EXERCISE 18

Taxonomy: Classifying and

Naming Organisms

OBJECTIVES
After completing this exercise, you will be able to
1. define common name, scientific name, binomial, genus, specific epithet, species, taxonomy, phyloge-
netic system, dichotomous key, herbarium;
2. distinguish common names from scientific names;
3. explain why scientific names are preferred over common names in biology;
4. identify the genus and specific epithet in a scientific binomial;
5. write out scientific binomials in the form appropriate to the Linnean system;
6. construct a dichotomous key;
7. explain the usefulness of an herbarium;
8. use a dichotomous key to identify plants, animals, or other organisms as provided by your
instructor.

INTRODUCTION
We are all great classifiers. Every day, we consciously or unconsciously classify and categorize the objects
around us. We recognize an organism as a cat or a dog, a pine tree or an oak tree. But there are numerous kinds
of oaks, so we refine our classification, giving the trees distinguishing names such as “red oak,” “white oak,” or
“bur oak.” These are examples of common names, names with which you are probably most familiar.
Scientists are continually exchanging information about living organisms. But not all scientists speak the
same language. The common name “white oak,” familiar to an American, is probably not familiar to a Spanish
biologist, even though the tree we know as white oak may exist in Spain as well as in our own backyard.
Moreover, even within our own language, the same organism can have several common names. For example,
within North America a gopher is also called a ground squirrel, a pocket mole, and a groundhog. On the other
hand, the same common name may describe many different organisms; there are more than 300 different trees
called “mahogany”! To circumvent the problems associated with common names, biologists use scientific
names that are unique to each kind of organism and that are used throughout the world.
A scientific name is two-parted, a binomial. The first word of the binomial designates the group to which
the organism belongs; this is the genus name (the plural of genus is genera). All oak trees belong to the genus
Quercus, a word derived from Latin. Each kind of organism within a genus is given a specific epithet. Thus, the
scientific name for white oak is Quercus alba (specific epithet is alba), while that of bur oak is Quercus macrocarpa
(specific epithet is macrocarpa).
Notice that the genus name is always capitalized; the specific epithet usually is not capitalized (although it
can be if it is the proper name of a person or place). The binomial is written in italics (since these are Latin
names); if italics are not available, the genus name and specific epithet are underlined.
You will hear discussion of “species” of organisms. For example, on a field trip, you may be asked “What
species is this tree?” Assuming you are looking at a white oak, your reply would be “Quercus alba.” The scientific
name of the species includes both the genus name and specific epithet.
If a species is named more than once within textual material, it is accepted convention to write out the full
genus name and specific epithet the first time and to abbreviate the genus name every time thereafter. For
example, if white oak is being described, the first use is written Quercus alba, and each subsequent naming
appears as Q. alba.
Similarly, when a number of species, all of the same genus, are being listed, the accepted convention is to
write both the genus name and specific epithet for the first species and to abbreviate the genus name for each
species listed thereafter. Thus, it is acceptable to list the scientific names for white oak and bur oak as Quercus
alba and Q. macrocarpa, respectively.

245
 Taxonomy is the science of classification (categorizing) and nomenclature (naming). Biologists prefer a sys-
tem that indicates the evolutionary relationships among organisms. To this end, classification became a phylo-
genetic system; that is, one indicating the presumed evolutionary ancestry among organisms.
Current taxonomic thought separates all living organisms into six kingdoms:
■ Kingdom Bacteria (prokaryotic cells that include pathogens)
■ Kingdom Archaea (prokaryotic organisms that are evolutionarily closer to eukaryotes than bacteria)
■ Kingdom Protista (euglenids, chrysophytes, diatoms, dinoflagellates, slime molds, and protozoans)
■ Kingdom Fungi (fungi)
■ Kingdom Plantae (plants)
■ Kingdom Animalia (animals)
Let’s consider the scientific system of classification, using ourselves as examples. All members of our species
belong to
■ Kingdom Animalia (animals)
■ Phylum Chordata (animals with a notochord)
■ Class Mammalia (animals with mammary glands)
■ Order Primates (mammals that walk upright on two legs)
■ Family Hominidae (human forms)
■ Genus Homo (mankind)
■ Specific epithet sapiens (wise)
■ Species: Homo sapiens
The more closely related evolutionarily two organisms are, the more categories they share. You and I are
different individuals of the same species. We share the same genus and specific epithet, Homo and sapiens. A
creature believed to be our closest extinct ancestor walked the earth 1.5 million years ago. That creature shared
our genus name but had a different specific epithet, erectus. Thus, Homo sapiens and H. erectus are different species.
Like all science, taxonomy is subject to change as new information becomes available. Modifications are
made to reflect revised interpretations.

