Communication

● Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one

person to another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures
(McCornack, 2014).
● Communication is the act of transferring information from one person to another person
or a group. Communication involves at least one sender, a message, and a receiver; but
communication is more than just a transmission of information. It requires success in
transmitting or sending a message (Reyes et al., 2020).
● Communication is a process. It takes place when two or more people exchange ideas
either through written or spoken words (verbal) or actions (nonverbal). Both verbal and
nonverbal can be used at the same time.

Elements of Communication
1. Sender - the one who initiates the message that needs to be transmitted.
2. Message - the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or
actions.
3. Encoding- the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms
that the speaker understands.
4. Feedback - the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver.
5. Context - the environment where communication takes place.
6. Barrier - the factors that affect the flow of the communication.
7. Decoding - process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the receiver.
8. Channel - medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal non-verbal,
which the encoded message is conveyed.

Types of Barriers
1. PHYSICAL BARRIER - Physical barriers are structural obstacles in natural or
manmade environments that prevent or block mobility (moving around in the
environment) or access.
Examples:
- loud music
- an irritating sound of an engine of a machine
- a classmate who talks to you while the teacher is giving a lecture
 2. PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIER - the mental barrier,
the social and personal issues of a speaker towards communicating also called as
internal noisesExamples:
- trauma
- shyness, lack of confidence
- depression
- fear, stage fright

3. CULTURAL BARRIERS - the communication problems encountered by people

regarding their intrinsic values, beliefs, and traditions in conflict with others.
Examples:
- different beliefs
- traditions, and customs
- manners of dressing
- speaking

4. LINGUISTIC BARRIERS - the conflicts with regard to language and word meanings
also called as semantic noises.
Examples:
- difference in language
- accent and dialect
- use of jargon and slang
- speech defects or language impairments

Models of Communication

1. Linear Communication - a one-way communication, focusing on the transmission of a

message to a receiver who never responds or has no way of responding to the
information conveyed.
 2. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication- It is also considered as the mother of all
communication models. It has a one-way process starting from a source (producer of the
message); passing through a channel (signals adapted for transmission) which may at
times be interrupted by noise (barrier) to a receiver (decoder of message from the signal).
The process stops after the message has arrived at its destination.

3. Schramm Model of Communication - Schramm (1954) visualized the process of

communication as an exchange of thoughts and ideas. Feedback was added to the
Shannon-Weaver Model. The recipient of the message decodes it and creates a feedback
based on his understanding of the information sent and vice versa.

The figure identifies the six elements of communication which are the sender, the
message sent, the receiver and the feedback provided by the receiver and sent back as a
response to the sender and the processes of encoding and decoding.

4. Transactional Model of Communication - The communicator (source) encodes the

message and transmits it through a channel. The message transmitted may be affected
by the noise (barrier). The receiver (recipient of the message) decodes, processes, and
filters the message for understanding and is now ready to give his own feedback to the
sender.

Functions and Features of Communication

 1. Control - Communication functions to control behavior. Example: Parent’s instruction
to their children.
2. Social Interaction - Communication allows individual to interact with others.
Example: talking with your friends.
3. Motivation - Communication motivates or encourages people to live better.
Example: seminars, telling your friend “you can do it”.
4. Emotional Expression - Communication facilities people’s expression of their feelings
and emotions. Example: expressing your feeling, Opening your problem to your friend
5. Information Dissemination - Communication functions to convey information. Example:
teacher delivering a lesson, listening to news software applications and operating
system; telephones and other telecommunication

The 7 C’s

1. Completeness - Complete communication is essential to the quality of the

communication process in general. Hence, communication should include everything
that the receiver needs to hear for him/her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.
2. Conciseness - Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but making it
direct or straight to the point. Insignificant or redundant information should be
eliminated from the communication that will be sent to the recipient.
3. Considerations - To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant
information about his/her receiver such as mood, background, race, preference,
education, status, and needs, among others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport
with the audience.
4. Concreteness - Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and
supported by facts, figures, and real-life examples and situations. In this case, the
receiver is more connected to the message conveyed.
5. Courtesy - The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the culture,
values, and beliefs of his/her receivers. Being courteous at all times creates a positive
impact on the audience.
 6. Clearness - Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to
express ideas. It is also achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single objective in
his/her speech so as not to confuse the audience.
7. Correctness - Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and
increases the credibility and effectiveness of the message.

5 Ways To Avoid Communication Breakdown

1. Have Clarity of thought before speaking - Arrange your thoughts before verbalizing
them this can help you communicate much more clearly and succinctly.
Ex. "I've got a few ideas here. Let me go through them one at a time. We can treat each
one on its own merit.”
2. Learn to Listen - Not understanding those who you are trying to communicate with will
lead to a conversation fraught with misunderstandings. Don't be afraid to ask them to
repeat or explain further in polite manner once you don't understand the point.
3. Take Care of your Body Language and Tone - Keep your emotions in check, try to
maintain eye contact, and adopt a relaxed tone when conversing with others.
4. Build up your confidence by asking for feedback and observing others - Focus on
improving your skills by practicing in front of those who you may feel more comfortable
with.
5. Communicate Face to Face on the important issues - Having that face to face dialogue
means you can convey your point more clearly, with your body language as well as your
tone of voice.

