especially with the present standard of living, which is
astronomically high beyond the reach of the poor (Amato 1994).

2.2.5 EARLY PREGNANCY

Tanzania, like other countries in the world, is currently faced with social
fragmentation as women continue to suffer a high rate of teenage
pregnancy. Over the years, the situation particularly among teenagers
had become unabated even to the researcher owing to her years of
experience as a teacher trainer. Women single parents feel the stigma of
being poor and unmarried, widowed or divorced and are under extreme
pressure from the society. Single mothers as central to this, look for
ways to support their children and are very much willing to take huge
risks to put some bread on the table are very vulnerable to prostitution
and trafficking (Wilson, 1993).

A report on the South Africa Operation (2012) shows a high-unmet need

for contraceptive among teenagers and women living in the rural areas
thus a very high teenage pregnancy turnout. The report therefore calls
for empowerment programme for teenagers and rural women so that
they can take control of their reproductive behavior. For mothers
between 15 -19 years, who are likely single parents, age in itself is not a
risk factor, but additional risks may be associated with socio-economic
factors relating to academic pursuit of the family.

In the developed countries, data supporting teenage pregnancy as a

social issue include lower educational levels, higher rates of poverty and
other poorer “life outcomes” in children of teenage mothers. Within
these societies, pregnancy is usually outside of marriage and carries a
social stigma in its cultures.

The situation of teenage pregnancy is slightly different in developing

countries as they are usually within a marriage and does not involve a
social stigma (Locoh, 2000). Wikipedia (2010) had described early
motherhood to have effect on psychosocial Development of the child.
The occurrence of developmental disabilities and behavioral issues are
increased in children born to teen mothers. Poor academic performance
in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of the
being more likely than average to fail at the secondary schools
(UNICEF, 2001).

2.3 Challenges faced by Single Parents

Parenting is a not easy and single parenting is tougher as it entails added

responsibilities. A single parent has to face continuous newer challenges
every day. For a single parent, these challenges appear in a series, in
combination or even alone. Whatever the situation, there is no denying
the fact that single parenting is full of challenges (Sander, 2001). The
effects of growing up in single parent family have been shown to go
beyond economics, increasing the risk of children dropping out of
school, disconnecting from the labour force, and becoming teen parents.

2.3.1 FINANCIAL

In order to adequately understand and examine the negative contextual

effect of the number of children from single-parent families at school,
we first briefly elaborate on the reason why children from single-parent
families perform worse at school than children from two-parent families.
McLanahan and Sandefur (1994), give an extensive description of the
three types of resources (i.e., financial, parental, and social) that are
important in explaining the impact of living with a single parent on
children’s chances of future success.
First, they underline the importance of financial resources and the loss of
income that generally goes together with family disruption. In short, this
is due to the fact that after a divorce two households need to be
supported instead of only one and thus a lot of household expenses
cannot be shared any longer, which is also called a loss of economies of
scale. The most direct effect of this loss of income on educational
performance of children is the fact that the quality of the school they
attend generally is lower (Grissmer, 2003).

The higher the income of parents, the more possibilities they have to live
in neighborhoods with good public schools or to send their children to a
school of their preference. Income can also affect school outcomes
through enabling a child to participate in extracurricular activities, like
lessons after school, special trips, or summer camps. Such activities
improve children’s skills directly, but also indirectly via general
intellectual stimulation, which affects subsequent learning (Sander,
2001). In addition to a loss of financial resources, a loss of parental
involvement is generally associated with a divorce or separation.

Parental involvement is supposed to positively affect children’s

educational outcomes” (Park & Kim, 2011). According to Richards and
Schmiege (1993), Children raised in single-parent homes suffer more
severe health problems when the custodial parent is unable to provide
them with proper nutrition and health insurance.
In such a situation, a single-parent is in one way or another obliged to
play two roles in raising the child and many cases it becomes a problem
to the children.