18.1 Constructing a Dichotomous Key (About 45 min.)

To classify organisms, you must first identify them. A taxonomic key is a device for identifying an object unknown
to you but that someone else has described. The user chooses between alternative characteristics of the unknown
object and, by making the correct choices, arrives at the name of the object.
Keys that are based on successive choices between two alternatives are known as dichotomous keys
(dichotomous means “to fork into two equal parts”). When using a key, always read both choices, even though
the first appears to describe the subject. Don’t guess at measurements; use a ruler. Since living organisms vary
in their characteristics, don’t base your conclusion on a single specimen if more are available.
M AT E R I A L S
Per lab room:
■ several meter sticks or metric height charts taped to a wall

PROCEDURE
1. Suppose the geometric shapes below have unfamiliar names. Look at the dichotomous key following the fig-
ures. Notice there is a 1a and a 1b. Start with 1a. If the description in 1a fits the figure you are observing better than
description 1b, then proceed to the choices listed under 2, as shown at the end of line 1a. If 1a does not describe
the figure in question, 1b does. Looking at the end of line 1b, you see that the figure would be called an Elcric.
2. Using the key provided, determine the hypothetical name for each object. Write the name beneath the object
and then check with your instructor to see if you have made the correct choices.

246 EXERCISE 18
 Key

1a. Figure with distinct corners 2

1b. Figure without distinct corners Elcric

2a. Figure with 3 sides 3

2b. Figure with 4 or more sides 4

3a. All sides of equal length Legnairt

3b. Only 2 sides equal Legnairtosi

4a. Figure with only right angles Eraqus

4b. Figure with other than right angles Nogatco

3. Now you will construct a dichotomous key, using your classmates as subjects. The class should divide up
into groups of eight (or as evenly as the class size will allow). Working with the individuals in your group,
fill in Table 18-1, measuring height with a metric ruler or the scale attached to the wall.
4. To see how you might plan a dichotomous key, examine the following branch diagram. If there are both men
and women in a group, the most obvious first split is male/female (although other possibilities for the split
could be chosen as well). Follow the course of splits for two of the men in the group.
Note that each choice has only two alternatives. Thus, we split into “under 1.75 m” and “1.75 m or
taller.” Likewise, our next split is into “blue eyes” and “nonblue eyes” rather than all the possibilities.

start

male female

under 1.75 m
1.75 m or taller

blue nonblue
eyes eyes

blonde hair brown hair

(Jim Perry) (Dave Morton)

5. On a separate sheet of paper, construct a branch diagram for your group using the characteristics in
Table 18-1 and then condense it into the dichotomous key that follows. When you have finished, exchange
your key with that of an individual in another group. Key out the individuals in the other group without
speaking until you believe you know the name of the individual you are examining. Ask that individual if
you are correct. If not, go back to find out where you made a mistake, or possibly where the key was mis-
leading. (Depending on how you construct your key, you may need more or fewer lines than have been
provided.)

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 247

 TABLE 18-1 Characteristics of Students

Student (name) Sex (m/f) Height (m) Eye Color Hair Color Shoe Size

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Key to Students in Group _______________________

1a.

1b.

2a.

2b.

3a.

3b.

4a.

4b.

5a.

5b.

6a.

6b.

7a.

7b.

8a.

8b.

18.2 Using a Taxonomic Key

A. Some Microscopic Members of the Freshwater Environment (About 30 min.)

Suppose you want to identify the specimens in some pond water. The easiest way is to key them out with a
dichotomous key, now that you know how to use one. In this section, you will do just that.

248 EXERCISE 18
M AT E R I A L S
Per student: Per student group (table):
■ compound microscope ■ cultures of freshwater organisms
■ microscope slide ■ 1 disposable plastic pipet per culture

■ coverslip ■ methylcellulose in dropping bottle

■ dissecting needle

PROCEDURE
1. Obtain a clean glass microscope slide and clean coverslip.
2. Using a disposable plastic pipet or dissecting needle, withdraw a small amount of the culture provided.
3. Place one drop of the culture on the center of the slide.
4. Gently lower the coverslip onto the liquid.
5. Using your compound light microscope, observe your wet mount. Focus first with the low-power objec-
tive and then with the medium or high-dry objective, depending on the size of the organism in the field of
view.
6. Concentrate your observation on a single specimen, keying out the specimen using the Key to Selected
Freshwater Inhabitants that follows.
7. In the space provided, write the scientific name of each organism you identify. After each identification,
have your instructor verify your conclusion.
8. Clean and reuse your slide and coverslip after each identification.