6 Strategies to Avoid Communication Breakdown (Quipper n.d.).

1. Keep Focused - One way of being focused is to put in mind the purpose
communication. As a speaker identify your purpose for speaking and as a listener find
the speaker's purpose thru his/her verbal and non- verbal cues.
2. Speak Intelligibly - Speaking intelligibly or clearly means using the appropriate
speaking volume, pitch rate, proper enunciation, stress, and acceptable pronunciation.
We speak in order to be understood.
 3. Listen with your Ears and Eyes - Pay attention to verbal and non-verbal message.
Effective communication depends on what people say and how they say it.
4. Minimize Distractions - Look for a place where you can minimize distractions or noise
like closed area, empty room, or quiet places. Lessening the cause for confusion means
giving more room to focus and concentrate.
5. Be Specific - Use simple and concise words as much as possible in delivering a message.
Being specific means being particular and direct to the point.
6. Do not Jump to Conclusions - Before you give your comments and judgement, be sure
that you have listened attentively to the speaker. Conclusions should be drawn after a
thorough analysis of point given or information received.

Verbal and Non-verbal

Verbal - the use of words in conveying message.

Nonverbal - the absence of words in conveying message.

Verbal Communication
Considerations :
Appropriateness – using words appropriate by whether formal or informal.
Brevity – simple and precise, direct to the point (avoid fillers)
Clarity – clearly state your message.
Ethics – word should be carefully chosen.
Vividness – using words creatively to make them pleasant to hear.

Tips When Communicating Verbally:

1. Start with what your listener needs to know.
2. Limit the amount of information.
3. Eliminate unnecessary words.
4. Make your messages relevant to your listener.
5. Take a direct approach.
6. Pause occasionally.
7. Respect individual differences.
8. Avoid stereotyping.
Non-verbal Communication
- generating meaning using behavior other than words.
- process of exchanging ideas in the absence of words.
- more expressive (actions speak louder than words).
Why more expressive?
All senses can be involved to express the feelings/emotions of an individual.
- sight
- smell
- hearing
- taste
- touch
Just as the verbal language, not all non-verbal expressions are universal.

six universal expressions:

- happiness
- sadness
- disgust
- fear
- anger
- surprise

Kinds of Nonverbal Communication

1. LANGUAGE OF KINESICS - it involves body motion/physical actions.

 Examples:
oculesics (visual/sight)– eye movement/eye contact
facial expression – how facial muscles are set to express emotions
gestures – movement of head, arms, hands, and shoulders to convey message.
stop – sign of warning (variation of “you” gesture).

2. LANGUAGE OF HAPTICS/TACTILE - involves touch.

Examples:
handshakes
holding hands
high five
pat on shoulder

3. LANGUAGE OF PROXEMICS - involves space and arrangement of the environment.

A. Physical arrangements – layout of the room including the presence or absence of the
lectern, seating plan, location of visual apparatus (board/screen) and any physical
barriers.
B. Distance – extent or degree of separation between you and the audience.
Four Distance Zones
a. Intimate Distance
- from actual touching to 18 inches or 45.72 cm.
- applies the closest relationship such as husband and wife.
b. Personal Distance
- from 18 inches to 48 inches or four feet .
- the most appropriate distance for teacher and student to discuss personal affairs such
as grades, conduct, private problems, etc.
c. Social Distance
- from four to twelve feet or 3.66 m.
- covers people working together or meeting at social gatherings.
d. Public Distance
- outward from twelve feet.
- lecturer – audience relationship.
 4. LANGUAGE OF CHRONEMICS - involves use of time in communication.
A. Duration – length of time devoted to an activity.
B. Activity – the task being executed.
C. Punctuality – the exact time agreed upon.

5. LANGUAGE OF COLORS - involves universal meaning and subjective perceptions of

colors.

6. AUDITORY - involves sounds or sense of hearing.

a. Silence
b. Paralanguage – intonation, pitch, loudness, intensity

7. OLFACTORY - involves sense of smell.

a. Pleasant
b. Foul

8. GUSTATORY - involves sense of taste.

a. Sweet
b. Sour
c. Salty
d. Bitter
e. Spicy

Reasons For Using Nonverbal

● It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it more
meaningful, truthful and relevant.
● It can communicate feelings, attitude and perspective without you saying a word.
● It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the speech.
● It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.
● It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.
● It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.
 ● It helps make your speech more dramatic.
● It can build a connection with listeners.
● It makes you credible speaker.
● It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid monotonous delivery.

