Tarlac State University

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

COURSE: MATH 1F
Mathematics in the Modern World

DEVELOPERS AND THEIR BACKGROUND: MATHEMATICS FACULTY

Department of Mathematics
College of Science

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course deals with the nature of

mathematics, appreciation of its practical,
intellectual, and aesthetic dimensions, and
application of mathematical tools in daily life.

COURSE OUTLINE:

Part 1. The Nature of Mathematics

Chapter 1. Mathematics in our World

Core Idea: Mathematics is a useful way to think about
nature and our world.

Chapter 2. Mathematical Language and Symbols

Core Idea: Like any language, mathematics has its own
symbols, syntax and rules.

Chapter 3. Problem Solving and Reasoning

Core Idea: Mathematics is not just about numbers,
much of it is problem solving and reasoning.

Part 2. Mathematics as a Tool

Chapter 4. Data Management

Core Idea: Statistical tools derived from mathematics
are useful in processing and managing numerical data in
order to describe a phenomenon and predict values.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Chapter I
Mathematics in our World
After the students have gone through Chapter I, Mathematics in our World, they should
be able to:

1. Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life

2. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in our world
3. Argue about the nature of mathematics, what is, how it is expressed, represented and
used, and
4. Express appreciation of mathematics as a human endeavor

Mathematics is the study of the relationships among numbers, quantities and shapes. It
includes arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, geometry, statistics and calculus. Mathematics
nurtures human characteristics like power of creativity, reasoning, critical thinking, spatial
thinking and others. It provides the opportunity to solve both simple and complex problems
in many real-world contexts using a variety of strategies. Mathematics is a universal way to
make sense of the world and to communicate understanding of concepts and rules using the
mathematical symbols, signs, proofs, language and conventions.

Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in our world. The geometry of most
patterns in nature can be associated, either directly or indirectly, mathematical numbers. The
limit and extent to which natural patterns adhere to mathematical series and numbers are
amazing. Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in the world. It
helps control nature and occurrences in the world for the good of mankind. Because of its
numerous applications, mathematics becomes indispensable.

Mathematics, being a science of patterns, helps students to utilize, recognize and

generalize patterns that exist in numbers, in shapes and in the world around them. Students
with such skills are better problem solvers, and have a better sense and appreciation of nature
and the world. Hence, they should have opportunities to analyze, synthesize and create a
variety of patterns and to use pattern-based thinking to understand and represent
mathematical and other real-world phenomena. These explorations present unlimited
opportunities for problem-solving, verifying generalizations and building mathematical and
scientific competence.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

A. Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

Patterns in nature are visible regularities found in the natural world. These patterns
persist in different contexts and can be modelled mathematically. Natural patterns may
consist of spirals, symmetries, mosaics, stripes, spots, etc. The world seems to make several
distinct patterns, evolving various complex steps of formation but a closer and deeper study
reveals that these patterns have many similarities and resemblances.

Plato, Pythagoras and Empedocles and other early Greek philosophers studied patterns
to explain order in nature which lead to the modern understanding of visible patterns.

In the 19th century, Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films, leading him to
formulate the concept of a minimal surface. German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted
hundreds of marine organisms to emphasize their symmetry. Scottish biologist D’Arcy
Thompson pioneered the study of growth patterns in both plants and animals, showing the
simple equations could explain spiral growth. In the 20th century, British mathematician Alan
Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots and
stripes. Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and French American mathematician Benoit
Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns
(Patterns in Nature, 2017).

Snowflakes Honeycomb Tiger’s stripes Sunflower

Figure 1.1 Patterns in nature

W. Gary Smith adopts eight patterns in his landscapes work, namely: scattered, fractured,
mosaic, naturalistic drift, serpentine, spiral, radial and dendritic. These patterns occur in
plants, animals, rock formations, river flow, stars or in human creations (Goral, 2017).

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Spiral Radial

Scattered Dendritic

Figure 1.2. Some patterns adopted in landscape designs

Numbers are everywhere in nature. Mathematicians noticed that numbers appear in

many different patterns in nature: bird’s two wings, clover’s three leaflets, deer’s four hooves,
buttercup’s five petals, insect’s six legs, rainbow’s seven colors, octopus’ eight arms and many
others. As men of science studied numbers, they also realized their significance in everyday
life.

Clover Buttercup Insect Octopus

Figure 1.3. Samples of numbers in nature

B. The Fibonacci Sequence

Leonardo Pisano Bogollo lived between 1170 and 1250 in Italy. His nickname, “Fibonacci”
roughly means “Son of Bonacci” (Fibonacci Sequence, 2016).