Furthermore, children of single parents are at a greater risk for

involvement in dangerous behaviors, such as drugs, alcohol, criminal
activity or self-injury due to the lack of adequate adult supervision
(Millar, Jane, Ridge and Tess, 2001). To overcome the impact of limited
finances, single parents should seek out community resources to
supplement the needs of their families, including agencies that can help
them collect overdue child support. Take advantage of state-funded
childcare programs, and medical and dental insurance plans to ease some
of the financial strain on your family. Also, involve your children in
after school programs that will keep them active and safe during the
hours you must work (Millar, Jane, Ridge and Tess, 2001). However,
children growing up in single-parent families experience negative
consequences, but not all children. More importantly, focusing on the
weaknesses and problems does not help single parents and their children
become strong.

The Family: A Proclamation to the World states that adaptations in

family life become necessary when disability, death, or other
circumstances (such as divorce) make such adaptations necessary
(Eamon, 2005). God loves us and will bless us in these circumstances.
While it is not easy, single parent families can adapt and be strong
families. According Eamon (2005), it mainly comprehends the time
parents spend with their children on reading, helping with their
homework, or by listening to the stories about their experiences at
school, as well as the ability and willingness of parents to monitor and
supervise children’s social activities outside school, which reduces their
opportunities to get in trouble.

Parents’ occupation influences the students’ achievement in academic

works due to levels of their investments in their carriers that determine
their level of purchasing capacity. Students’ academic achievement is
negatively correlated with the low level of parent’s socio - economic
status because it hinders the individual in gaining access to sources and
resources of learning (Duke, 2000; Eamon, 2005). Low SES level
strongly affects the achievement of students, dragging them down to a
lower level” (Sander, 2001). It is also observed that, the economically
disadvantaged parents are less able to afford the cost of education of
their children at higher levels and consequently they do not work at their
fullest potential (Rouse and Barrow, 2006). Thus, children from single
parent are said to face economic hardship.

2.3.2 PARENTS’ OCCUPATION

According to Akinsanya (2011), concerning parental occupation, a child

from a well-educated parent with high socio-economic status is more
likely to perform better than a student from an illiterate family. This is
because the child from an educated family has a lot of support such as a
decent and good environment for academic work, parental support and
guidance, enough textual and academic materials and decent feeding. He
or she is likely to be sent to good schools where well-seasoned teachers
handle his or her subjects.

Farooq (2011) identified that, the type of parental occupation also has
significant influence on student’s achievement in the school, because the
type of engagement of the parent will determine the amount of quality
time they can give attention to the student at home and the level of their
involvement in their ward’s educational programmes. A very busy
parent who leaves home before daybreak and returns when the child is
already asleep can offer very minimum attention and input to his or her
child’s education needs at home and in school.

According to Graetz (2009), parental education and occupational status

are highly correlated with children’s educational choices and attainment;
this implies that the higher the parental educational qualification, the
higher the occupational status of such a parent; and vice versa. Further,
Graetz reported that, children from parents having low occupational
status face many barriers in transiting from one stage of education to the
next; revealing that low parental occupational status has negative
influence and effect on student’s school achievement. Parents of
different occupation classes often have different styles of child rearing,
different ways of disciplining their children and different ways of
reacting to their children. These differences do not express themselves
consistently as expected in the case of every family; rather they
influence the average tendencies of families for different occupational
classes (Rothstein, 2004). Actually, Parent’s occupation for students
from single parent family influences the average tendencies of the
students as they are involved in income activities.

2.3.3 TIME AND MONEY MANAGEMENT

From work to appointments, a single parents schedule is going to fill up

fast. A significant step to take in managing these tough schedules is to
first prioritize the tasks. If possible, a single parent should try to work
with their employer in finding a work schedule that will assist with other
priorities. parents should also try to plan things ahead. In example, by
marking down all of the family’s appointments, meetings and events
onto a central calendar that is accessible by all. Than by planning things
accordingly to that calendar, a single parent can successfully tackle their
daily regimen (Grasser, 2003).

Musgrave, (2000) explained that, managing time is a key challenge for

single parent students. Because these students often carry more
responsibilities than traditional students do, they have less time to devote
to their education.
They must balance school, children, work and their own well-being.
Pressures to perform academically and achieve satisfactory academic
progress are added to those they already feel from their home and child
rearing responsibilities.

In a study on the effect of sociological and psychological belief factors

on the academic success of single-mother college students, multiple
participants were concerned about balancing their time. For participants
of the study, working hard not only meant compromising their family
life to meet their academic responsibilities, but compromising their
social and personal needs as well (Davison, 1994).

