CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

Introduction In this chapter, the researcher has used several studies conducted by
previous researchers as well as some books and articles related to researcher topic about the
consequences of single parenthood on students’ academic performance in Schools in Ilorin
central. This chapter was reviewed under the following sub-headings

a. Concept of single parenthood

b. Effects of single parenthood

c. Causes of single parenthood on student’s academic performance in schools in

Kwara State.

d. Consequences of single parenthood on students’ academic performance in schools

in Kwara State.

e. Possible solutions to single parenthood on students’ academic performance in

schools in Kwara State.

f. Empirical studies on single parenthood on students’ academic performance in

schools in Kwara State.

g. Appraisal of literature review.

2.1 Concept of single parenthood

A single parent, sometimes called a lone-parent is a parent that is not living with a
spouse or partner, who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities in raising the child or
children. A single parent is usually considered the primary caregiver. The primary caregiver
is the parent the child has residency with majority of the time (Dowd Nancy E, (1997). If the
parents are separated or divorced, children live with their custodial parent and have visitation
or secondary residence with their non-custodial parent. (Benokraitis, Nijole, 2012, 2011,
2008).
In western societies in general, following separation, a child will end up with the
primary caregiver, usually the father. (Statistics Ginger Bread, 2010). Custody battles,
awarded by the court determines who the child will spend majority of their time with. This
affects children in many ways, and counseling is suggested for them. When a marriage
separates due to death, divorce, or when a woman wants to have a child without first getting
married to the other parent, the result is a single parent household.

In the view of Calhoun, (2004) single parenthood is defined as a multifocal family

composed of a mother, her dependent children one or more of her grown daughters and her
children or sometimes other relative such as grandmother or aunt. Single parent family is a
household in which only one parent lives with a child or children. Schaefer, (2001) viewed
single parent family as a family in which there is only one parent present to care for the
children. He further clarified that whether judged in economic or emotional terms, the lives of
single parent and their children are not inevitable more difficult than in a traditional nuclear
family. In such case, the woman becomes head of the family. Sigh and Conklin, (2007), sees
single parenting as a new family form created by modernization and industrialization, which
altered changes in gender roles. Therefore, single parenthood is the act of training a child or
children handedly, carrying out the duty of child up bringing alone.

Single parenting as it’s called is becoming a rapidly growing phenomena in both the
developed and developing nations of the world. Studies show that in some States alone, there
are four single parents to every ten parents and there are two single parents for every ten (10)
adults” (Memon et al., 2010). Since most of the parents jointly take the decision of single
parenting, one voice is mostly ignored and it is that of the child. It was reliably gathered that
single parenting has major consequence on the child’s mental, social, emotional, behavioral,
financial and psychological outcomes (Duke, 2000). In fact, single parenting faces many
challenges which have significant effects to a student.

A child's thinking and mental mindset show the direct effects of a single parent
upbringing most clearly. This has been confirmed by psychologists and activists throughout
the years. Schoolchildren raised by a single parent tend to be more aggressive and
disobedient, according to tests and observations. As a result, they are given the education
they need to survive in society. According to experts, the behavior may be a result of the
child's growing-up rage and limitations. The child will undoubtedly feel odd, unusual, and
unaccepted for these obvious reasons. In reality, children raised by a single parent encounter
a number of challenges that affect how well they succeed in school. Additionally, it is to be
noted that when the mother is absent and the father is not privileged enough, the education of
the child will face the same problems. A child from homes where the father and the mother
are present will be well taken care of and socialized in the best way possible.

This is because the process of socialization depends on both parents playing

complimentary roles in bringing up the child. Such a child is likely to achieve self-
actualization later in life but, children from single-parent families are likely to go through
deprivation and denial of some rights and opportunities, which may have remarkable effects
on their performance in real life situations. As matter of fact, a single parent faces doubled
responsibilities requiring time, attention and money of the parent as children can be affected
in their studies. both parents play a complimentary role in child’s education. Where however,
the father is absent from the home and the mother is not privileged enough to cater for all the
basic needs as well as supervise the academic performance of the child, he or she (the child)
will be backward or withdrawn. The same thing occurs when the mother is absent and the
father is not privileged enough. In fact, both mother and father are responsible to guide
academic performance of the child in all aspects. A single parent's stress from having to
provide for the family's basic needs, such as food, shelter, and clothing, puts them at danger
of growing distant from them and jeopardizes their capacity to help the kids thrive in school.