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Aside from being famous for the Fibonacci Sequence, he also helped spread Hindu Arabic
numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) through Europe in place of Roman numerals (I, II, III,
IV, V, etc). Fibonacci Day is November 23, as it has the digits “1, 1, 2, 3,…” fascinated
mathematicians, artists, designers and scientists for centuries. Also recognized as the Golden
Ratio, the Fibonacci sequence goes like this:

0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 …

Each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers which precedes it.

The ratio of any two successive Fibonacci numbers is very close to the Golden Ratio, and
referred to and represented as phi () which is approximately equal to 1.618034… The bigger
the pair of Fibonacci numbers considered, the closer is the approximation.

A B B/A = 
2 3 1.5
3 5 1.66666666667
5 8 1.6
8 13 1.625
--- --- ---
144 233 1.6180555556
233 377 1.6180257511
--- --- ---
75025 121393 1.6180339887
121393 196418 1.6180339888
196418 317811 1.6180339887

C. Patterns and Regularities in the World as Organized by Mathematics

Patterns, relationships, and functions constitute a unifying theme of mathematics. So

many of the beautiful phenomena observed in nature can be described in mathematical
terms. Scientific and mathematical principles undergird these patterns as in rainbows, water
waves, cloud formations, tree branching patterns, mud-crack patterns, butterfly markings,
leopard spots and tiger stripes. Waves on the surface of puddles, ponds, lakes, or oceans are
governed by mathematical relationships between their speed, their wavelength, and the
depth of the water. Exploring similarities such as those between a snail shell and the swirling
stars of a galaxy, or the branches of a tree and those of a river network conveys the majestic
beauty and richness of natural pattern formation, all organized by mathematics.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Rainbow Butterflies

Figure 1.4. Spectacular patterns

The world consists of orders (the regular cycles of days and nights, the recurrence of
seasons, alternate sunrise and sunset, etc.) and symmetry (the fractal pattern in a Romanesco
broccoli, spiral nautilus shell, bilateral peacock’s tail, circular spider webs, etc.) from which
similarity, predictability and regularity in nature and the world consequently exist.

Romanesco broccoli Nautilus shell

Peacock tail Spider web

Figure 1.5. Symmetrical patterns

The concept of symmetry fascinates philosophers, astronomers, mathematicians, artists,

architects and physicists. The mathematics behind symmetry seems to permeate in most of
the things around us.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

The motion of a pendulum, the reflection in a plane mirror, the motion of a falling object
and the action-reaction pair of forces are all guided and organized by mathematics. They
exhibit regularities and symmetry in motion and behavior according to mathematical laws.

For example, the mathematics of pendulum is quite complicated but harmonic. Its period
or the time it takes to swing back to its original position is related to its length, but the
relationship is not linear. A pendulum that is suspended twice as long as another pendulum
does not simply have a period that is also twice as long but mathematics can explicate it. The
patterns and regularities in the swinging motion of a pendulum can be explained by
mathematics.

How an image is formed by an object in a plane mirror is fascinating – the mage which has
exactly the same size as the object and is far behind the mirror as the object is distant from
the mirror. This regularity in size and distance can be explained mathematically by the law of
reflection.

A free-falling object is an object that is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any
object that is moving and being acted upon only be the force of gravity is said to be in a state
of free fall. Its motion obeys the equations of uniformly accelerated vertical motion.

In every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The
amount of the force on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The
direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second
object. Forces always come in pairs – equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.

Pendulum Image in plane mirror

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Falling object Action-reaction pair

Figure 1.6. Regularities in the world organized by mathematics

D. Phenomena in the World as Predicted by Mathematics

There are many patterns found in nature, including numerical patterns (such as Fibonacci
numbers in sunflowers) and shape patterns (such as in snowflakes). Nature has symmetries
at every scale, from elementary particles and atoms right up to galaxies. The role of
mathematics is to describe symmetry-breaking processes in order to explain in a unified way
the act that the patterns seen in sand dunes and zebras’ stripes are caused by processes
which, while physically different, are mathematically very similar. Mathematics solves puzzles
in nature (such as why planets move in the way that they do), describes changing quantities
via calculus, modelling change (such as the evolution of the eye), and predicts and controls
physical systems. Mathematics is not just about numbers, but also about operations (also
known as functions or transformations), about the logical relationships between facts, and
about proof. Drops, dynamics and daisies are three examples of “simplicity emerging from
complexity”. The formation of water droplets, population dynamics, and Fibonacci numbers
crop up in the formation of daisy petals (Stewart as cited by Cremona, 1997).

