Ramallah Friends School

Chemistry 11IB Standard level

Structure 1.1: Introduction to the particulate nature of matter Structure 1.5: Ideal gases
Structure 1.4: Counting particles by mass Reactivity 2.1: The amount of chemical change
Stoichiometric Relationships
Structure 1.1: Introduction to the particulate nature of matter:

Chemistry is the study of matter and its composition.

Matter: is everywhere (any substance that occupies space and has mass). The characteristics of
matter are:
1. Occupies volume in space
2. Has a mass
3. Particles are in constant motion.
4. Made up of particles, atoms, or molecules or ions.
The atomic theory states that all matter is composed of atoms. These atoms can not be
created or destroyed, but they are rearranged during chemical reactions. Physical and
chemical properties of matter depends on the bonding and arrangement of these atom.
Matter can be classified as a pure substance or a mixture, depending on the type of
particle arrangement.
Pure substance: has a definite and uniform chemical composition. Ex. Element, compound.
Element: All substances are made up of one or more elements. An element cannot be broken
down by any chemical process into simpler substances. There are 118 known elements. A full
list of all 118 elements can be found in section 6 of the IB data booklet. The smallest part of an
element is called an atom. (it contains only one type of atom). Some substances are made up of a
single element, although there may be more than one atom of theelement in a particle of the
substance. For example, oxygen is diatomic: a molecule of oxygen contains two oxygen atoms
and has the formula O2
Compounds: contains more than one element combined chemically in a fixed ratio. For
example, a molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It has the
formula H2O. Water is a compound, not an element because it can be broken down
chemically into its constituent elements: hydrogen and oxygen. Compounds have different
chemical and physical properties from their component elements.
Mixtures:
The components of a mixture may be elements or compounds. These components are not
chemically bonded together and are not in a fixed ratio. Because

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they are not chemically combined, the components of a mixture retain their individual
properties. If all the components of a mixture are in the same phase, the mixture is said to be
homogeneous. Air is an example of a gaseous homogeneous mixture. E.g( seawater, metal alloy)
If the components of a mixture are in different phases, the mixture is said
to be heterogeneous. There is a physical boundary between the two phases. A solid and a
liquid is an example of a two-phase system. It is possible to have a single state but two phases.
For example, two immiscible liquids, such as oil and water, form a heterogeneous mixture.
A Homogeneous mixture: has uniform composition and properties throughout.
A Heterogeneous mixture has a non-uniform composition, so its properties are not the same
throughout.

It is often possible to see the separate components in a heterogeneous mixture, but not in
a homogeneous mixture

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Ans: A

Ans: A

Separation of mixtures

Because the components of a mixture are not chemically bonded, they can be separated by
physical means. Properties to consider when determining the best method to separate the
components of a mixture include solubility (in water or other solvents),
melting points and boiling points of the components, and whether the mixture is homogeneous
or
heterogeneous.
Common techniques include
**solvation (e.g. CuSO4 combined with water to form CuSO4.5H2O), **filtration,
**evaporation, **distillation and **paper or thin-layer chromatography.

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 1. Filtration
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid. The mixture is poured through a
filter, and the liquid (the filtrate) passes through to a container below, while the insoluble solid
(the residue) is left on the filter paper. If the solid particles are very small, the process can be
carried out under reduced pressure, in a Buchner flask, using a vacuum pump.

2. Evaporation and recrystallization (intermolecular forces will be discussed in S 2.2 )

If only one of the components of a mixture is soluble in a solvent such as water or
ethanol, or in a non-polar solvent such as hexane, the mixture can be warmed with the
solvent to dissolve the soluble component. The resulting solution is then filtered to
remove any undissolved solid particles and the solvent is evaporated to leave the solute
behind. This solid can be purified by dissolving in a minimum quantity of a heated
solvent and then leaving the solution to stand so that crystals are formed and any
impurities remain in the solution. After filtering, the crystals can be washed with a small
amount of the cold solvent and then dried.

3. Separatory funnel
A separatory (or separating) funnel can be used to separate two immiscible liquids. The
mixture is shaken with the stopper on and then allowed to stand. Once two layers have
formed, the stopper is removed and the dense lower layer run off by opening the tap

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 4. Distillation (and reflux)
A solvent can be obtained purely from a mixture (such as seawater) by distillation. The volatile
solvent boils to form a gas, which is then condensed and collected. It can be used to separate
miscible liquids with different boiling points, such as ethanol and water. Ethanol has a
lower boiling point and will evaporate first. Once the vapours rise up a cooling column,
they can be condensed to a liquid.