Key to Selected Freshwater Inhabitants

1a. Filamentous organism consisting of green, chloroplast-bearing threads 2

1b. Organism consisting of a single cell or nonfilamentous colony 4

2a. Filament branched, each cell mostly filled with green chloroplast Cladophora

2b. Filament unbranched 3

3a. Each cell of filament containing 1 or 2 spiral-shaped green chloroplasts Spirogyra

3b. Each cell of filament containing 2 star-shaped green chloroplasts Zygnema

4a. Organism consisting of a single cell 5

4b. Organism composed of many cells aggregated into a colony 6

5a. Motile, teardrop-shaped or spherical organism Chlamydomonas

5b. Nonmotile, elongate cell on either end; clear, granule-containing regions at ends Closterium

6a. Colony a hollow round ball of more than 500 cells; new colonies may be present inside larger colony Volvox

6b. Colony consisting of less than 50 cells 7

7a. Organism composed of a number of tooth-shaped cells Pediastrum

7b. Colony a loose square or rectangle of 4–32 spherical cells Gonium

Organism 1 is _______________________
Organism 2 is _______________________
Organism 3 is _______________________
Organism 4 is _______________________
Organism 5 is _______________________
Organism 6 is _______________________
Organism 7 is _______________________
Organism 8 is _______________________

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 249

B. Common Trees and Shrubs (About 1 hour)

Suppose you want to identify the trees growing on your campus or in your yard at home. Without having an
expert present, you can now do that, because you know how to use a taxonomic key. But how can you be cer-
tain that you have keyed your specimen correctly?
Typically, scientists compare their tentative identifications against reference specimens—that is, preserved
organisms that have been identified by an expert taxonomist (a person who names and classifies organisms). If
you are identifying fishes or birds,
the reference specimen might be a
bottled or mounted specimen with
the name on it. In the case of plants,
reference specimens most frequently
take the form of herbarium mounts
(Figure 18-1) of the plants. An
herbarium (plural, herbaria) is a
repository, a museum of sorts, of
preserved plants. The taxonomist
flattens freshly collected specimens
in a plant press. They are then dried
and mounted on sheets of paper.
Herbarium labels are affixed to the
sheets, indicating the scientific
name of the plant, the person who
collected it, the location and date of
collection, and often pertinent infor-
mation about the habitat in which
the plant was found.
It is likely that your school has an
herbarium. If so, your instructor may
show you the collection. To some, this Label indicates
endeavor may seem boring, but name of specimen,
herbaria serve a critical function. The site and date of
collection, associ-

(Photo by J. W. Perry)
appearance or disappearance of
ated species at
plants from the landscape often gives
same site, name(s)
a very good indication of environ- of collector(s)
mental change. An herbarium
records the diversity of plants in the
area, at any point in history since the Figure 18-1 A typical herbarium mount.
start of the collection.

M AT E R I A L S
Per student group (table):
■ set of 8 tree twigs with leaves (fresh or herbarium specimens) or

■ trees and shrubs in leafy condition (for an outdoor lab)

PROCEDURE
Use the appropriate following key to identify the tree and shrub specimens that have been provided in the lab or
that you find on your campus. Refer to the Glossary to Accompany Tree Key (pages 256–257) and Figures 18-2
through 18-9 (pages 251–252) when you encounter an unfamiliar term. When you have finished keying a speci-
men, confirm your identification by checking the herbarium mounts or asking your instructor.

Note: Some descriptions within the key have more characteristics than your specimen will
exhibit. For example, the key may describe a fruit type when the specimen doesn’t have a fruit
on it. However, other specimen characteristics are described, and these should allow you to iden-
tify the specimen.

Note: The keys provided are for selected trees of your area. In nature, you will find many more
genera than can be identified by these keys.
Common names within parentheses follow the scientific name. A metric ruler is provided on page 252 for
use where measurements are required.