Mathematics is an extraordinary exercise of the human mind in abstracting the results

observation to find similarities and differences between phenomena. These relations
between phenomena make it possible to organize the natural world into discrete set of
objects that can be studied using similar mathematical objects and methods. Nature, as an
object of mathematical study, bridges the gap between the concreteness of the everyday
environment and the abstraction of mathematics. Mathematics, in turn, allows us to
summarize, formalize, interpolate, and extrapolate from observations that have been
recorded (Knickerbocker, 2016).

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Sand dunes Zebra stripes

Figure 1.7. Physically different but mathematically similar patterns

E. Nature and Occurrences in the World as Controlled by Mathematics for Human Ends

Mathematics relies on both logic and creativity, and it is pursued both for a variety of
practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest. For some people, and not only professional
mathematicians, the essence of mathematics lies in its beauty and its intellectual challenge.
For others, including many scientists and engineers, the chief value of mathematics is how it
applies to their own work. Because mathematics plays such a central role in modern culture,
some basic understanding of the nature of mathematics is requisite for scientific endeavor,
comprehend the nature of mathematical thinking, and become familiar with key
mathematical ideas and skills. (Chapter 2: The Nature of Mathematics – Science for all
Americans, 1990).

The application of mathematics to medicine is an exciting and novel area of research

within the discipline of applied mathematics. Nurses routinely use addition, fractions, ratios
and algebraic equations each workday to deliver the right amount of medication to their
patients or monitor changes in their health. Nursing schools often test new students on their
mathematical ability, requiring a remedial course in medical math, if necessary (Boyd, 2017).
In dealing with and setting state-of-the-art medical facilities, nurses and other health
practitioners must have sharp mathematical skills.

A component in which mathematics contributes significantly to health and medicine

concerns life expectancy. Life expectancy summarizes the remaining years of life that a person
is expected to live. This varies (sometime drastically) across the world and even among
different ethnic and gender groups within the same country and is due to the numerous
factors that can positively or negatively affect the life people lead. There are numerous
sources for exploring life expectancy. Life expectancy is calculated through data acquired in a
population census (Life expectancy, n.d.).

Political scientists use math and statistics to predict the behavior of group of people. They
study the population using many different applications of math, including computer science,
database management, statistics and economics.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Analysis and study in economics help explain the interdependent relation between
different variables. Economists try to explain what causes rise in prices or unemployment or
inflation. Mathematical functions are modes through which these real-life phenomena are
made more understandable and logical (Riverfish24, 2016). As students advance their study
of economics, they realize that there is more to it than just theories. There is no better way
of explaining the concepts of prices, quantity of goods sold and costs without the use of
mathematics.

F.Applications of Mathematics in the World

Mathematics has everyday applications. It is a universal language in different places, in

different times, in different settings and different circumstances. The physical world seems to
consist of countable things and any infinity encountered is a result of extending a counting
process. But of course, mathematics is not just counting. When one buys a product, follow a
recipe, or decorate his room, he uses math principles. People employ these principles for
thousands of years, across countries and continents.

Farming and gardening also provide rich mathematical opportunities. Within the broad
concept of farming, there are two very important elements: time and money. At the root of
both of these is mathematics. Mathematics has enabled farming to be more economically
efficient and has increased productivity. Farmers use mathematics as a system of organization
to effectively utilize their time and manage their money. Farmers use mathematics as a
system of organization to effectively utilize their time and manage their money. Farmers use
numbers every day for a variety of tasks, from measuring and weighing to land marking. The
math used in farming is sometimes unnoticed. The calculations and formulas require
mathematical knowledge and farmers use their problem solving and money management
abilities daily. Basic geometry, proportions, multiplication and measurement skills are used
every day by farmers. Advancements in farming mean faster machinery and less time.
Technology has allowed farmers to increase the size of their operation without increasing
manpower. Today, new developments and inventions are even more considerable. Small
family farms are becoming larger, with fewer people. And, as technology increases, so does a
farmer’s use for mathematics. (Glydon, n.d.)

Planning a market list and grocery shopping requires math knowledge, starting from the
fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division to estimation
and percentages: calculating price per unit, figuring percentage discounts, comparing unit and
bulk price of items, estimating total price, etc. Today’s trends like using credit card to pay, or
ATM debit or electronic banking are all applications of mathematics.

Anywhere in the house, there is mathematics; e.g. symmetric arrangement of furniture,

wall decorations and frames, wine bottles in the bar, plant pots in the inner garden and even

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

restroom fixtures. Working in the kitchen requires mathematical knowledge: measuring

ingredients, calculating cooking time, making ratios and proportions in baking, etc.

Long and short travels involve math in various ways: fuel required based on distance, total
expenses or toll fees, tire pressure check, time allowance for the trip, short-cut routes
alternatives, road map reading, speed limits and others.