The same apparatus can be rearranged to form a reflux apparatus. This is not for separating
mixtures but is used to allow volatile compounds to react together when heated for a while,
with no loss of compounds through evaporation or boiling.

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Kinetic molecular theory and changes of state

Kinetic molecular theory:

The kinetic molecular theory of matter is a model to explain the physical properties of matter
(solids, liquids, and gases) and changes of state.
• All matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving.
• The energy of the particles depends upon the absolute temperature.
• A change of state may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.
• The average amount of empty space between particles generally increases as matter moves
from the solid to the liquid and gas phases.
• There are forces of attraction between particles which become stronger as the particles move
closer together.

The absolute temperature of a substance is proportional to its average kinetic energy (. mass ×
velocity2). The SI unit for absolute temperature is kelvin (K). A difference of 1 K is the same as
a difference of 1 °C. Absolute zero, 0 K = −273 °C, so to convert temperature values from °C to
K add 273. Water freezes at 273 K and boils at 373 K.

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Changes of state:
When heat is continually supplied to a substance, the following changes take place.
• The solid particles increase in temperature as the kinetic energy increases due to greater
vibration of the particles about a fixed position.
• When the vibration is sufficient to overcome the forces holding the lattice together, the solid
melts.

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• During melting, the temperature does not rise as the heat energy (enthalpy of fusion) is needed
to overcome these attractive forces.
• Once all the solid has melted, the liquid particles move faster and the temperature increases.
• Some particles move faster than others and escape from the surface of the liquid to form a
vapour.
• Once the pressure of the vapour is equal to the pressure above the liquid, the liquid boils.
• During boiling, the temperature remains constant as the heat is used to overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction (enthalpy of vaporization).
• When all the liquid has turned into a gas, the temperature continues to increase as the particles
move ever faster.

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Structure 1.4: Counting particles by mass

The mole concept and the Avogadro constant

A single atom of an element has an extremely small mass. For example, an atom of carbon-12,
12C, has a mass of 1.993 × 10−23 g. Atoms are far too small to weigh or count individually. The
number of 12C atoms in exactly 12.00 g of 12C is equal to 6.02 × 1023. This number is known as
the Avogadro constant. In the same way that a pair is two or a dozen is twelve, a mole is 6.02 ×
1023

The mole: is defined as the amount of substance that contains 6.02 X 1023 particles of that
substance.

The number 6.02 X 1023 is called Avogadro’s constant (NA). It could be used with any
particle, like atoms, molecules, protons, electrons, neutrons, positive ions, negative ions or
formula units (used with ionic compounds).

Avogadro’s constant (NA) = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1

Moles = number of particles

6.02 × 1023

Number of atoms or any other structural units (N) = amount of substance (n) × NA

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** Example:
Calculate the amount of lead (Pb) in mol, mmol, in a sample containing 2.9× 1021 atoms of this
element?

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Polyatomic ions

Ions are atoms with a positive charge = cations

Ions are atoms with negative charge = anions
Polyatomic ions are covalent molecules with a charge that acts as a unit in ionic compounds.

These must be memorized

Ammonium NH4+
Carbonate CO32-
Hydroxide OH-
Nitrite NO2-
Nitrate NO3-
Sulfite SO32-
Sulfate SO4 2-
Phosphite PO33-
Phosphate PO42-
*** Calculate the number of atoms, molecules, and formula unit of 1 mole of
1. Na
1 mol of Na will contain 6.02 x1023 atoms of Na

2. H2
1 mol of H2 will contain 6.02 x1023 molecules of H2
Since there are 2 H atoms in each molecule of H2,1 mol of H2 molecules will
contain 1.204 x1024 H atoms

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 3. NaCl
1 mol of NaCl will contain 6.02 x1023 formula units of NaCl
Since there is both a Na and Cl atom in NaCl,1 mol of NaCl will contain 1.204x1024
atoms in total.

The relative atomic mass, RAM or Ar, of an element is defined as the weighted mean mass of
all the naturally occurring isotopes of an element relative to one twelfth of the mass of a carbon –
12 atom.

Ar =

Since relative atomic mass is a ratio of two masses, the mass units cancel, and relative atomic
mass is a number without a unit.