The involvement of a parent on a child determines the future of such child. Parenting
involvement is a catch-all term for many different activities including at ‘home,’ good
parenting, helping with homework, talking to teachers, attending school functions, through to
taking part in school governance. When schools work together with families to support
learning, children tend to succeed not just in schools but also throughout life” (Memon et al.,
2010). (Memon et al., 2010). Unfortunately, the problem arises when one parent is suddenly
absent and sometimes not there at all in taking over his/her family anymore. “The absence of
one parent adds the burden of taking care/parenting to the one who remain with the family.
The lack of potentiality of the absent parent affects so much not only the academic
performance of the child but also the future of the child (Rouse & Barrow, 2006). However,
growing up in a single-parent family is frequently viewed as a risk factor in a child and it has
negative impact in his/her academic journey, Single parent families are now a common
phenomenon within our community due to death, divorce and other factors. Millar, Jane and
Ridge, Tess, (2001) postulated that, “more than 60%. Children born since 1984 will spend an
average of 5 years of their childhood in a single-parent family”, while Knox, (1996) was of
the opinion that 30% of all children in the United States spend their entire lives with single
parents.
 A higher percentage of single mothers than single fathers live below the poverty line.
Economic disadvantage is linked with lower academic achievement and increased behavioral
problems among children. Fewer economic resources are also linked with residential
instability, which further contributes to children's academic and behavioral di fficulties.
Differences in well-being for children from single parent families versus two-parent families
typically disappear when differences in economic circumstances are taken into account
(Millar and Ridge, 2001). Therefore, single parented students’ education performances are
poor as it has been associated with poor attendance, drop out of school, and engaging in bad
behaviors. Families that attain their single-parent status through marital dissolution are
disproportionately more likely to experience both residential instability and higher rates of
inter-parental conflict (both prior and subsequent marital disruption) due to change in
circumstances and relationships (Park & Kem, 2011). Children who are exposed to inter-
parental conflict are more likely to have trouble with regard to psychological and behavioral
adjustment and academic achievement. Again, once levels of inter-parental conflict are taken
into account, differences in well-being for children from single parent families versus two-
parent families are reduced (Duke, 2000). Finally, children from all family types are at risk
when they experience parenting that is inadequate in terms of warmth, control, or monitoring

2.2 EFFECTS OF SINGLE-PARENTHOOD

This reviews research on psychological effect, educational effect, behavioral effect,

economic effect.

Educational Effect

Parents are primarily responsible for the educational and career development of their
children (Salami and Alawode, 2000). Literatures on academic performance among children
suggest that children’s academic performance improve when both parents are actively in their
education. (Nyarko 2007; Nyarko and Vorgelegt, 2007) married parents are more likely to
involve in their children’s education than single parents. (Nyarko 2011, and Chowa et al,
2012). As parents engage in the academic activities of their children, it is most likely to have
a positive influence on their academic performance. However, this does not necessarily
suggest that once parents engage in a child’s academic activities, the child would be
academically successful as the child’s own abilities and the school environment also play
critical roles in that respect. In a related way, Donkor (2010) indicates that parents noted that
the poor performance of their children emanates from their lack of proper supervision of their
ward’s homework. Salami and Alawode (2000) in particular pointed out that both parents
have roles to play in the child’s education. The father is to provide the necessary tools for the
educational advancement while the mother is to supplement the father’s effort in this regard.
When the father is absent and the mother is not privileged enough to cater for all the basic
needs as well as supervise the academic performance of the child, he/she (the child) will be0
backward or withdrawn. The same thing occurs when the mother is absent and the father is
not privileged enough.

Given the positive influence of parental involvement on children’s educational

outcome, children under single parent family structure might not receive the necessary
attention they required because the single parent might be over whelmed by many
responsibilities Abankwa Amoakohene, (2013) states that children in single parent families
are three times more likely to drop out of high school than children from two-parent families.
Because single parents are the primary and frequently the sole source of financial support for
the family, they have less time to help children with homework, are less likely to use
consistent discipline, and have less parental control, and all of these conditions may lead to
lower academic achievement.