Intercultural Communication

Happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and create meanings while bringing in their
varied cultural backgrounds (Ting-Toomey, 1999). Pertains to communication among people
from different nationalities (Gudykunst, 2003). Influenced by ethnicities, religions and sexual
orientations. Takes place when people draw from their cultural identity to understand values,
prejudices, language, attitudes, and relationships (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003). The sending and
receiving of messages across languages and cultures.

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

Stage 1

DENIAL - the individual does not recognize cultural differences.

Example: “All cities are the same; they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee
shops.”

Stage 2

DEFENSE – the individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated by them,
resulting in either a superior view on own culture or an unjustified high regard for the new one.

Example: “This culture does not view life the way we do; our culture is certainly better.”
“Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them.”

Stage 3

MINIMIZATION – although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the
universality of ideas rather than on cultural differences.

Example: “Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!”

Stage 4

ACCEPTANCE – the individual begins to appreciate important cultural differences in

behaviors and eventually in values.
 Example: “These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we can
learn from one another.”

Stage 5

ADAPTATION – the individual is very open to world views when accepting new perspectives.

Example: “To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own
and my counterpart’s background.”

Stage 6

INTEGRATION – individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and see themselves and
their actions based on multifarious cultural viewpoints

Example: “I can look at things from the perspective of various cultures.”

Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communication

- flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty

- reflectiveness or mindfulness
- open-mindedness
- sensitivity
- adaptability
- ability to engage in divergent thinking (or thinking creatively) and systems-level
thinking(or thinking how each one in a system or organization influences each other)
- politeness

1. Avoid stereotypes, i.e., generalizations about a certain group.

2. Challenge gender norms; avoid using “he” and “man” to refer to a general group of
people. To remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or rewrite a sentence to avoid using
pronouns. The use of his/her is also acceptable.

3. Do not talk down on younger people and the elderly.

4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.

5. Be polite at all times; do not belittle people you perceive to be on a lower social class
than you.
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEX

Speech Context refers to the situation or environment and the circumstances in which
communication occurs. There are three main types of speech context: intrapersonal speech
context, interpersonal speech context, and public communication.

1. INTRAPERSONAL - Intrapersonal communication simply means communicating with

oneself. It takes place when the individual is being introspective or engaging in
innertalk or internal discourse such as daydreaming, reflecting, analyzing, evaluating
and even mumbling.
2. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION - Interpersonal communication is a
transmission or exchange of a message, feelings, or a meaning through verbal or
nonverbal cues. In this type of speech context, there is an interdependent relationship
between or among the participants. This means that the action of one participant, more
often than not, directly affects the response or reaction of the other participant(s).
Interpersonal communication can be direct (face-to-face encounter) or indirect (done
through the use of a tool or technology like talking to someone over the telephone or
internet, communicating by e-mail, and teleconferencing in distance-learning class)
3. DYAD - This is composed of two participants who take turns as the sender (or speaker)
and the receiver (or listener) in the communication process. A dyadic communication,
which is also called one-to-one communication, maybe formal or informal. A purposive
interview, for example, is formal, while a casual conversation is informal
4. SMALL GROUP - This type of communication is composed of three or more
participants, or a group of participants, who engage in a discussion, often to achieve a
common goal such as to solve a problem, to perform an action or task, or to decide on
something. The participants in the group contribute information and opinion, or
exchange thoughts about a topic.
5. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION - Public communication involves a single speaker and a
sizable number of persons or an audience. The speaker is tasked to deliver a message or
a speech of general interest to the audience.
6. MASS COMMUNICATION - This refers to communication that takes place through
television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet, and other types of
media.

TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES

Speech Style. It is the distinct variation or forms of the language used for the same purpose by a
particular situation or the form of language that speaker uses. It is characterized by the degree
of formality.
 1. Formal - Used in speaking medium to large group. Speaker must frame whole sentences
ahead before they are delivered. Ex: Speeches, sermons, rhetorical statements and
questions pronouncement by judges, announcement
2. Casual - Language used between friends. Often very relaxed and focused on just getting
the information out. This style used in informal situation and languages. Relationship
between speaker and hearer is close. Ex: Casual conversation with friends, family
members, chat, phone calls and messages
3. Frozen - This style of communication rarely or never changes. It is "frozen" in time and
content. This is the most formal communicative style for respectful situation. Ex:
National pledge, anthem, school creeds, the Lord's prayer, marriage ceremonies, speech
for a state ceremony
4. Intimate - This style is completely private language used within family or very close
friends or group. Ex: Husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, very close friends,
siblings, parent and children
5. Consultative - Used in semi-formal communication, it happens in two-way
participation. This is most operational among other styles. Ex: Doctor-patient, regular
conversation at school, companies, teacher-student, group discussion

Speech Act

Speech Acts are the actions we perform through speech. They can be categorized into three
types: Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary. Understanding these types is crucial to
understanding how we communicate.