3) The relative molecular mass, RMM or Mr, is defined as the average mass of a molecule
compared to one twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon – 12. It has no units.

Mr=

(Relative Formula mass; used for ionic compounds). It has no units.

4) The molar mass, symbol M, unit g / mol or g mol-1, is defined as the mass of one mole of a
substance.

Moles = Mass in grams

Molar mass in g mol-1

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 To
Find the molar mass of a compound, add the atomic masses of all the atoms in the compound.
For example, the molar mass of methane is
CH4 = 12.01 + (4 × 1.01) = 16.05 g mol–1

**Calculate the number of chlorine atoms in a 6.00mg sample of the anticancer drug
Pt(NH3)2Cl2.
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Percentage composition w:
is the percent by mass of each element in a compound.
mass of element
%by mass= ×100%
mass of compound

Calculate the percentage composition of water.

Experimental empirical and molecular formula:

5) The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms of each element in
a molecule of the substance.

6) The empirical formula of a compound is defined as the simplest whole number ratio of
atoms of each element in a particle of the substance.

The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.

Which molecule has the same empirical formula as the molecular formula?
A. CH3COOH
B. C2H5OH
C. C2H4
D. C4H10
Ans: B

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Molecular formula = N (empirical formula).

N = Molar mass of molecular formula

The molar mass of an empirical formula

An empirical formula
is a formula obtained by experiment. It shows the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each
element in a particle of a substance. It can be obtained either by knowing the mass of each
element in the compound or by the percentage composition by mass of the compound. The
percentage composition can be converted directly into masses by assuming 100 g of the
compound is present.
An empirical formula
1.Divide each % by the atomic mass
2. Divide each answer to Step 1 by the smallest answer to Step 1
3. Multiply all answers to Step 1 to remove any obvious fractions to get a whole number.
a. If there is a ‘.5’ multiply everything by 2
b. If there is a ‘.33’ or ‘.66’ multiply everything by 3
c. If there is a ‘.75’ or ;’.25’ multiply everything by 4

Question for a compound contains 40.00% carbon, 6.73% hydrogen and 53.27% oxygen by
mass.
Determine the empirical formula.

Determine empirically formula from combustion analysis:

Mass carbon= 12.01/44.00* mass of carbon dioxide
Mass Hydrogen = 2∗1.01/18.02 * mass of water
Mass oxygen = mass sample-mass C–mass H
1.Divide each mass by the atomic mass
2. Divide each answer to Step 1 by the smallest answer to Step 1
3. Multiply all answers to Step 1 to remove any obvious fractions to get a whole number.

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a. If there is a ‘.5’ multiply everything by 2
b. If there is a ‘.33’ or ‘.66’ multiply everything by 3
c. If there is a ‘.75’ or ;’.25’ multiply everything by 4

Molecular formula
For molecules, the molecular formula is much more useful as it shows the actual number of
atoms of each element in a molecule of the substance. Methanal, CH2O (Mr = 30), ethanoic acid,
C2H4O2(Mr =60) and glucose, C6H12O6 (Mr = 180), are different substances with different
molecular formulas but all with the same empirical formula: CH2O. You can obtain the
molecular formula from the empirical formula if you also know the molar mass of the
compound. For example, if you know that the Mr is 60 and the empirical formula is CH2O (M r
= 30), then N=2 so the molecular formula is double the empirical formula, giving C2H4O2
Note that subscripts are used to show the number of atoms of each element in the compound.

Experimental determination of an empirical formula

The empirical formula of magnesium oxide can be determined simply in the laboratory. A coil of
magnesium ribbon about 10 cm long is placed in a pre-weighed crucible and its mass is recorded.
The crucible is placed on a clay triangle and heated strongly. When the magnesium ribbon starts
to burn, the lid is lifted slightly to allow more air to enter and the heating is continued until all
the magnesium has burned. After cooling, the crucible, its lid and its contents are reweighed.

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1.4.5 solutions and concentrations

11) A solution is a solute dissolved in a solvent.

12) The solute is the dissolved substance.
13) The solvent is the substance that does the dissolving.
14) The Concentration is the amount of solute in a known volume of solution.

It is expressed either in g dm-3, mg dm-3, mg/l (ppm) or more usually in mol dm-3.

If the solvent is water, then the solution is called aqueous solution.