A contractor, or even a construction worker, knows that building anything and creating
something requires a broad range of mathematics. Making accurate, measurements of
lengths, widths, and angles; projecting detailed material estimate, getting the best value of
available resources, etc. are obvious applications of mathematics.

The art of applying mathematics to complex real-world problems is called engineering

mathematics. It combines mathematical theory, practical engineering and scientific
computing to address the fast-changing technology. Engineering mathematics can be found
in an extraordinarily wide range of careers, from designing next generation high-end cars to
inventing robotics and automatic devices.

Many experts agree that without strong math skills, people tend to invest, save, or spend
money based on their emotions. To add to this dilemma, those individuals with poor math
fundamentals typically make greater financial mistakes like underestimating how quickly
interest accumulates. A student who thoroughly grasps the concepts of exponential growth
and compound interest will be more inclined to better manage debt (Yurchuk, 2016).

Time is everybody’s most valuable asset. Without good planning, the day can slip idly and
tasks and duties accrue. In a swift changing world, creating and following schedule prove
beneficial, but it takes more mathematical skills than simply using a clock and calendar to
manage time well and be on top of others.

Though some of the more abstract mathematical concepts seldom come into play, the
essential skills developed in basic math lessons resonate throughout a student’s lifetime and
often resurface to help solve various problems in real-life situations in the workplace and in
the world.

Generalizations

1. Many patterns and occurrences exist in nature, in our world and in our life.
Mathematics helps make sense of these patterns and occurrences.
2. Mathematics is a tool to quantify, organize and control the world, predict
phenomena and make life easier for us.

ACTIVITY 1

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

View https://vimeo.com/9953368
Nature by Numbers
(Short movie inspired on numbers, geometry and nature by Cristobal Vila)

Instruction: Show your appreciation of this movie inspired on numbers, geometry and
nature by writing an essay to answer the question. What did you learn in this video? (20
points)

ACTIVITY 2
View https://www.goldennumber.net/spirals/
Spirals and the Golden Ratio
By Gary Meisner

Instruction: Show your appreciation of this post inspired on numbers, geometry and nature
by writing an essay to answer the question: What did you learn in this article? (20 points)

ASSESSMENT 1

Instruction: Answer the following questions in 3 to 5 sentences only (5 points each):

1. What new ideas about mathematics did you learn?

2. What is it about mathematics that might have changed your thoughts about it?
3. How useful is mathematics to humankind?

ASSESSMENT 2

Instruction: Prepare a two-page synthesis paper focusing on one of the following aspects of
mathematics (20 points):

1. Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.

2. Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in the world.
3. Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for the good of
mankind.
4. Mathematics has numerous applications in the world, making it indispensable.

REFERENCES:

Beginning Mathematics/What is Mathematics (2014). In Wikibooks. Retrieved 27 July 2017

from
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Beginning_Mathematics/What_is_Mathematics%3F

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Boyd, J.L. (2017). How Do Nurses Use Math in Their Jobs? Retrieved 10 June 2017 from
http://work.chron.com/nurses-use-math-jobs-10475.html
The Nature of Mathematics. Chapter 2. (2017). Project2061 Organization. Retrieved 12 June
2017 from http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap2.htm
Freiberger, M. (2011). Maths behind the rainbow. In Plus Magazine. Retrieved 20 July 2017
from https://plus.maths.org/content/rainbows
Goral (2017). 8 Patterns of Nature – Talk by Gary Smith. RHS/GCA Fellowship Experience.
Patterns in Nature (2017). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 13 June 2017 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
Reyes, J.L. et. al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Sucat, Muntinlupa City: Panday-
Lahi Publishing House, Inc.
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/onpolitics/elections/2000/results/whitehouse/. Yurchuk,
G. (2016). 6 Everyday Examples of Math in the Real World. Retrieved 12 June 2017
from https://www.thinkthroughmath.com/math-real-lie-examples/

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Chapter II
Mathematical Language and Symbols
After the students have gone through this chapter, they should be able to:

1. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics

2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly; and
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language

Language is the system of words, signs and symbols which people use to express ideas,
thoughts and feelings. Language consists of the words, their pronunciation and the methods
of combining them to be understood by a community. Language is a systematic means of
communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or
marks having understood meanings (Merriam-Webster, 2017).

Every science has its own lingo and word usage. Mathematical language is the system
used to communicate mathematical ideas. The language of mathematics is more precise than
any other language one may think of. Like other languages, it has its own grammar, syntax,
vocabulary, word order, synonyms, negations, conventions, idioms, abbreviations, sentence
structure and paragraph structure. It has certain language features unparalleled in other
languages, such as representation. The language also includes a large component of logic. The
ordinary language which gradually expands to comprise symbolism and logic leads to learning
of mathematics and its useful application to problem situations.