In contrast, there are few studies that believe that the single parent household may not
have as widespread and adverse an effect on academics as is publicized. Findings suggest that
conventional wisdom may exaggerate the detrimental effect of father’s absence (Debell,
2007). This study seemed to imply that once the socio-economic factors are controlled there
is a much-lessened effect on the academic performance and all-round well-being of the child.

Psychological Effect

Empirical evidence has shown that children from intact-homes will be taken care of
and better socialized. This is due to the fact that the process of socialization depends on both
parents playing complementary roles in raising such children; which will definitely impact
positively on the children during school years. On the other hand, children from single parent
homes are more likely to suffer deprivations and denials of some rights and opportunities that
will have negative psycho-social impact on them in school years Azuka Obieke Uchenna,
2013). Adolescence is a transitory period (12 years to 18 years) between childhood and
adulthood and it involves biological, cognitive and socio-emotional changes (Santrock,
2004). During this period an individual is seen neither as a child not as an adult. Salami and
Alawode (2000) claimed that adolescents are characterized by emotional instabilities and
hyper-activities, which cause them to experience storms and stress. Diane (2007) opines that
identity formation creates tension in adolescents to the extent that some of them become
confused about their personality. Adolescence period is a transitional period in the
development of critical thinking and a time of increased decision making. The theory of
cognitive development emphasize that adolescents think more abstractly, idealistically and
also thinks more logically (Santrock, 2004). The period of adolescence is very important to
the development of any individual. Therefore, any laxity on the part of the parents in assisting
and guiding the adolescent may result in academic backwardness and development of
unwholesome behaviors. The foundation of what a person becomes in the societies depends is
laid in the home and at the initial stage of life. According to Sigmund Freud who is the
pioneering architect of psychoanalytic theory, early experiences with parents and family
relationships extensively shape development (Santrock 2004). Parents therefore have their
children and adolescents acquire the appropriate academics, social, psychological and moral
development.

Research has consistently shown that family structure can facilitate or limit the ways
in which parent are able to positively influence the psycho-social and educational outcomes
of their children. (Amato and Keith 2000). A child from home where the father and mother
are present will be well taken care of and socialized in the best way possible. This is due to
the fact that the process of socialization depends on both parents playing complementary
roles in bringing up the child. Such child is likely to achieve self-socialization later in life
(Azuka-Obieke Uchenna, 2013). The problem of deprivation of a second parent is bad
enough but when the remaining parent cannot cope with the resultant problems, a tragic
situation arises. In such a situation, the child becomes a misfit in the society. The inability of
the single parent to cope is as a result of double responsibilities he/she (the parent) faces
which requires extra time, attention, and money of the parent. Hence less attention is paid to
the psychological well-being and education of the child. (Azuka-Obieke, Uchenna, 2013).
Although growing up in a single parent family is frequently viewed as a risk factor for
children, single-parent families have reported positive psychological adjustment educational
outcome (Amato 2000).

Behavioral Effect

Interest in parenting and behavioral problem in children is widely acknowledged.

Antisocial behavior is a major problem in childhood and beyond. Overall, prior research has
shown that children who have experienced any kind of family change have poorer behavioral
outcomes than children in stable two-biological parent families (A.J Cherlin, 2005). Children
from single parent families tend to have poorer cognitive and behavioral outcomes than those
from intact families (W. Single-Rushton S. McLanahan, 2004). Some western studies have
noted greater problem behaviors in children from families with unmarried mothers or it been
more for boys than girls (Ackerman et al, 2001). Karst (2000) attributes this greater
prevalence to limited supervision, strained financial resources, social isolation, fewer coping
supplies compared with children in traditional two parent families. Also, youths from single
parent families appear to be more to peer pressure and more likely to be make decisions
without consulting a parent (Griffin et al, 2000).