Concentration = Number of moles of solute

Volume of solution in dm3

c= n/v = mol/dm3 = mol dm-3 .

n = cv

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Standard solutions
Chemists routinely prepare solutions needed for analysis, whose concentrations are known
precisely These solutions are termed standard solutions
They are made accurately and precisely as possible using three decimal place balances and
volumetric flasks to reduce the impact of measurement uncertainties
The steps are:

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Volumes & concentrations of solutions
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent to make
Dm3 of solution.
Volume is usually used for solutions. 1.000 litre = 1.000 dm = 1 000 cm
3 3

A concentrated solution is a solution that has a high concentration of solute

A dilute solution is a solution with a low concentration of solute

Example:
Calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, required to prepare250 cm3 of a
0.200 moldm3 solution?

Mass per unit volume

Sometimes itis more convenient to express concentration in terms of mass per unit volume
The formula is:

To change a concentration from moldm-3 to gdm-3

Multiply the moles of solute by its molar mass

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Parts per million

1 ppm is defined as A mass of 1 mg dissolved in 1 dm3 of water

Example: The chlorine concentration in a swimming pool should be between 1 and 3 ppm.
Calculate the maximum mass, in kg, of chlorine that should be present in an Olympic swimming
pool of size2.5 million litres.

Dilution is the process of adding solvent /water to decrease the concentration.

The number of solute moles remains constant before and after the dilution process.

C 1V 1=C 2V 2

C1: is the initial concentration (molarity) of the solution.

V 1: is the initial volume of the solution.
C 2: is the final concentration (molarity) of the solution after dilution.
V 2: is the final volume of the solution after dilution.

EX. A standard solution was prepared by dissolving 6.624g of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
In deionized water using a 250 cm3 volumetric flask. An analytical pipette was used to transfer
10.0 cm3 sample of this solution to a 100cm3 volumetric flask, and the flask was topped up to the
graduation mark with deionized water. Calculate in moldm-3of sodium carbonate in the new
solution ?

Reactivity 2.1: The amount of chemical change

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Chemical equations:
Chemical reactions can be represented by chemical equations. Reactants are written on the le -
hand side and products on the right-hand side. The number of moles of each element must be the
same on both sides in a balanced chemical equation. As an example, consider the reaction of nitric
acid (one of the acids present in acid rain) with calcium carbonate (the main constituent of marble
statues).

The physical state that the reactants and products are in can affect both the rate of the reaction and
the overall energy change. For this reason, it is good practice to include state symbols in the
equation. (s) = solid; (l) = liquid; (g) = gas; (aq) = in aqueous solution
Example:

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Ionic equations
Because ionic compounds are completely dissociated in solution it is sometimes better to use ionic
equations. For example, when silver nitrate solution is added to sodium chloride solution a precipitate of
silver chloride is formed.
Ag + (aq) + NO3 – (aq) + Na + (aq) + Cl – (aq) → AgCl (s) + NO3 – (aq) + Na + (aq)

NO3 – (aq) and Na + (aq) are spectator ions and do not take part in the reaction. So the ionic equation becomes:

Ag + (aq) + Cl – (aq) → AgCl (s)

From this we can deduce that any soluble silver salt will react with any soluble chloride to form precipitate
of silver chloride.

Coefficients and molar ratio

A coefficient is a number in front of a reactant or product in an equation. The coefficients give
information about the molar ratio. In a balanced chemical equation, there is a fixed
relationship between the number of particles of reactants and products resulting in no overall change
in mass; this is known as the stoichiometry of the reaction.

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Limiting reagent:
1) The reactant in excess is called so: because some of it will be unreacted at the end of the reaction.
2) The limiting reactant is called so: because it will be consumed totally at the end of the reaction.

An easy way to determine the limiting reactant is to find the moles of each Substance and divide the
moles by the coefficient in the equation The lowest number resulting in the limiting reactant.

Example:

Percentage yield

The percentage yield shows how much of a particular product you get from the reactants
Compared to the maximum theoretical amount that you can get:

Percentage yield = (experimental yield / theoretical yield) X 100%

The actual yield is the number of moles or mass of product obtained experimentally
The theoretical yield is the number of moles or mass obtained by a reacting mass

The theoretical yield of a given product is the maximum yield that could be obtained if the reactants
gave only that product.
The experimental yield is the amount of product that is actually obtained experimentally. The
percentage yield is a measure of the efficiency of the reaction.