The use of apt language is the key to making mathematics comprehensible and
understandable. This language consists of a substrate of ordinary language using technical
terms and grammatical conventions that are peculiar to mathematical discussions,
supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical formulae. More
advanced courses such as geometry, discrete mathematics and abstract algebra are
concerned not just with manipulating symbols and solving equations but with understanding
the interrelationships among sophisticated concepts. The language of mathematics can ably
explain and express all these.

All human languages have grammatical structures that distinguish between nouns and
verbs. These structures express the difference between the objects themselves and the
actions carried out by or on the objects. Numbers, measurements, shapes, spaces, functions,
patterns, data and arrangements are regarded as mathematical nouns, or objects while
mathematical verbs may be considered as the four main actions attributed to problem-solving
and reasoning. These actions represent the process one goes through to solve a problem.
According to Kenney, Hancewicz, Heuer, Metsisto and Tuttle (2005), these four actions are:

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

▪ Modeling and Formulating: creating appropriate representations and

relationships to mathematize the original problem.

▪ Transforming and Manipulating: changing the mathematical form in which a

problem is originally expressed to equivalent forms that represent solutions.

▪ Inferring: applying derived results to the original problem situation, and

interpreting and generalizing the results in that light.

▪ Communicating: reporting what has been learned about a problem to a specified

audience.

Definitely, mathematics is a language. Expertise in this language can be gained by long

and carefully supervised experiences on its usage and application.

A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Mathematics is about ideas – relationships, quantities, processes, measurements,

reasoning and so on.

The use of language in mathematics differs from the language of ordinary speech in three
important ways, according to Jamison (2000).

▪ First, mathematical language is non-temporal. There is no past, present or future in

mathematics.

▪ Second, mathematical language is devoid of emotional content.

▪ Third, mathematical language is precise.

Ordinary speech is full of ambiguities, innuendoes, hidden agenda and unspoken cultural
assumptions. Since ordinary language tolerates vagueness, students have little practice in
forming clear, precise sentences and often lack the patience to do so (Jamison, 2000).

The advantage of mathematical notation, both symbolic and graphical, is that it is highly
compact (conveying a lot of information and ideas in very little space) and focused (conveying
the important information for the current situation and omitting the rest). For learners, this
can also be a disadvantage, because one little symbol can refer to so many ideas (Developing
Mathematical Language, 2016).

While students learn how to do math, they must also learn how to say and articulate what
they learn. They must learn to recognize and answer “why” questions so that they will develop

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

problem solving skills. It is most important to learn the concepts and use the symbolism as a
tool of communication.

Once students understand how things are said, they can better understand what is being
said, and only then do they have a chance to know why it is said. Regrettably, many people
see mathematics only as a collection of arcane rules for manipulating bizarre symbols –
something far removed from speech and writing. Probably, this results from the fact that most
elementary mathematics courses – arithmetic in elementary school, algebra and
trigonometry in high school, and calculus in college – are procedural courses focusing on
techniques for working with numbers, symbols, and equations. Although this formal
technique is important, formulae are not ends in themselves but derive their real importance
only as vehicles for expression of deeper mathematical thoughts.

As children develop their capacity or understanding, language and its vocabulary becomes
a vital cognitive link between a child’s natural sense of number and order and conceptual
learning (Chard, n.d.) Mathematics is a language in itself and mathematical language is
precise, concise and powerful. Likewise, it is clear and objective.

B. Mathematical Expressions and Sentences

One of the objectives in learning mathematics is for students to be able to confidently

speak about it. It is important that students are competent to discuss ideas and explain how
they solve mathematics problems or what the consequences and possibilities are if they use
the wrong process. Math words, expressions and sentences can help students explain what
they think. Precise math terms to achieve better understandings and deeper appreciation of
mathematics.

It is essential to recognize the parts that make up a mathematical expression, as well as

the basic vocabulary used when discussing mathematical expressions.

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are operations that can make up a
mathematical expression. Given in the table below are the words or phrases which are
indicative of the four operations.

Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division

[+] [-] [ x, ( ), * ] [ , / ]
Plus Minus Multiplied by Divided by
The sum of The difference of The product of The quotient of
Increased by Decreased by Times of The ratio of
Total Subtracted from Twice Over
Added to Subtracted to Thrice All over
Less
Less than

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Since x is often used as a variable in algebra, the symbol x is rarely used to show
multiplication. Hence, the symbols of dot, parenthesis or asterisk may be used, instead of x,
to indicate multiplication. For example, 2x + 8 could also be expressed as 2(x) + 8 or 2*x + 8.