A related study found higher percentage of psychiatric disorders like depression,

anxiety and mood disorders or alcoholism in single mothers (Cairney et al, 2006). Being
raised in such homes double the risk for children to develop emotional behavior problems.
Both such children as such as well as their parents showed lower ego functioning, lower self-
esteem, less empathy, greater aggression, fighting and vandalism, less tolerance for negative
behavior and more likelihood to display non-age-appropriate behaviors (holist and Mcbroom
2006; Knoester and Hayne 2005). These problems are linked to future adult crimes, drug and
alcohol miss-use, unemployment, poor physical health and mental disorders.

Economic Effect

Being a single parent and struggling for money often coincides. Economic hardship
has been found to cause emotional distress in parents, which can in turn hamper parent’s
ability to be supportive, sensitive and consistent with their children (E. Dearing, K.
McCartney and B.A Taylor, 2006). Also, in a study carried out by Azuka-Obieke Uchenna,
2013, he noted that single parent homes are more likely to be low-economic homes. These
children would therefore be subject to problems associated with their socioeconomic group.
When there is only one parent, the family is often less well off financially and this is the main
reason for so many family problems. The report of the study shows that effect of coming
from a low-income family can include things like lower educational level; lower economic
achievement and can result in leaving the child feeling isolated and lonely.

A similar study was carried out by single-Rushton and McLanahan in 2002. The study
was concerned with the well-being of the child in the absence of one parent the outcome of
the study draws our attention to the fact that children raised by one biological parent fare
worse on a host of social and economic measures than children raised by both biological
parents. Single parent families tend to be poorer than are two-parent families. Given that
family economic status is an important determinant of children’s education, it is evident that
difference in economic studying between children from single parent homes and intact homes
explain some of the educational differences between them. The absence of one parent has
serious effects on the adolescent as homes led by single mothers experience lower household
income which eventually influence the educational opportunities and success in school
(Benokraitis, 2012).

2.3 EFFECTS OF SINGLE PARENTHOOD IN ADULT LIFE

Children affected by the negative effect of single parenthood continue on with their
lives; however, the lasting effect of divorce have been shown to follow some children into
their adulthood, including their marriage and own children’s life. The negative views of
relationships that have been instilled due to exposure of their “childhood” family conflict can
cause long term effects on these now adult and their own children. According to Amato et al
(1995) cited in Abankwa A. (2013), adults who are able to recall a high level of conflict
between parents while growing up tend to report disproportionately a large number of
psychological and marital problems in their own lives.

Many of these adult children continue to struggle in their everyday lives with
symptoms of depression, anxiety and overall feeling of dissatisfaction with their overall lives.
In fact, many of adult children will utilize more mental health services than will the adult
children of two parent households (Amato and Sobolewski, 2001).

It has been found that parental divorce is associated with lower socio-economic status
in adulthood, compared with children from two-parent families, children with divorced
parents are more likely to drop out of high school, less likely to attend college, and complete
fewer years of education overall (Amato and Sobolewski, 2001). Many believe that this is
due to the emotional disturbance that is caused in disrupted and chaotic households and a
child’s potential to form a poor sense of self. This poor sense of self and instability in
relationships can lead to still other relationship troubles including infidelity, reoccurring
divorce and remarriages and in extreme cases spousal and domestic abuse.

2.4 POSITIVE EFFECTS OF SINGLE PARENTHOOD

 i. Single parents have higher confidence in themselves: Without having someone
else to rely on, single parents develop self-reliance and determination. And when they find
that they can provide for themselves and their family successful on their own, they will feel
much more confident than before.

ii. There is less conflict in the household: Disagreement usually occurs when a
family has two parents. But with just one parent, there are fewer arguments. You can manage
finances safely and securely without dealing with questions from your partner. You can also
have freedom in choosing your religion as well as raising your kids using your own values.

iii. Develop strong bonds with your children: Spending one-on-one quality time
with your kids allows for relationships to grow. Don’t reduce the importance of your role.
Without the presence of the other parent, your children will now rely on you for strength and
support. If the relationship that you have today isn’t where you want it to be, you can still
work to strengthen it, and if your kids grow into adults.

iv. Children develop self-confidence: Children develop self-independence early in

their lives when they live with a single parent, they learn how to be self-reliance and finding
out that they can be helpful to their family, they acquire confidence in themselves. However,
constant fighting among parents has negative effects on children, especially in divorce or
separated parents that are not in and turmoil, they can grow into mature adults despite not
having a “complete” Family.