250 EXERCISE 18
 toothed margin

petiole

base (truncate)

node
axillary bud
base (cordate)
blade a toothed

base (acute)
tip (acute)
petiole
lobe
stem

axillary bud
b lobed
Figure 18-2 Structure of a typical plant (bean). Figure 18-3 Simple leaves.

axillary bud

petiole

axillary bud

node node

internode
leaflet (lateral)
rachis Figure 18-5 Simple leaves—alternating.

margin entire

leaflet (terminal)
spine (thorn)
Figure 18-4 Pinnately compound leaf. base (obtuse)
node axillary bud

Figure 18-6 Simple leaves—opposite.

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 251

 leaflet

axillary bud
petiole

node

a pith chambered b pith solid

Figure 18-7 Palmately compound leaf. Figure 18-8 Pith types.

wing

wing

a pome (apple, hawthorne) b schizocarps (maple) c samaras (ash) d nuts (oak)

e capsule (buckeye) f pods (pea) g drupe (cherry)

Figure 18-9 Fruit types.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

centimeters

252 EXERCISE 18
Key to Some Common Genera of Trees of the Midwestern and Eastern United States and Canada

1a. Leaves broad and flat; plants producing flowers and fruits (angiosperms) 2

1b. Leaves needlelike or scalelike; plants producing cones, but no flowers or fruits
(gymnosperms) 22

2a. Leaves compound 3

2b. Leaves simple 9

3a. Leaves alternate 4

3b. Leaves opposite 7

4a. Leaflets short and stubby, less than twice as long as broad; branches armed with
spines or thorns; fruit a beanlike pod 5

4b. Leaflets long and narrow, more than twice as long as broad; trunk and branches
unarmed; fruit a nut 6

5a. Leaflet margin without teeth; terminal leaflet present; small deciduous spines at
leaf base Robinia (black locust)

5b. Leaflet margin with fine teeth; terminal leaflet absent; large permanent thorns on
trunk and branches Gleditsia (honey locust)

6a. Leaflets usually numbering less than 11; pith of twigs solid Carya (hickory)

6b. Leaflets numbering 1 or more, pith of twigs divided into chambers Juglans (walnut, butternut)

7a. Leaflets pinnately arranged; fruit a light-winged samara 8

7b. Leaflets palmately arranged; fruit a heavy leathery spherical capsule Aesculus (buckeye)

8a. Leaflets numbering mostly 3–5; fruit a schizocarp with curved wings Acer (box elder)

8b. Leaflets numbering mostly more than 5; samaras borne singly, with straight wings Fraxinus (ash)

9a. Leaves alternate 10

9b. Leaves opposite 21

10a. Leaves very narrow, at least 3 times as long as broad; axillary buds flattened
against stem Salix (willow)

10b. Leaves broader, less than 3 times as long as broad 11

11a. Leaf margin without small, regular teeth 12

11b. Leaf margin with small, regular teeth 13

12a. Fruit a pod with downy seeds; leaf blade obtuse at base; petioles flattened,
or if rounded, bark smooth Populus (poplar, popple, aspen)

12b. Fruit an acorn; leaf blade acute at the base; petioles rounded; bark rough Quercus (oaks)

13a. Leaves (at least some of them) with lobes or other indentations in addition to
small, regular teeth 14

13b. Leaves without lobes or other indentations except for small, regular teeth 16

14a. Lobes asymmetrical, leaves often mitten-shaped Morus (mulberry)

14b. Lobes or other indentations fairly symmetrical 15

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 253

 15a. Branches thorny (armed); fruit a small applelike pome Crataegus (hawthorne)

15b. Branches unarmed 17

16a. Bark smooth and waxy, often separating into thin layers; leaf base symmetrical Betula (birch)

16b. Bark rough and furrowed, leaf base asymmetrical Ulmus (elm)

17a. Leaf base asymmetrical, strongly heart-shaped, at least on one side Tilia (basswood or linden)

17b. Leaf base acute, truncate, or slightly cordate 18

18a. Leaf base asymmetrical; bark on older stems (trunk) often warty Celtis (hackberry)

18b. Leaf base symmetrical 19

19a. Leaf blade usually about twice as long as broad, generally acute at the base;
fruit fleshy 20

19b. Leaf not much longer than broad, generally truncate at base; fruit a dry pod Populus (poplar, popple, aspen)

20a. Leaf tapering to a pointed tip, glandular at base Prunus (cherry)

20b. Leaf spoon-shaped with a rounded tip, no glands at base Crataegus (hawthorne)

21a. Leaf margins with lobes and points, fruit a schizocarp Acer (maple)