Multivariate mathematical expressions have more than one variable.

Examples of a multivariate expression are:

▪ 5xy + 9x – 12
▪ 31abc
y
▪ 3x

Mathematical expressions consist of terms. The term of a mathematical expression is

separated from other terms with either plus or minus signs. A single term may contain an
expression in parentheses or other grouping symbols.

In algebra, variable or letters are used to represent numbers. An algebraic expression is a

quantity which contains numbers and variables. The variable, also called literal coefficient,
represents the unknown and makes use of letters. The number with the variable is the
numerical coefficient. Any single number is called a constant. In the expression 10x + 11, the
numerical coefficient of x is the number 10 while x is the literal coefficient of 10; and it means
10 times x plus 11. The number 11 is a constant.

For example, 21(x – 8) has 1 term, thus, it is called a monomial. On the other hand, 5x +
12y has two terms, while 3x + 2(x + y) – 36 has three terms. These two expressions are referred
to as binomial and trinomial, respectively. A mathematical expression with more than two
terms is called polynomial. A trinomial is a polynomial.

A mathematical sentence combines two mathematical expressions using a comparison

operator. These expressions either use numbers, variables, or both. The comparison
operators include equal, not equal, greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, and less
than or equal to. The signs which convey equality or inequality are also called relation symbols
because they specify how two expressions are related. A mathematical expression containing
the equal sign is an equation. A mathematical expression containing the inequality sign is an
inequality.

Examples of equations:

▪ 4x + 3 = 19
▪ 6y – 5 = 55
▪ 10 + 1 = m
x+y+z
▪ =3
2
▪ 58 – q = 25

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Examples of inequalities:

▪ 15x – 5 < 3y
▪ 18 > 16.5
▪ 99 < x
▪ 1 < x < 10
▪ a + b + c  999

An open sentence in math means that it uses variables, meaning that it is not known
whether the mathematical sentence is true or false. A closed sentence, on the other hand, is
a mathematical sentence that is known to be either true or false.

Examples of open sentence:

▪ 2xy < 3y
▪ 18w > 16.5
▪ 3(m + n) = 100
▪ 8ab – c = 1
▪ x+y=5
▪ 4–3=v
▪ The obtuse angle is N degrees.
▪ 25m = n
▪ abc = 4
▪ 3x + 3y – 4z = 11

Examples of true closed sentence:

▪ 2(x + y) = 2x + 2y
▪ 18 (2) > 16.5
▪ 3(m + n) = (m + n) + (m + n) + (m + n)
▪ 8c – c = 7c
▪ 9 is an odd number.
▪ √25 = 5
▪ 10 – 1 = 9
▪ 6–6=0
▪ The square root of 4 is 2.
▪ g + g + 100 = 2g + 100

Examples of false closed sentence:

▪ 9 is an even number.
▪ 4+4=5
▪ 10 – 1 = 8
▪ 6–6=–1

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▪ The square root of 4 is 1.

▪ d + 2d = 2d2
▪ y0 = 2
▪ (xyz)2 = 2xyz
▪ x + 2x + 3x = 10x
3
▪ √100 = 10

C. Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Symbols are important in mathematical works. It is therefore necessary to understand

how vital it is to be precise about the symbols. Variables are another form of mathematical
symbols. To understand the meaning of math symbols, there are two things to consider,
namely: context and convention.

Context refers to the particular topics being studied and it is important to understand the
context to understand mathematical symbols.

Convention is a technique used by mathematicians, engineers, scientists in which each

particular symbol has particular meaning.

The position of numbers and symbols in relation to each other has a bearing on their
meanings. Usage of subscripts and superscripts is also an important convention.

In mathematics, engineering, science and other areas, Greek and Latin letters are used as
symbols for physical quantities and special functions; and conventionally, for variables
representing certain quantities. Greek letters are used in many calculations. For example, the
Greek letter  (pi) is used to represent the number 3.14159… We often use  (alpha),  (beta),
and  (theta) to represent angles. The Greek capital letter  (sigma) is frequently used to
represent the summation of several numbers.

Letters are used in mathematics and science as conventional symbols. For instance, the
uppercase letter C is used as conventional symbol for carbon, degrees Celsius, set of complex
numbers, coulomb, molar heat capacity, the C programming language, specific heat capacity
and Cunningham correction factor. On the other hand, the lowercase letter c is used as
conventional symbol for the prefix centi-, speed of light, Charm quark and speed of sound.