v. The kids learn about responsibility: Seeing their parent hard at work, children
will naturally develop a sense of responsibility. They realize that in order to strive, they have
to help in any way they can they will see their chores as a necessary instead of dire work.

vi. Kids grow into mature and well-balanced adults: Seeing their single parent
hard at work just to provide for the family’s need, children realized that they are indeed a
priority without thinking that they are the center of everybody’s universe. The hardships that
they experience at a young age force them to face with disappointments and conflicts early in
their lives. And with the help of their parent, they can grow from it and the process gets
prepared for real-life.

2.5 THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SINGLE PARENTHOOD

 i. Poor financial status: This is commonly experienced by families headed by a
single parent with the exception of the rich ones. Being the soul breadwinner of the family,
you have to work full time or extra. A lot of sacrifices and adjustments are to be made in
order to meet their family’s basic needs.

ii. The parent experience psychological instability: Indeed, being a mother or a

father alone is difficult; imagine doing both roles at the same time. Single parent constantly
face stress when they try to play the part of being both a mother and a father to her kids. You
may feel depressed, angry, frustrated and helpless among other things. Your children may
also be affected and develop isolation from their parent.

iii. Single parents tend to discard taking care of themselves: Most single parents
find it a challenge taking care of the kids and working round the clock. They spend almost all
their times on their kids and work that they tend to forget to take care of themselves. As a
result, these parents suffer from exhaustion, malnutrition, stress and frequent

iv. Social stigma: It has always been the nemesis of single parents, everywhere
society usually sees single parenthood as a self-inflicted damage resulting from
irresponsibility. Children from families lead by single parents are often viewed negatively as
well. People expect such families to fail into everything from work to school, and basically
life.

v. Children perform poorly at school: several factors lead to having problems at

school. One factor is that they are affected with the social stigma that comes with living in a
single parent family. Another is that single parents have fewer resources to support the kids
financially. Also, the parent is too busy working extra for the family that no one is there to
help them with school.

vi. Children exhibit risky behaviors when they have problem at home: This is
fairly common in unsuccessful single parent family. These children resort to smoking,
drinking, violence delinquency, unsafe sexual activity, and even suicide attempts just to cope
with the stress.

However, the negative effects that come with being a single parent can be avoided
with proper support, determination, and hard work from the family. And with the right
attitude, you can have a successful family life with just you and your kids.
2.6 CAUSES OF SINGLE-PARENTHOOD

The increase of single parenthood is not a phenomenon isolated to the western world.
Even in Nigeria and other developing countries, there have been a high percentage of single
parents within the population caused by one factor or the other or combination of more than
one. As in any country, single parenthood arises because of the following major causes:
Divorce, Death or estrangement of a spouse and early pregnancy (Duke, 2000).

Divorce:

The trend of increasing divorce rates has virtually continued for more than 100years.
According to Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (2006), divorce is the legal ending of a
marriage between a man and a woman in a law-court by their counsels.

Nwachuku, (2006) opined that divorce on its own makes the couples develop a
negative attitude towards marriage and therefore lay the foundation for single parenthood.
The reason commonly given by woman for leaving their husbands includes adultery, cruelty,
desertion, addiction to alcohol or drug and husband imprisonment. The death of husband or
wife also causes single parenthood. Furstenberg, (2004) posited that the rising rate of single
parenthood was basically due to the rising rates of divorce, he said that about half of the
marriages undertaken may end up in divorce. The remarriage of a divorced custodial parent
result in a third family configuration that is experienced by an increased number of children.

Separation

The crucial event of a marital break down is the act of separation. This usually occurs
when the relationship between both parents had gone cold. Divorce is a legal consequence
that follows the emotional fact of separation, though not all separation leads to divorce.
Although separation generally precedes divorce, some couples are able to sort out their
misunderstanding and misgivings and are able to put the separation period behind them and
move on with their lives. (Olaleye .Y.L., and Oladeji David 2010).

Strong et al, (2002) opined that as many as one couple out of every six marriages are
likely to have separated for at least two days. The changes that take place during separation
are crucial because at this point a person’s emotions are raw and most profound. Men and
women react differently during this period. When separation takes place in the family, the
other parent does not know what to do or expect, there are no divorce ceremonies or rituals to
mark this major turning upon the children.