Three Types of Speech Act

1. Locutionary Acts - Locutionary Acts are the literal meaning of what is said. It is the
basic building block of speech. Understanding the locutionary act is important because
it is the foundation for the other types of speech acts.

Examples:

“Doh!” (favorite expression of TV cartoon character Homer Simpson)

“Wow?” (When someone is amazed)

“Hello!” (greeting someone)

“Get out!” (a strong command)

 2. Illocutionary Acts - Illocutionary Acts are the intended meaning of what is said. It is the
speaker's purpose for saying what they say. There are five classifications of illocutionary
acts: Representatives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives, and Declaratives.

Examples:

It’s more fun in the Philippines. (opinion)

I’ll help you clean the house tomorrow. (promise)

Get my things in the office. (order)

3. Perlocutionary Acts - Perlocutionary Acts are the effects of what is said on the hearer.
It is the impact of the speech act on the listener. Understanding perlocutionary acts is
important because it helps us to communicate more effectively.

Examples:

“We can do this. We heal and win as one!” (inspiring)

“It is crucial that we give all our collective efforts to fight against this pandemic. We
must start working together.” (persuading)

“Smoking destroys your health, certain as it brings diseases, it kills – you, your loved
ones, and others!” (deterring)

Indirect Speech Acts

When speaker does not explicitly state the intended meaning behind the utterance.

Example: “Could you pass the salt?

Inferred Speech —> Do you have the ability to hand over the salt?

Indirect Speech —> Please pass the salt.

Performative

Statements which enable the speaker to perform something just by stating it.

Examples:

● I now pronounce you man and wife.

 ● I now sentence you to a lifetime imprisonment.

Searle’s Classification of Speech Act

Searle (1979) suggests that speech acts consist of five general classifications to classify
illocutionary acts.

1. Assertive - A type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee
perform an action.

Situation: You are talking to your parent about your studies

Example: I got the highest score in math subject.

2. Directive - Directives are speech acts that are intended to get the hearer to do
something. Examples include requesting, ordering, and suggesting.

Situation: Your boss wants you to give him coffee

Example: Gimme a cup of coffee makes it black.

3. Commissive - Commissives are speech acts that commit the speaker to a future action.
Examples include promising, vowing, and guaranteeing.

Situation: Your classmates said that all of you are going to attend in meeting and talk
about Halloween in your school

Example: we will post some Halloween pictures eventually.

4. Expressive - Expressives are speech acts that express the speaker's attitudes and
emotions. Includes thanking, congratulating, and apologizing.

Situation: Your boyfriend is in abroad and he go home to surprise you your favorite food.

Example: Im a happy human being, yay for the chocolate ice-cream

5. Declaration - Declaratives are speech acts that bring about a change in the world
through the act of speaking. Examples include baptizing, firing, and naming.

Situation: You go to salon and plan to cut your hair and have a hair appointment.
 Example: it is true your hair always looks great the day before you have a hair
appointment.

Types of Communicative Strategy

1. Nomination - A speaker nominates a topic to collaboratively establish it in a

conversation. They start with news inquiries and announcements, ensuring an open
environment for opinions until the previous topic ends smoothly, signaling the start of a
new topic.
2. Restriction - Restriction in communication refers to limitations as a speaker, often
imposed by specific instructions in classrooms, meetings, or social situations. In casual
conversations, it's crucial to remain on point and avoid sidestepping from the topic to
avoid communication breakdowns, ensuring effective communication.
3. Turn-taking - Turn-taking is the process of deciding who takes the conversational floor,
aiming to give all communicators a chance to speak. Maintain relevance and
conciseness, be polite, and allow others to express their ideas. Use visual signals like
nods, looks, and steps to acknowledge others and accompany them with spoken cues.
4. Topic Control - Topic control refers to how formal or informal contexts influence the
development of topics in conversations. It involves cooperatively avoiding interruptions
and topic shifts. Active participation in conversations can be achieved through minimal
responses, tag questions, and laughter, ensuring the topic is developed collectively
without dominating the conversation.
5. Topic Shifting - Topic shifting is the transition from one topic to another in a
conversation, requiring intuitiveness and nurturing of the previous topic. Effective
conversational transitions, such as "By the way," "In addition to what you said," and
"Which reminds me of," are essential.
6. Repair - Repair is the process of addressing issues in speaking, listening, and
understanding in a conversation. It is a self-righting mechanism in social interactions,
allowing speakers to correct and rectify problems, even if they initially initiate the
repair.
7. Termination - Termination is the final expression of a conversation, typically signaled
by the topic initiator. It can be achieved through sharing learnings and seeking
agreement from other participants, ensuring a meaningful discussion.