Percentage error =

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Atom economy
As well as trying to achieve high yields in industrial processes, chemists try to increase the
conversion efficiency of a chemical process. This is known as the atom economy. Ideally, no atom is
wasted in a chemical process. The atom economy is a measure of the amount of starting materials
that become useful products. A high atom economy means that fewer natural resources are used and
less waste is created. The atom economy can be calculated by using the following steps.
Step 1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction taking place.

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Step 2. Calculate the relative molecular mass of each product and then the total mass of each product
formed, assuming molar quantities. Note that this is the same as the total mass of the reactants.
Step 3. Calculate the relative molar mass of each desired product and then the total mass of each
desired product formed, assuming molar quantities.

For example, consider the production of iron by the reduction of iron (III) oxide using Thermite
reaction.

2Al(s) + Fe2O3 (s) → 2Fe(s) + Al2O3 (s)

The total mass of products formed = 2 55.85 + [(2 26.98) + (3 16.00)] = 213.66 g

The total amount of iron ( desired product) formed = 2 55.85 = 111.70 g

The atom economy for this reaction is = ( ) 100 % = 52.3 %

Obviously if a user can also be found for all the aluminum oxide produced then the atom economy for
this reaction will increase to 100%.

Structure 1.5: Ideal gases

Gas laws:

An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance whose (made up very small particles, separated by large
distance,) thus the particles have no volume and no intermolecular attractive forces. Undergo elastic
collusion with no loss of kinetic energy occur.
An ideal gas exactly obeys the gas laws. An ideal gas consists of point masses in random motion
whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature.

21) Real gases do have some attractive forces between the particles and the particles themselves do
occupy some volume so they do not exactly obey the gas laws such as Boyle’s law, Charles’ law,
Avogadro’s law and the ideal gas equation.

● Real gases obey ideal gas behavior at low pressure and high temperature.
● Real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior at high pressure and low temperature.

For practical purposes we can use the ideal gas equation to describe the behavior of real gases.

Temperature: is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance, which is
related to how hot or cold that substance is.

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Absolute zero:
The lowest possible temperature, at which all molecules are have the least possible amount of kinetic
energy. Absolute zero is equal to 0°K, or -273.16°C. At temperatures approaching absolute zero, the
physical characteristics of some substances change significantly.

This graph shows how the average kinetic energy of the particles varies with absolute
temperature
for an ideal gas.

15) Avogadro's Law: It states that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of moles. A modern statement of Avogadro’s law is at constant
temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas
present: V α n

V/n = constant

According to this law: a gas at constant temperature and pressure the volume is directly
proportional to the number of moles of gas.

V1 / n1 = constant

After the change in volume and mole number,

V2 / n2 = constant

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Combine the two:

V1 / n1 = V2 / n2

)STP conditions( Pa 5Molar volume of an ideal gas at 273 K (0 ˚C) and 1.0 × 10 ●

)1–mol 3dm 22.7 =( 1–mol 3m 2–10 × 2.27 =

Moles = volume of gas in dm3

22.7
STP: standard temperature and pressure

Pa (SATP conditions) SATP: standard 5Molar volume of an ideal gas at 298 K (25 ˚C) and 1.0 × 10 ●
.ambient temperature and pressure

)1–mol 3dm 24.8 =( 1–mol 3m 2–10 × 2.48 =

Moles = volume of gas in dm3

24.8

16) Boyle's law:

Pα : At constant temperature: As the volume decreases the concentration of the particles

increases, resulting in more collisions with the container walls. This increase in pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume, i.e. doubling the pressure halves the volume.

V ∝ 1/P
P V = constant

P1V1 = P2V2

● At constant temperature and fixed mass of gas

● A graph between P & V at constant temperature is a smooth curve known as "parabola"

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● A graph between 1/P & V at constant temperature is a straight line.

17) Charles' law: V α T: At constant pressure:

At higher temperatures the particles have a greater average velocity so individual particles will collide
with the container walls with greater force. To keep the pressure constant there must be fewer collisions
per unit area so the volume of the gas must increase. The increase in volume is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature, i.e. doubling the absolute temperature doubles the volume.

V∝T
V/T = constant

V1 = V2
T1 T2

● At constant pressure and fixed mass of gas

● Temperature must be in Kelvin scale

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● This graph shows the variation in volume of a fixed mass of an ideal gas with temperature in °C
at
constant pressure?