Desertion

Desertion is one of the ways to single parenthood in our society. It is a situation

whereby either the father or mother walks away from the marriage, leaving the other party
without help or support. Desertion is also known as the poor man’s divorce. It is called the
poor man’s divorce because one party leaves the marriage without going through legal
process of divorce. Kendall (2003). The process of socialization depends on both parents
playing complementary roles in raising such children, which will definitely impact positively
on the children during school years. On the other hand, children from single parent homes are
more likely to suffer deprivations and denials of some rights and opportunities that will have
negative psycho-social impact on them in school years (Azuka- Obieke Uchenna, 2013).
Children of deserted parents find it more difficult to understand the reason why they have to
do without the other parent. Santrock (2002), asserts that these children see themselves as
unloved and unwanted by the deserted parents as if it is their fault for the abscond parent
desertion.

Death of a Parent

Single parent families were historically as a result of parental death. In fact, death of a
parent was a major cause of single parenting. (Amato .P. and Keith .B. 2000). He further
stated that about one-fourth of children born around the turn of the nineteenth century
experienced death of a parent before they reached age fifteen.

Unintended Pregnancy

Some out of wedlock births are intended, but many are unintentional. Where out of
wedlock births are accepted by society, they may result in single parenting. A partner may
also leave as he or she may want to shirk responsibility of bringing up the child. Where they
are not accepted, they sometimes result in forced marriage; however, such marriages fail
more often than others. (“Single parent Households- How does it affect the children?”
(Retrieved 23 April, 2014).

Single Parent Adoption

 Single birth adoption has existed since the last 19th century. Men were rarely
considered as adoptive parents and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted
by a single parent were raised in pairs rather than alone and adoptions by lesbians and gay
men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid-19th century, many states
welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies
searched for “normal” families with married men and women. In 1965 the Los Angeles
Bureau of adoption sought single African Americans orphans for whom married families
could not be found. In 1968, the child welfare league of America stated that married couples
were preferred, but there were “exceptional circumstances” where single parent adoptions
were permissible (Single Parent Adoption Retrieved 23 April, 2014).

Surrogacy: Surrogacy is an arrangement in which a woman carries and delivers a

child for another couple or person. This woman may be the child’s genetic mother (called
traditional surrogacy), or she may carry the pregnancy to delivery after having an embryo, to
which she has no genetic relationship, transferred to her uterus (called gestational surrogacy).
If the pregnant woman received compensation for carrying and delivering the child (besides
medical and other reasonable expenses) the arrangement is called a commercial surrogacy,
otherwise the arrangement is sometimes referred to as an altruistic surrogacy

Artificial insemination: This is the process by which sperm is placed into the
reproductive tract of a female for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means
other than sexual intercourse or natural insemination. In humans, it is used as assisted
reproductive technology, using either sperm from the woman’s male partner or sperm from a
sperm donor (donor sperm) in cases where the male partner produces no sperm or the woman
has no male partner (i.e., single women, lesbians). In cases where donor sperm is used the
woman is the gestational and genetic mother of the child produced, and the sperm donor is
the genetic or biological father of the child.

2.7 CONSEQUENSCES OF SINGLE-PARENTHOOD

The role of the single parent is a challenging one. Often, problems have to be dealt
with single-handedly. Moreover, roles carried out by the absent parent have to be taken over
by the single parent. For example, a widow has to take on the role of the breadwinner, or a
widower that of the housewife, managing the house and taking care of children. The
problems can be wide-ranging. Finding jobs and earning money were tasks that almost all
single parents had to face, more so, because the majority were female single parents. Their
children's future, in terms of their education, job prospects, and marriages, were other
problems before them. Those who did not suffer financial difficulties as such, still faced
problems regarding the children's education, careers and marriage plans. For the male
respondents, managing the house and planning their children's future were problems
comparatively bigger than money requirements. For the divorced mothers, the need for
money and planning for their children's future were the major problems, similar to those
faced by the widowed mothers.