D. Four Basic Concepts

The concept of set is one of the most basic in mathematics. A set is a well-defined
collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set (also known as the set’s elements
or members) can be numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, etc. Sets are

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conventionally named with capital letters. There is a simple notation of sets. Braces are
usually used to specify that the objects written between them belong to a set.

An element of a set is usually denoted by a lowercase letter. The symbol denotes 

denotes membership while  denotes non-membership to a set. Thus, x  A, read as x is an
element of A, means that x can be found on set A while x  A, read as x is not an element of
A, means that x does not belong to set A.

1.1 There are two ways to describe a set, namely:

▪ In the Roster/Tabular Method, the elements in the given set are listed or enumerated,
separated by a comma, inside a pair of braces.
▪ In the Rule/Descriptive Method, the common characteristics of the elements are
defined. This method uses set builder notation where x is used to represent any
element of the given set.

1.2 The following are kinds of sets:

▪ Empty/Null/Void set has no element and is denoted by  or by a pair of braces with

no element inside, i.e. { }.
▪ Finite set has countable number of elements.
▪ Infinite set has uncountable number of elements.
▪ Universal set is the totality of all the elements of the sets under consideration,
denoted by U.

1.3 Two or more set may be related to each other as described by the following:

▪ Equal sets have the same elements.

▪ Equivalent sets have the same number (cardinality) of elements.
▪ Joint sets have at least one common element.
▪ Disjoint sets have no common element.

It can be noted that equal sets are equivalent sets, however, not all equivalent sets are
equal sets.

1.4 A subset is a set every element of which can be found on a bigger set. The symbol  means
“a subset of” while  means “not a subset of”. If the first set equals the second set, then it is
an improper subset. The symbol  is used to mean an improper subset.

A null set is always a subset of any given set and is considered an improper subset of the
given set. Other than the set itself and the null set, all are considered proper subsets. The set
containing all the subsets of the given set with n number of elements is called the power set
with 2n number of elements.

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1.5 There are four operations performed on sets. Suppose we named the two sets as Set A
and Set B, then:

▪ Union of Sets A and B (denoted by A  B) is a set whose elements are found in A or B

or in both.

In symbol: A  B = {x  x  A or x  B}

▪ Intersection of sets A and B (denoted by A  B) is a set whose elements are common

to both sets.

In symbol: A  B = {x  x  A and x  B}

▪ Difference of sets A and B (denoted by A – B) is a set whose elements are found in Set
A but not in Set B.

In symbol: {x  x  A and x  B}

▪ Complement of Set A (denoted by A’) is a set whose elements are found in the
universal set but not in Set A.

In symbol: A’ = {x  x  U and x  A}

1.6 The pictorial representation of relationship and operations of sets is the so-called Venn-
Euler Diagrams or simply Venn Diagrams. The universal set is usually represented by a
rectangle while circles within the rectangle usually represent its subsets. The shaded
region in the given diagrams illustrates the sets relation or operation.

2. Functions

A function f from a set of elements X to a set of elements Y is a rule that assigns to each
element x in X exactly one element y in Y. For example, let Set X consists of four students and
Set Y consists of their favorite subjects, respectively:

X = {Alyssa, Elijah, Steph, Shei}

Y = {Chemistry, Math, Physics, Statistics}

Then, the result is a set of ordered pairs of the form (x, y) written as: {(Alyssa, Chemistry),
(Elijah, Math), (Steph, Physics), (Shei, Statistics)}

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The student-subject pair given in the example above relates each element of Set X with
exactly one element of Set Y.

Functions are mathematical entities that give unique outputs to particular inputs. There
are many ways to think about functions, but they, at all times, have three most important
parts:

▪ Input
▪ Relationship
▪ Output

Also, a function has special rules:

▪ A function works for every possible input value.

▪ A function has only one relationship for each input value.

Likewise, a function consists of argument (input to a function), value (output), domain (set
of all permitted inputs to a given function) and codomain (set of permissible outputs).

Let X be the set containing of four shapes: triangle, rectangle, hexagon and square; and
let Y be the set consisting of five colors: red, blue, green, pink and yellow.

Linking each shape to its color is a function from X to Y, each shape is linked to a color
(that is, an element in Y) and each shape is linked or mapped to exactly one color. There is no
shape that lacks a color and no shape that has more than one color. This function will be
referred to as the “color-of-the-shape function”. Thus, the domain of the “color-of-the-shape
function” is the set of the four shapes and the codomain consists of the five colors. The
concept of a function does not require that every possible output is the value of some
argument, e.g. the color blue is not the color of any of the four shapes in X (Function, 2017).

The rules on performing operations of functions, f and g, are the following:

▪ The sum f + g is function defined by: y = (f + g)x = f(x) + g(x).