21b. Leaf margins without lobes or points; fruit a long capsule Catalpa (catalpa)

22a. Leaves needlelike, with 2 or more needles in a cluster 23

22b. Leaves needlelike or scalelike, occurring singly 24

23a. Leaves more than 5 in a cluster, soft, deciduous, borne at the ends of
conspicuous stubby branches Larix (larch, tamarack)

23b. Leaves 2–5 in a cluster Pinus (pines)

24a. Leaves soft, not sharp to the touch 25

24b. Leaves stiff or sharp and often unpleasant to touch 27

25a. Leaves about 0.2 cm and scalelike, overlapping Thuja (white cedar, arbor vitae)

25b. Leaves needlelike, appear to form two ranks on twig 26

26a. Leaves with distinct petioles, 0.8–1.5 cm long; twigs rough; female cones
drooping from branches Tsuga (hemlock)

26b. Leaves without distinct petioles, 1–3 cm long; twigs smooth; female cones
erect on branches Abies (firs)

27a. Leaves appear triangular-shaped, about 0.5 cm, and tightly pressed to twig;
cone blue, berrylike Juniperus (juniper, Eastern red cedar)

27b. Leaves elongated and needlelike 28

28a. Tree; leaves 4-sided, protrude stiffly from twig; female cones droop from branch Picea (spruces)

28b. Shrub; leaves flattened, pressed close to twig at base; seed partially covered
by a fleshy coat, usually red Taxus (yew)

254 EXERCISE 18
Key to Some Common Genera of Trees of the Pacific Region of the United States and Canada

1a. Leaves broad and flat; plants producing flowers and fruits (angiosperms) 2

1b. Leaves needlelike or scalelike; plants producing cones, but

no flowers or fruits (gymnosperms) 15

2a. Leaves compound 3

2b. Leaves simple 6

3a. Leaves pinnately arranged 4

3b. Leaves palmately arranged 5

4a. Leaflets number 7, fruit a samara Fraxinus (ash)

4b. Leaflets 15–17, fruit a nut Juglans (walnut)

5a. Leaflets numbering 3, lobed; fruit a schizocarp Acer (box elder)

5b. Leaflets numbering more than 3; fruit a smooth or spiny capsule Aesculus (buckeye)

6a. Three or more equal-sized veins branching from leaf base 7

6b. Leaf with single large central vein with other main veins branching from the central vein 9

7a. Leaves opposite; fruit a schizocarp Acer (maple)

7b. Leaves alternate 8

8a. Leaves nearly round in outline; fruit a pod Cercis (redbud)

8b. Leaves deeply lobed, very hairy beneath; fruit consisting of an aggregation of many
1-seeded nutlets surrounded by long hairs Platanus (sycamore)

9a. Leaf lobed; fruit a nut Quercus (oak)

9b. Leaf not lobed 10

10a. Leaves opposite; fruit a drupe; halves of leaf remain attached by “threads” after
blade has been creased and broken Cornus (dogwood)

10b. Leaves alternate 11

11a. Upon crushing, blade gives off strong, penetrating odor Eucalyptus (eucalyptus)

11b. Blade not strongly odiferous upon crushing 12

12a. Branch bark smooth, conspicuously red-brown; fruit a red ororange berry Arbutus (madrone)

12b. Branch rough, not colored red-brown 13

13a. Undersurface of leaves golden-yellow; fruit a spiny, husked nut Catanopsis (golden chinquapin)

13b. Leaves green beneath 14

14a. Petiole hairy; leathery blade with a stubby spine at end of each main vein;
fruit a nut Lithocarpus (tanoak)

14b. Petiole and leaf lacking numerous hairs, leaves long and narrow, more
than twice as long as wide Salix (willow)

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 255

 15a. Leaves needlelike 16

15b. Leaves scalelike 23

16a. Leaves needlelike, with 2 or more needles in a cluster 17

16b. Leaves needlelike, occurring singly 18

17a. Needles 2–5 in a cluster Pinus (pine)

17b. Needles 6 or more per cluster, soft, deciduous, borne at

the ends of stubby, conspicuous branches Larix (larch)

18a. Round scars on twigs where old needles have fallen off; twigs smooth;
needles soft to the grasp; cones pointing upward with reference to stem Abies (fir)

18b. Twigs rough, with old needle petioles remaining 19

19a. Needles angled, stiff, sharp, pointed, unpleasant to grasp; cones hanging
downward from branch Picea (spruce)