1. Emotional Consequences

The emotional consequences of single parenthood may reflect in such behavioral

symptoms as depression, insomnia, tendency to cry often, feelings of being fed-up with life
and a general lack of self-worth. However, besides the single parents, these manifestations
can be present in other individuals too, where the causes can be other than single parenthood.

2. Social Consequences

The focus in this part, was on the social consequences of being a single parent. In a
conservative society like the Indian one, the single status, especially of a woman, is not
acceptable. The study assessed how single parenthood affects the person's relationship with
the 'significant others' in society.

3. Economic consequences

The economic consequences for single parents were assessed on the basis of the main
earner in the family, the number of earning members, working status of single parents,
income level, and the economic position regarding loans and mortgages.

2.8 POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO FACTORS AFFECTING SINGLE PARENTHOOD

ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SCHOOLS

1. Facing Reality and Eliminating Panic:

Public reports on single-parent families are often negative. For example, some people
think single parent families are pathological and the children in single parent families have
high crime rate. In fact, children living in single-parent families are not only unfortunate, but
also helpless. Compared with the normal family, children living in single-parent families is
affected negatively in a degree, but lack of involvement of a father or mother in a child's
development is not catastrophic damage to the children. If both parents can deal with their
relationship well and continue to give their love to children, children will grow healthily like
other children. The key is education methods and many children in single-parent family grow
up very well. Therefore, there is no need to panic for single parents and facing reality and
having a good attitude is very important.

2. Improving Education for Single-parents:

Educate yourself first, parents should improve their awareness of education. Children
need love, so parents should try to give children a complete love to make up for the
incomplete feelings from the other mother or father. Above all, keeping the awareness as
parents is a duty. Parents should be calm and brave to face the reality and cheer up to create a
good family atmosphere for their children. Single-parent families can create such a healthy
and normal family environment for their children by improving the education level and
quality of single parents.

3.Combine love with education

Don't hide the truth of the divorce from your children. Out of fear of hurting their
children, many divorced parents often make a fundamental mistake: hiding the truth from
their children. In fact, it has the opposite effect. In order to establish a stable and healthy
mother-child community or father-child community in a single-parent family, the children
should be told the truth that the parents divorced because they did not love each other.
According to the age of the children, parents should gradually explain in order to let the child
learn to understand this fact. The divorced parents should put aside their personal grievances
calmly and rationally, treat their children with a broad mind and a tolerant and cheerful
attitude and work together to help children through the immediate psychological crisis and
temporary difficulties.

4. Foster the independence of children

Children in single-parent families live with one of their mothers and fathers. For
compensation reasons, adults tend to show excessive sympathy and spoil to children which
easily leads to their psychological vulnerability and makes them become selfish or indifferent
to others. Due to the lack of effective discipline and restraint, children from single-parent
families tend to have problems in self-adjustment and adaptability and they are easy to form
bad behavior habits. Children from single-parent families should be educated rationally.
When children do something wrong, parents should tell children to have the courage to take
responsibility. Parents should be clear about what is right and what is wrong and should not
shelter their children because they feel guilty. In addition, the word "single parent" should not
always be on the lips because the influence from parents plays an extremely important role in
the growth of children

5. Set moderate expectations for children

Many single parents regard their children as the only spiritual support and place all
their hopes on their children requiring them to excel everywhere, but they do not realize that
excessively high expectations are bound to cause excessive psychological pressure on their
children. As the parents of single-parent families, they should establish appropriate
expectations for their children and place the fulcrum of life on themselves instead of placing
all their hopes on their children. In this way, they will not have unrealistic hopes for their
children and will not make their children feel too much pressure so as to promote their
healthy growth.

6. Learning institutions should become ambassadors of promoting social development

to students by coming up programs which foster social development like debate and public
speaking. This cultivates confidence and high self-esteem on adolescents.

7. Schools to have guidance and Counselling team which comprises of both male and
females, this team should serve as identify which poor social skills and help them to fully
develop those skills. For those with emotional and relationship programs, the team should
offer Counselling.

8. Provision life-skills training/ programs in terms of empowerment program for anger

management, conflict resolution and decision making.