● A graph between Volume and absolute temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure
is a "straight line"

18) Pressure Law (Gay – Lussac's law): P α T: At constant volume: Increasing the temperature
increases the average kinetic energy so the force with which the particles collide with the container walls
increases. Hence pressure increases and is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, i.e.
doubling the absolute temperature doubles the pressure.

PαT
P/T = constant

P1 = P2
T1 T2

● At constant volume and fixed mass of gas

● Temperature must be in Kelvin scale

A graph between pressure and absolute temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is
a "straight line"

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 The combined gas law: The equations corresponding to Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Pressure law
(Gay – Lussac's law) can be incorporated into one single equation:

P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

At fixed mass of gas only

The units of P1 and P2 are identical (atm or mmHg). The units of T1 and T2 are identical (Kelvin). The units
of V1 and V2 are identical (dm3 or cm3).

When T1 = T2 then the combined gas law is reduced to Boyle’s law.

When P1 = P2 then the combined gas law is reduced to Charles’ law.

When V1 = V2 then the combined gas law is reduced to Gay – Lussac’s law.

Ideal Gas Equation:

Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law can be combined to obtain the ideal gas law. The different
variables for a gas are all related by the ideal gas equation:

PV=nRT

Units of Idea Gas Constant (R):

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● Where P is the pressure in KPa; V is the volume in dm3; n is the number of moles in mol; T is the
absolute temperature in Kelvin (K);

R is the ideal gas constant = 8.31 KPa dm3 mol -1 K-1 = 8.31 J mol -1 K-1

● Where P is the pressure in Pa; V is the volume in m3; n is the number of moles in mol; T is the absolute
temperature in Kelvin (K);

R is the ideal gas constant = 8.31 Pa m3 mol -1 K-1 = 8.31 J mol -1 K-1

● P is the pressure in atm; V is the volume in cm3; n is the number of moles in mol; T is the absolute
temperature in Kelvin (K);

R is the ideal gas constant = 82.05 cm3 atm mol -1 K-1

The ideal gas law is obeyed exactly only by the hypothetical ideal gas. It relates those variables (P, V, n,
T) that specify the physical properties of the gas.

Since, n = , then P V = R T.

M=

Where M is the molar mass of the gas in g mol-1

Also since density, d = m / V in g dm -3, then

d=

Units Conversion:

KPa = 1000 Pa

1 atm = 1.01 X105 Pa = 1.01 X102 KPa

1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 76 cm Hg

KPa . dm 3 = J

1 dm3 = 1 litre = 1 X 10-3 m3 = 1 X 103 cm3

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Real Gas Behaviour

The ideal gas equation does not fit all measurements and observations taken at all
conditions with real gases
The relationship between pressure, volume and temperature shows a significant deviation
from PV=nRT when the temperature is very low or the pressure is very high
This is because the ideal gas equation is built on the kinetic theory of matter
The kinetic theory of matter makes some key assumptions about the behaviour of gases

At low temperatures and high pressures, real gases deviate significantly from the ideal gas
equation. The higher the pressure and the lower the temperature the greater the deviation

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Titration:
Determining an unknown concentration by titration:
Titration is a useful technique to find the concentration of a solution of unknown concentration
by reacting it with a stoichiometric amount of a standard solution. A known accurate volume of
one of the solutions is placed in a conical flask using a pipette. A burette is then used to add the
other solution drop wise until the reaction is complete. This can be seen when one drop causes
the solution to just change color. For acid- base titration, it is usual to add an indicator but this is
not always necessary for some other types of titration, e.g. redox titration using acidified
potassium permanganate, as the reactant itself causes the color change. It is usual to obtain at
least two accurate readings, which should be within 0.15 cm3 of each other.

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Worked examples:
1. 25.00 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide of unknown concentration required 23.65 cm3 of

0.100 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid solution to complete neutralization. Calculate the

concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution.

Equation for the reaction: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Amount of hydrochloric acid present in 23.65 cm3 /1000 * 0.100 = 2.365 10- 3 mol

Since one mole of NaOH reacts with one mole of HCl

Amount of sodium hydroxide present in 25.00 cm3 = 2.365 10- 3 mol

Concentration of sodium hydroxide = 2.365 10- 3 mol* ( 1000/25) = 0.0946 mol dm-3

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