19b. Needles soft, not sharp when grasped 20

20a. Needles round in cross section, can be rolled easily between thumb and
index finger; needles less than 1.3 cm long; cones small, less than 1.5 cm Tsuga (hemlock)

20b. Needles too flat to be rolled easily 21

21a. Tips of needles blunt or rounded, undersurface with 2 white bands; cones
with long, conspicuous, 3-lobed bracts Pseudotsuga (Douglas fir)

21b. Tips of needles pointed 22

22a. Tops of needles grooved; woody seed cones broadly oblong in outline Sequoia (redwood)

22b. Tops of needles with ridges; lacking in cones, instead having a red, fleshy,
cuplike seed covering Taxus (yew)

23a. Twig ends appear as if jointed Calocedrus (incense cedar)

23b. Tips of branches flattened, not jointed in appearance 24

24a. Leaves glossy and fragrant Thuja (Western red cedar)

24b. Leaves awl-shaped, arranged spirally on twig Sequoiadendron (giant sequoia)

Glossary to Tree Key

■ Acorn—The fruit of an oak, consisting of a nut and its basally attached cup (Fig. 18-9d)
■ Acute—Sharp-pointed (Fig. 18-2)
■ Alternate—Describing the arrangement of leaves or other structures that occur singly at successive nodes or
levels; not opposite or whorled (Fig. 18-5)
■ Angiosperm—A flowering seed plant (e.g., bean plant, maple tree, grass)
■ Armed—Possessing thorns or spines
■ Asymmetrical—Not symmetrical
■ Axil—The upper angle between a branch or leaf and the stem from which it grows
■ Axillary bud—A bud occurring in the axil of a leaf (Figs. 18-3 through 18-7)
■ Basal—At the base
■ Blade—The expanded, more or less flat portion of a leaf (Fig. 18-2)
■ Bract—A much reduced leaf
■ Capsule—A dry fruit that splits open at maturity (e.g., buckeye; Fig. 18-9e)

256 EXERCISE 18
■ Compound leaf—Blade composed of 2 or more separate parts (leaflets) (Figs. 18-4, 18-7)
■ Cordate—Heart-shaped (Fig. 18-2)
■ Deciduous—Falling off at the end of a functional period (such as a growing season)
■ Drupe—Fleshy fruit containing a single hard stone that encloses the seed (e.g., cherry, peach, or dogwood;
Fig. 18-9g)
■ Fruit—A ripened ovary, in some cases with associated floral parts (Figs. 18-9a–g)
■ Glandular—Bearing secretory structures (glands)
■ Gymnosperm—Seed plant lacking flowers and fruits (e.g., pine tree)
■ Lateral—On or at the side (Fig. 18-4)
■ Leaflet—One of the divisions of the blade of a compound leaf (Figs. 18-4, 18-7)
■ Lobed—Separated by indentations (sinuses) into segments (lobes) larger than teeth (Fig. 18-3b)
■ Node—Region on a stem where leaves or branches arise (Figs. 18-2 through 18-7)
■ Nut—A hard, 1-seeded fruit that does not split open at maturity (e.g., acorn; Fig. 18-9d)
■ Obtuse—Blunt (Fig. 18-6)
■ Opposite—Describing the arrangement of leaves of other structures that occur 2 at a node, each separated
from the other by half the circumference of the axis (Fig. 18-6)
■ Palmately compound—With leaflets all arising at apex of petiole (Fig. 18-7)
■ Petiole—Stalk of a leaf (Figs. 18-2, 18-3, 18-4, 18-7)
■ Pinnately compound—A leaf constructed somewhat like a feather, with the leaflets arranged on both sides of
the rachis (Fig. 18-4)
■ Pith—Internally, the centermost region of a stem (Figs. 18-8a, b)
■ Pod—A dehiscent, dry fruit; a rather general term sometimes used when no other more specific term is
applicable (Fig. 18-9f)
■ Pome—Fleshy fruit containing several seeds (e.g., apple or pear; Fig. 18-9a)
■ Rachis—Central axis of a pinnately compound leaf (Fig. 18-4)
■ Samara—Winged, 1-seeded, dry fruit (e.g., ash fruits; Fig. 18-9c)
■ Schizocarp—Dry fruit that splits at maturity into two 1-seeded halves (Fig. 18-9b)
■ Simple leaf—One with a single blade, not divided into leaflets (Figs. 18-3, 18-5, 18-6)
■ Spine—Strong, stiff, sharp-pointed outgrowth on a stem or other organ (Fig. 18-6)
■ Symmetrical—Capable of being divided longitudinally into similar halves
■ Terminal—Last in a series (Fig. 18-4)
■ Thorn—Sharp, woody, spinelike outgrowth from the wood of a stem; usually a reduced, modified branch
■ Tooth—Small, sharp-pointed marginal lobe of a leaf (Fig. 18-3a)
■ Truncate—Cut off squarely at end (Fig. 18-3a)
■ Unarmed—Without thorns or spines
■ Whorl—A group of 3 or more leaves or other structures at a node

