Introduction to Machine Learning

Course Code: CSE 311

Dr. ShuvenduRana
SRM University-AP, Amaravati, India

shuvendu.r@srmap.edu.in

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 Machine Learning
Objectives:
1. This course will serve as a comprehensive introduction to
various topics in machine learning.
2. Introduce various algorithms related to classification,
regression, clustering.

Learning Outcomes: The students should be able to

1. Visualise, analyse and interpret available data.
2. Design and implement machine learning solutions
(classification, regression, and clustering problems)
3. Able to evaluate and interpret the results of the algorithms
and improve their result.
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 Approach

Theory is when you know everything but nothing works

Practice is when everything works but no one knows why

In our Subject. Theory and Practice are combined:

Nothing works and no one knows why

Actually
Most work and you know why
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 Marks Distribution

Assessment Conducting Converting Final

Internal
Tool Marks Marks Conversion
Mid-term-I 25 10
Theory Mid-term-II 25 10 30
Assignment 10 10
Lab
Practical 20 20 20
Performance
Total 50

Conducting Final
Final Assessment tool
Marks Conversion
End semester theory
Final exam 100 30
exam
End semester Practical Final Practical/Term
100 20
exam Project
Total 50
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 What is Learning?

• Herbert Simon: “Learning is any process by

which a system improves performance from
experience.”
Programmatic approach Machine Learning approach

Input Input
Machine Machine
Input Output Model
(Program)
Output Output

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Machine Learning

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Types of Learning

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 Syllabus: Machine Learning

Module 1: Introduction, Linear regression, Logistic Regression

Module II: Decision Tree, Instance based Learning, PCA

Module III: Bayes Theory, Support Vector Machine

Module IV: Artificial Neural Network

Module V: Classifier Ensemble, Clustering

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 Books: Machine Learning

Machine Learning. Tom Mitchell. Mastering machine learning with

First Edition, McGraw- Hill, 1997. python-in-six-steps, A Practical
Implementation Guide to Predictive
Data Analytics Using Python
1st ed. Edition, Manohar Swamynathan
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Machine Learning:
Introduction

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 Topics

➢Introduction to Machine Learning

➢Type of Machine Learning
➢Approach to design ML application
➢Different Models
➢Hypothesis Space Inductive Learning
➢Issues in Machine Learning Design
➢Evaluation of ML models

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 What is Learning?

• Herbert Simon: “Learning is any process by

which a system improves performance from
experience.”
Programmatic approach Machine Learning approach

Input Input
Machine Machine
Input Output Model
(Program)
Output Output

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 Formal Definition

• A …….. is said to learn from experience E

with respect to some class of tasks T and
performance measure P, if its performance
at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves
with experience E.

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 Defining the Learning Task
(Well-posed Learning Problem)
Improve on task, T, with respect to
performance metric, P, based on experience, E.
Example
T: Playing checkers
P: Percentage of games won against an arbitrary
opponent
E: Playing practice games against itself

Example
T: Recognizing hand-written words
P: Percentage of words correctly classified
E: Database of human-labeled images of handwritten
words

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 Defining the Learning Task
(Well-posed Learning Problem)
Improve on task, T, with respect to
performance metric, P, based on experience, E.
Example:
T: Driving on four-lane highways using vision sensors
P: Average distance traveled before a human-judged
error
E: A sequence of images and steering commands
recorded while observing a human driver.

Example
T: Categorize email messages as spam or legitimate.
P: Percentage of email messages correctly classified.
E: Database of emails, some with human-given labels

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Types of Learning

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Types of Learning?

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Types of Learning?

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Types of Learning?

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Types of Learning?

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Types of Learning

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Types of Learning?

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Task solved using Supervised Learning

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 Classification (Examples)
• Assign object/event to one of a given finite set of
categories.
– Medical diagnosis
– Credit card applications or transactions
– Fraud detection in e-commerce
– Worm detection in network packets
– Spam filtering in email
– Recommended articles in a newspaper
– Recommended books, movies, music, or jokes
– Financial investments
– DNA sequences
– Spoken words
– Handwritten letters
– Astronomical images

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Task solved using Supervised Learning

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 Regression (Linear/Non-linear)
• Prediction/Curve fitting
– Weather forecasting/prediction
– Predicting market value of a share
– Predicting the price for real estate

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Features

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Features Space (2D)

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Supervised Approach (Details)

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Hypothesis Space

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Hypothesis Space

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Inductive Learning

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Inductive Learning Hypothesis

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 Bias and Variance

The bias is an error from erroneous assumptions in

the learning algorithm. High bias can cause an algorithm to miss the
relevant relations between features and target outputs (underfitting).

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Overfitting and Underfitting

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Representation (Models)

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Representation (Models)

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Representation (Models)

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 Problem Solving / Planning / Control
• Performing actions in an environment in order to
achieve a goal.
– Solving calculus problems
– Playing checkers, chess, or backgammon
– Balancing a pole
– Driving a car or a jeep
– Flying a plane, helicopter, or rocket
– Controlling an elevator
– Controlling a character in a video game
– Controlling a mobile robot

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 Related Disciplines
• Artificial Intelligence
• Data Mining
• Probability and Statistics
• Information theory
• Numerical optimization
• Computational complexity theory
• Control theory (adaptive)
• Psychology (developmental, cognitive)
• Neurobiology
• Linguistics
• Philosophy

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 Issues: Designing a Learning System
• Choose the training experience (Database)
• Choose exactly what is to be learned. (Target
function).
• Choose how to represent the target function
(Models).
• Choose a learning algorithm to infer the target
function from the experience.
Learner