Money Management, this means that single parents will need to budget
their monthly income. This is probably the most tangible challenge they
will face, because now the household only has one income versus a dual,
monthly stipend. Alterations in spending and lifestyle may need to be
changed if their budget is in a deficit. To better manage their money, a
single parent may cut back on how much they are spending, try to con-
serve energy, thus saving money on bills, and/or partake in economical
entertainment for the family and for themselves (Battle, 1998).
Therefore, managing time can be a huge challenge for single parents,
especially those who are also working. To help simplify your life and
save valuable time, consider the following tips: Make lists and prioritize
the tasks in order of importance.
Ask yourself if everything on your list is essential. Consider whether
your expectations are realistic and scale them down to attainable levels if
necessary. Simplify tasks for example, purchase food that is easy to
prepare, combine errands into one trip, and set aside a block of time to
do tasks (e.g., returning telephone calls, paying bills) (Rothstein,
2004).Avoid waiting until the last minute to meet deadlines or fulfill
obligations.

Prepare your workspace for the next day; make lists; lay out clothes; and
pack briefcases, lunches and book bags at home the night before work.
The more organized you are, the less time you will waste scrambling to
get things done (McDonald, 2007).

Prioritize your activities, if you feel overwhelmed with requests for your
time and help (e.g., coaching your daughter’s soccer team, chaperoning
your son’s field trip, volunteering for a local organization), choose those
activities that are most important to you and learn to say “no” to others
(Graetz, 2009). Actually, parent is supposed teach his or her child about
taking responsibilities in different aspects.
Theoretical Framework

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1978)

Vygotsky's cognitive development theory (1978) stresses that parents

play a central role in the process of making meaning. Vygotsky further
states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided
learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their
partners co-construct knowledge. For Vygotsky, the environment in
which children grow up will affect how they think and what they think
about (Roth & Lee, 2007). He also believed that there were certain
higher functions developed through the direct interaction with
significant people in a child’s life. The absence of the missing parent to
guide, discipline, direct, model, and teach may be one of the causes that
a child from a single parent family may not perform at their full potential
(Rothstein, 2004). To Vygotsky, the development of the mind is the
interweaving of biological development of the human body and the
appropriation of the cultural or ideal or material heritage which exists in
the present to coordinate people with each other and the physical world
(Bronfenbrenner, 2002).

Also, Vygotsky's concept of cognitive development suggests that the

social world defines the way children think. Vygotsky's (1978) believed
that children learn more when their learning is best supported at
opportune times when the caregiver aides them in learning new tasks.

“When children raised in single-parent households are left alone for long
periods or left in the hands of uninvolved caregivers, their academic
skills are not being fully supported” (Knox & Virginia, 1996).
Therefore, the researcher has employed Vygotsky's cognitive
development theory because it places parents as partners in their child’s
life is crucial as he believed that everything a child learns is through the
interactions with knowledgeable partners, Thus children who experience
cooperative and assistive, rather than punitive styles of parenting, will
quickly increase cognitive skills and be motivated to learn. This applies
to practical skills like writing or building things from blocks, as well as
the learning of ethical and problem-solving behavior (Brooks, 2011).

1.7 Conceptual Framework

The Figure below shows variables that guide this study. There are
independent variables, intervening variables and dependent variable.
Independent variables are represented by single parenting factors. While,
intervening variables are parents’ education, gender, parent occupation
and family size and Dependent variable is students’ performance.

Chapter three

Research methodology

1. Introduction:
2. The aim of this research is to examine the potential impact of
single parenthood on child academic performance. Single
parenthood refers to the situation in which a child is raised by one
parent, either due to divorce, separation, or the choice to raise a
 child alone. This study will utilize a mixed-methods approach,
combining quantitative analysis of academic performance data and
qualitative interviews with single parents and their children to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship.

2. Research Design: This study will employ a sequential explanatory

design, first collecting and analyzing quantitative data, followed by
qualitative data to provide deeper insights into the phenomenon.