2.9 Empirical Review

Based on the findings of the study, it is also observed that single parenthood to a large
extent affects child development and socialization. The study concluded that majority of
single parents are faced with economic, emotional and social problems thereby, finding it
difficult to meet the basic needs of their children such as food, clothing, school fees, and
other personal expenses. And failure to provide financial support accounts for the child
greater risk of indulging in dangerous behaviors such as prostitution or commercial sex
business, drugs, alcohol and criminal activities. Preparation for parenthood is a complex and
challenging task as parental skills do not necessarily come easily and naturally. Parent
partially behave the way they do because of their own childhood experiences. This paper
examines the associated factors of single parenthood on educational attainment of children in
Kwara state which is characterized by poor personality of the relationship, poverty, illness,
mental/emotional instability, stress, character defects, marital disharmony and infidelity. Its
effect on childhood experiences is negative as children from such homes have the following
experiences: verbal abuse, child labor, sex abuse, child battery, street children, prostitution,
forced marriage. It is therefore, recommended that premarital counselling and health
education against family disintegration should be organized for adolescent and young
couples. In addition, appropriate health workers e.g., midwives, social workers and medical
officers with the support from government must be prepared always to render useful services
in rehabilitating needy families in the community. Academic performance is ‘what a student
is capable of achieving when tested or examined on what he/she has been taught’ (Otu-
Danquah, 2002). Many empirical studies have been carried out to determine factors affecting
students’ academic performance. Emeke (2004) pointed to a combination of personal and
institutional factors which are capable of influencing students’ academic performance. He
explained that the personal factors related to the individual’s intelligence, knowledge and
ability while institutional factors include family or parental influences, societal influences and
school related factors such as student-teacher rapport and teacher related factors like their
accommodation and living conditions. Hampden-Thompson’s (2009) comparative
international study revealed a literacy academic performance between teenagers from two-
parent households and teenagers from single-parent households. The gap was significant in
12 countries, with the greatest gap occurring in the United States. The National Center for
Education Statistics (2008) purported an achievement gap in classroom grades across
elementary, middle, and high school between students from single-parent households where
only one parent was involved in the child’s schooling and students from two-parent
households where both parents were involved in the child’s schooling. Waldfogel (2010)
reported an achievement gap between students specifically from single-parent families and
students from traditional families. According to Angel-Castillo and TorresHerrera (2008),
school dropout rates for Hispanic students were almost doubled in students from single-
parent families or blended families as compared to students from two-parent families.
Zimiles & Lee (2001) magnified the gap by stating, “Students from stepfamilies and single-
parent families are almost three times as likely to drop out as their counterparts from intact
families (7% vs 20%)”. International research supports the existence of an achievement gap
between students from single-parent families and students from two-parent families in
Nigeria (Uwaifo, 2008; Yara & Tunde-Yara, 2010).

3.0 Appraisal of the reviewed literature

Despite of only stigmatizing the single parents and their children we all as a
community should help them in fulfilling their requirements or needs to make their life
valuable and provide them a platform for worth living. Firstly, before getting separated,
parents should try to maintain stability in their relationship for better future of their children.
If they fail to maintain stability, then both parents should contribute or share equal
responsibilities for better upbringing and to enhance intellectual and emotional development
of their children. Secondly, all the higher authorities such as non-governmental organizations,
counselors, psychologist. Parent teacher associations and social workers should plan sessions
to train and educate single parents about how to deal with multiple challenges that come
across their way. Workshops, media and seminars can be helpful to create insight in parents
regarding their responsibilities. Lastly, it is suggested that government and non-governmental
organizations should support financially, and in all aspects, to secure the future of children.
Moreover, government should midline the policies that parenting is relatable to both spouses,
if they even decided to get at one side but their roles should be considered accountable for
children, even they separate. In the end, quality of time or care and proper attention to
children is the most important task of parents. However, single parenting seems to be very
predominant and common social issue now days around the globe. Children nurtured by
single parent due to multiple reasons most commonly because of divorce, death of the spouse,
unintended pregnancies, adoption that consequently leads to many problems such as
psychological trauma, mental health and behavioral issue, financial hardship, low
performance at school or colleges, low self-esteem, decreased social interaction and poor life
style. Most important thing is to understand and respect the significance of parenting either it
is single or individual.