Environment/
Experience Knowledge

Performance
Element 41
 Evaluation of Learning Systems
• Experimental
– Conduct controlled cross-validation experiments to
compare various methods on a variety of benchmark
datasets.
– Gather data on their performance, e.g. test accuracy,
training-time, testing-time.
– Analyze differences for statistical significance
(ANOVA).
• Theoretical
– Analyze algorithms mathematically and prove theorems
about their:
• Computational complexity
• Ability to fit training data
• Sample complexity (number of training examples needed to
learn an accurate function)
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 Measuring Performance

• Evaluating Regression models

– Absolute error
– Mean Square error
• Evaluating Classification models
– TP, TN, FP, FN
– Accuracy
– ROC
• Speed of performance

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 Measuring Performance

• Evaluating Regression models

– Absolute error
– Mean Square error
• Evaluating Classification models
– TP, TN, FP, FN
– Accuracy
– ROC
• Speed of performance

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 How to evaluate the Classifier’s
Generalization Performance?

• Assume that we test a classifier on some

test set and we derive at the end the
following confusion matrix:
Predicted class
Pos Neg
Actual Pos TP FN P
class N
Neg FP TN
 Metrics for Classifier’s Evaluation

• Accuracy = (TP+TN)/(P+N)
• Error = (FP+FN)/(P+N)
• Precision = TP/(TP+FP)
• Recall/TP rate = TP/P
• FP Rate = FP/N
Predicted class
Pos Neg
Actual Pos TP FN P
class N
Neg FP TN
 How to Estimate the Metrics?
• We can use:
– Training data;
– Independent test data;
– Hold-out method;
– k-fold cross-validation method;
– Leave-one-out method;
– Bootstrap method;
– And many more…
 Estimation with Training Data

• The accuracy/error estimates on the training data are

not good indicators of performance on future data.
Classifier

Training set Training set

– Q: Why?
– A: Because new data will probably not be exactly the same
as the training data!
• The accuracy/error estimates on the training data
measure the degree of classifier’s overfitting.
 Estimation with Independent Test Data

• Estimation with independent test data is used when we

have plenty of data and there is a natural way to
forming training and test data.
Classifier

Training set Test set

 Hold-out Method

• The hold-out method splits the data into training data and test
data (usually 2/3 for train, 1/3 for test). Then we build a
classifier using the train data and test it using the test data.

Classifier

Training set Test set

Data
• The hold-out method is usually used when we have thousands
of instances, including several hundred instances from each
class.
 Making the Most of the Data

• Once evaluation is complete, all the data

can be used to build the final classifier.
• Generally, the larger the training data the
better the classifier (but returns diminish).
• The larger the test data the more accurate
the error estimate.
 Stratification

• The holdout method reserves a certain amount

for testing and uses the remainder for training.
– Usually: one third for testing, the rest for training.
• For “unbalanced” datasets, samples might not
be representative.
– Few or none instances of some classes.
• Stratified sample: advanced version of
balancing the data.
– Make sure that each class is represented with
approximately equal proportions in both subsets.
 Repeated Holdout Method

• Holdout estimate can be made more reliable

by repeating the process with different
subsamples.
– In each iteration, a certain proportion is
randomly selected for training (possibly with
stratification).
– The error rates on the different iterations are
averaged to yield an overall error rate.
• This is called the repeated holdout method.
 k-Fold Cross-Validation

• k-fold cross-validation avoids overlapping test sets:

– First step: data is split into k subsets of equal size;
– Second step: each subset in turn is used for testing and the
remainder for training.
Classifier
• The subsets are stratified
before the cross-validation.
• The estimates are averaged to
yield an overall estimate. train train test

Data train test train

test train train

Classification: Train, Validation, Test Split
Results Known
+
Training set
Model
+
-
-
Builder
+
Data
Evaluate
Classifier Builder
Predictions
+
-
Y N +
Validation set -

+
- Final Evaluation
+
Final Test Set Classifier -

The test data can’t be used for parameter tuning!

 History of Machine Learning
• 1950s
– Samuel’s checker player
– Selfridge’s Pandemonium
• 1960s:
– Neural networks: Perceptron
– Pattern recognition
– Learning in the limit theory
– Minsky and Papert prove limitations of Perceptron
• 1970s:
– Symbolic concept induction
– Winston’s arch learner
– Expert systems and the knowledge acquisition bottleneck
– Quinlan’s ID3
– Michalski’s AQ and soybean diagnosis
– Scientific discovery with BACON
– Mathematical discovery with AM

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 History of Machine Learning (cont.)
• 1980s:
– Advanced decision tree and rule learning
– Explanation-based Learning (EBL)
– Learning and planning and problem solving
– Utility problem
– Analogy
– Cognitive architectures
– Resurgence of neural networks (connectionism, backpropagation)
– Valiant’s PAC Learning Theory
– Focus on experimental methodology
• 1990s
– Data mining
– Adaptive software agents and web applications
– Text learning
– Reinforcement learning (RL)
– Inductive Logic Programming (ILP)
– Ensembles: Bagging, Boosting, and Stacking
– Bayes Net learning
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 History of Machine Learning (cont.)
• 2000s
– Support vector machines
– Kernel methods
– Graphical models
– Statistical relational learning
– Transfer learning
– Sequence labeling
– Collective classification and structured outputs
– Computer Systems Applications
• Compilers
• Debugging
• Graphics
• Security (intrusion, virus, and worm detection)
– Email management
– Personalized assistants that learn
– Learning in robotics and vision
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Thank You

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