18.3 What Species Is Your Christmas Tree? (About 20 min.)

Each year millions of “evergreen” trees become the center of attraction in human dwellings during the
Christmas season. The process of selecting the all-important tree is the same whether you reside in the city
where you buy your tree from a commercial grower, or whether you cut one off your “back forty.” You ponder
and evaluate each specimen until, with the utmost confidence, you bring home that perfect tree. Now that you
have it, just what kind of tree stands in your home, looking somewhat like a cross between Old Glory and the
Sistine Chapel? This key contains most of the trees that are used as Christmas trees; other gymnosperm trees are
included, too. The common “Christmas trees” have an asterisk after their scientific name. Note that this key,
unlike those in the preceding sections, indicates actual species designations.

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 257

 1a. Tree fragrant, boughs having supported (on clear moonlit nights)
masses of glistening snow on their green needles; tree a product of nature 2

1b. Tree not really a tree but rather a product of a cold and insensitive
society; tree never giving life and never having life 17

2a. Leaves persistent and green throughout the winter, needlelike,

awl-shaped, or scalelike 3

2b. Leaves deciduous; for this reason not a desirable Christmas tree 4

3a. Leaves in clusters of 2–5, their bases within a sheath 5

3b. Leaves borne singly, not in clusters 9

4a. Cones 1.25–1.8 cm long, 12–15 scales making up cone Larix laricina (tamarack)

4b. Cones 1.8–3.5 cm long, 40–50 scales comprising cone Larix decidua (larch)

5a. Leaves 5 in a cluster, cones 10–25 cm long Pinus strobus* (white pine)

5b. Leaves 2 in a cluster, cones less than 10 cm long 6

6a. Leaves 2.5–7.5 cm long 7

6b. Leaves 7.5–15 cm long 8

7a. Leaves with a bluish cast; cones with a stout stalk, pointing
away from the tip of the branch; bark orange in the upper part
of the tree Pinus sylvestris* (scotch pine)

7b. Leaves 1.25–3.75 cm long; cones stalkless, pointing forward

toward the tip of branch Pinus banksiana (jack pine)

8a. Leaves slender, shiny; bark of trunk red-brown; cones

5–7.5 cm long; scales of cones without any spine at tip Pinus resinosa* (red pine)

8b. Leaves thickened, dull; bark of trunk gray to nearly black;

cones 5 to 7.5 cm long; scales of cone armed with short spine
at tip Pinus nigra* (Austrian pine)

9a. Leaves scalelike or awl-shaped 10

9b. Leaves needlelike 11

10a. Twigs flattened, leaves all of one kind, scalelike, extending

down the twig below the point of attachment Thuja occidentalis (white cedar, arbor vitae)

10b. Twigs more or less circular in cross section; leaves of

2 kinds, either scalelike or awl-shaped, often both on
same branch, not extending down the twig; coneless
but may have a blue berrylike structure Juniperus virginiana (red cedar)

11a. Leaves with petioles 12

11b. Leaves lacking petioles, leaf tip notched, needles longer

than 1.25 cm Abies balsamea* (balsam fir)

12a. Leaves angular, 4-sided in cross section, harsh to the

touch; petiole adheres to twig 13

12b. Leaves flattened 15

13a. Leaves 3–10 mm long, blunt-pointed; twigs rusty and hairy Picea mariana* (black spruce)

13b. Leaves 2 cm long, sharp-pointed; twigs smooth 14

258 EXERCISE 18
14a. Cones 2.5–5 cm long; leaves ill-scented when bruised or
broken; smaller branches mostly horizontal Picea glauca* (white spruce)

14b. Cones 7.5–15 cm long; scales comprising cone with

finely toothed markings; leaves not ill-scented when
bruised or broken; smaller branches drooping Picea abies* (Norway spruce)