3. Data Collection:

3.1 Quantitative Data:

 Participants: A diverse sample of school-aged children (8-15 years)

from different socioeconomic backgrounds and educational levels will
be selected.
 Data Collection Instruments: Academic performance data, including
grades and standardized test scores, will be collected from school
records. Information on single parenthood status, family structure, and
demographic details will also be gathered through structured
questionnaires.
 Procedure: Consent will be obtained from parents or legal guardians.
Academic performance data will be accessed from school records, and
questionnaires will be distributed to parents through online platforms or
in-person meetings.

3.2 Qualitative Data:

 Participants: Single parents and their children will be purposively

selected from the quantitative sample to participate in qualitative
interviews.
 Data Collection Instruments: Semi-structured interviews will be
conducted with single parents and their children separately to explore
their experiences, challenges, and perspectives related to single
parenthood and its impact on academic performance.
 Procedure: Informed consent will be obtained from all participants.
Interviews will be audio-recorded and transcribed for analysis.

4. Data Analysis:

4.1 Quantitative Analysis:

 Descriptive statistics will be used to summarize demographic data and

academic performance metrics.
 Inferential statistical methods (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA, regression
analysis) will be employed to identify potential correlations between
single parenthood and academic performance, while controlling for
factors like socioeconomic status and parental involvement.

4.2 Qualitative Analysis:

 Thematic analysis will be used to identify recurring themes and patterns

within the qualitative data.
 Transcripts will be coded and analyzed independently by two
researchers to ensure reliability.
 Themes will be compared and contrasted to gain insights into the
experiences and perceptions of single parents and their children.

5. Integration: Quantitative and qualitative findings will be integrated

to provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between
single parenthood and child academic performance. Triangulation of
data sources will enhance the validity and reliability of the results.

6. Ethical Considerations:

 Informed consent will be obtained from all participants.

 Participant confidentiality and privacy will be maintained throughout the
study.
 The research will adhere to ethical guidelines and regulations governing
research involving human subjects.
 7. Limitations:

 Causation cannot be established due to the study's cross-sectional nature.

 Self-report biases may affect the accuracy of the qualitative data.

8. Conclusion: By employing a mixed-methods approach, this research

aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the relationship between
single parenthood and child academic performance. The results will
contribute to the existing body of knowledge and inform strategies to
support single-parent families in promoting positive educational
outcomes for their children.

Introduction: This questionnaire aims to gather information about the

relationship between single parenthood and child academic performance.
Your responses will contribute to understanding the challenges and
strengths associated with single parenting and their potential impact on
children's educational outcomes. Your participation is highly valuable.

Note: Please answer the following questions based on your personal

experience as a single parent or as a child of a single parent.

Section 1: Demographic Information

1. Age:
2. Gender:
3. Relationship to Child (if applicable):
 I am a single parent raising a child.
 I am/was a child raised by a single parent.
 Section 2: Single Parenthood Experience

4. Are you currently a single parent?

 Yes
 No
5. If you are/were a single parent, what were the reasons for becoming a
single parent? (Select all that apply)
 Divorce
 Separation
 Death of spouse/partner
 Choice to raise child alone
6. How do/did you manage responsibilities related to childcare and
household while being a single parent? (Open-ended)

Section 3: Child Academic Performance

7. If you are/were a single parent, how do/did you support your child's
education and academic development? (Open-ended)
8. As a child raised by a single parent, how do you feel your parent's
marital status influenced your academic performance and motivation to
succeed? (Open-ended)
9. Do you think that being raised by a single parent has any impact on a
child's academic performance?
 Strongly Agree
 Agree
  Neutral
 Disagree
 Strongly Disagree
10. In your opinion, what are the potential challenges that single
parents and their children might face regarding academic performance?
(Select all that apply)
 Limited time for parental involvement
 Financial constraints
 Emotional support
 Balancing work and family
 Lack of role model
 Other (please specify): _______________
11. Have you observed any differences in academic performance
between children raised by single parents and those raised by both
parents?
 Yes, children raised by single parents tend to perform worse.
 Yes, children raised by single parents tend to perform better.
 No, I haven't observed any significant difference.
 Not applicable
12. How do you think society and educational institutions can provide
better support to single parents and their children to enhance academic
performance? (Open-ended)

Section 4: Additional Comments

13. Is there anything else you would like to share about the
relationship between single parenthood and child academic
performance? (Open-ended)

Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire. Your
responses are important in contributing to our understanding of this
topic. Your input is greatly appreciated.