15a. Leaves pointed, over 1.25 cm long; red fleshy, berrylike

structures present 16

15b. Leaves rounded at tip, less than 1.25 cm long, with

2 white lines on underside Tsuga canadensis (hemlock)

16a. Leaves 2–2.5 cm long, dull dark green on top, with

2 broad yellow bands on undersurface; petiole yellowish Taxus cuspidata (Japanese yew)

16b. Leaves 1.25–2 cm long, without yellow bands

on underside Taxus canadensis (American yew)

17a. Tree a glittering mass of structural aluminum, sometimes

illuminated by multicolored floodlights Aluminous ersatzenbaum* (aluminum substitute)

17b. Tree green, produced with petroleum products,

increasing our dependence upon oil; used year
after year; exactly like all others of its manufacture Plasticus perfectus* (plastic substitute)

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 259

 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

_____ 1. The name “human” is an example of a _____ 6. Which scientific name for the wolf is
(a) common name presented correctly?
(b) scientific name (a) Canis lupus
(c) binomial (b) canis lupus
(d) polynomial (c) Canis lupus
(d) Canis Lupus
_____ 2. Current scientific thought places
organisms in one of ___ kingdoms. _____ 7. A road that dichotomizes is
(a) two (a) an intersection of two crossroads
(b) four (b) a road that forks into two roads
(c) five (c) a road that has numerous entrances
(d) six and exits
(d) a road that leads nowhere
_____ 3. The scientific name for the ruffed grouse
is Bonasa umbellus. Bonasa is _____ 8. Most scientific names are derived from
(a) the family name (a) English
(b) the genus (b) Latin
(c) the specific epithet (c) Italian
(d) all of the above (d) French

_____ 4. A binomial is always a _____ 9. One objection to common names is that

(a) genus (a) many organisms may have the same
(b) specific epithet common name
(c) scientific name (b) many common names may exist for
(d) two-part name the same organism
(c) the common name may not be
_____ 5. The science of classifying and naming familiar to an individual not
organisms is known as speaking the language of the
(a) taxonomy common name
(b) phylogeny (d) all of the above are true
(c) morphology
(d) physiology _____ 10. Phylogeny is the apparent
(a) name of an organism
(b) ancestry of an organism
(c) nomenclature
(d) dichotomy of a system of
classification

260 EXERCISE 18
Name _________________________________________ Section Number ______________________________

EXERCISE 18

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms

POST-LAB QUESTIONS

Introduction
1. If you were to use a binomial system to identify the members of your family (mother, father, sisters, broth-
ers), how would you write their names so that your system would most closely approximate that used to
designate species?

2. Describe several advantages of using scientific names instead of common names.

3. Based on the following classification scheme, which two organisms are most closely phylogenetically
related? Why?

Organism 1 Organism 2 Organism 3 Organism 4

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

Phylum Arthopoda Arthropoda Arthropoda Arthropoda

Class Insecta Insecta Insecta Insecta

Order Coleoptera Coleoptera Coleoptera Coleoptera

Genus Caulophilus Sitophilus Latheticus Sitophilus

Specific epithet oryzae oryzae oryzae zeamaize

Common name Broadnosed grain Rice weevil Longheaded flour Maize weevil
weevil beetle

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 261

18.2 Using a Taxonomic Key
Consider the drawing of plants A and B in answering questions 4–6.

fruit
cone
plant A plant B

4. Using the taxonomic key in the exercise, identify the two plants as either angiosperms or gymnosperms.
Plant A is a (an) ____________________________.
Plant B is a (an) ____________________________.
5. To what genus does plant A belong? What is its common name?
genus: ______________________________________________________________________________
common name: ______________________________________________________________________________
6. To what genus does plant B belong? What is its common name?
genus: ______________________________________________________________________________
common name: ______________________________________________________________________________

Consider the drawing of plants C and D in answering questions 7–9.

plant C plant D

262 EXERCISE 18
 7. As completely as possible, describe the leaf of plant C.

8. To what genus does plant C belong? What is its common name?

genus: _________________________________________
common name: _________________________________________
9. Using the taxonomic key in the exercise, identify the genus of the organism below.

(Photo by J. W. Perry.)
genus: _________________________________________

Food for Thought

10. If you owned a large, varied music collection, how might you devise a key to keep track of all your differ-
ent kinds of music?

Taxonomy: Classifying and Naming Organisms 263