▪ The difference f – g is the function defined by: y = (f – g)x = f(x) – g(x).
▪ The product f * g is the function defined by: y = (f * g)x = f(x) * g(x).
▪ The quotient f / g is the function defined by y = (f / g)x = f(x) / g(x).

3. Relations

A relation is a set of inputs and outputs, oftentimes expressed as ordered pairs (input,
output). A relation is a rule which associates each element of the first set (Set A) with at least
one element in the second set (Set B).

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1. Disjoint sets A and B

2. Set A is a proper subset of set B, A  B

3. Union of sets A and B, A  B

4. Intersection of sets A and B, A  B

5. Difference of sets A and B, A – B

6. Complement of a set A, A’

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A relation can be represented as a mapping diagram or a graph. Mapping or pairing from

domain to the range is one way to show correspondence in a relation.
For example, a relation can be represented as:

INPUT X OUTPUT Y

0 -2

1 1

2 2

3 4

Figure 2.1. Mapping Diagram of Relation

in which the lines connect the inputs with their outputs. The relation can also be
represented as (activity for the students to plot the points):

Figure 2.2. Graph of Relation

A function is a relation in which each input has only one output. A function is a rule which
uniquely associates elements of the first set (Set A) with the elements of the second set (Set
B); each element in Set A maps to only one element in Set B.

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In the relation mapped and graphed above, x is not a function of y, because one element
of input x (0) is mapped to more than one element of output y (-2 and 1).

When an independent variable corresponds to more than one variable, it is a relation. A

relation is a correspondence between a first set of variables such that for some elements of
the first set of variables, there corresponds at least two elements of the second set of
variables (Zorilla et.al., 2016).

4. Binary Operations

The term binary means consisting of two parts. In mathematics, binary means that it
belongs to a number system with base 2 and not base 10.

A binary number is made up of only zeroes (0s) and ones (1s). Examples are 1001 and
11010. There is no 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 in a binary number. Binary numbers have many uses
in mathematics, in the digital world and beyond. A bit is a single binary digit. The number
11010 has 5 bits. To distinguish a binary from a decimal number, it is written with a subscript
2.

To transform the binary number 111111112 to decimal:

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0= 27 = 128
1 0 0 0 0 0 0= 26 = 64
1 0 0 0 0 0= 25 = 32
1 0 0 0 0= 24 = 16
1 0 0 0= 23 = 8
1 0 0= 22 = 4
1 0= 21 = 2
1= 20 = 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 = 255
Since 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 equals 255; therefore 111111112 = 255.

To convert a decimal number to a binary number:

Decimal Expanded Form Binary
0 0
1 20 12
2 1
2 +0 102
3 21 + 1 112
4 22 + 0 + 0 1002
5 22 + 0 + 1 1012
6 22 + 21 + 0 1102

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In the decimal number 342.5, there are 3 hundreds, 4 tens, 2 ones and 5 tenths. In a binary
number 1111.12, there are 1 eight, 1 four, 1 two, 1 one, and 1 one-half. The 1 on the right side
of the decimal point is in the half or halves position. 1111.12 equals 15.5 in decimal while
342.5 equals 101010110.12.

An online binary-to-decimal and decimal-to-binary converter and vice-versa may be used

for very large numbers. [http://www.rapidtables.com/convert/number/decimal-to-
binary.htm]. The following are converted using the said online converter.

Decimal Binary
100 1100100
400 110010000
500 111110100
555 1000101011
1000 1111101000
3333.5 110100000101.1
5000.5 1001110001000.1

A binary operation is a rule for combining two values to produce a new value. The most
widely known binary operations are those learned in elementary school: addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division on various sets of numbers.

A binary operation f(x, y) is an operation that applies to two quantities or expressions x

and y. There are many binary operations on real numbers. Such operations take two real
numbers and create another real number.

A binary operation is said to be commutative if the order of the arguments is changed and
the result is equivalent. Likewise, a binary operation is said to be associative if the order of
the parentheses is changed and the result is equivalent.

An element, denoted as e, is said to be an identity or neutral element of a binary operation

if under the operation, any element combined with e results in the same element.

For an element, the inverse represented as a-1, when combined with a under the binary
operation results in the identity element for that binary operation.

In mathematics, a binary operation on a set is a calculation that combines two elements

of the set (called operands) to yield another element of the set.

Typical examples of binary operations are the addition and multiplication of numbers and
matrices, as well as composition of functions on a single set.

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For instance:

• On the set of real numbers R, f(a, b) = a + b is a binary operation since the sum of two
real numbers is a real number.

• On the set of natural numbers N, f(a, b) = a + b is a binary operation since the sum of
two natural numbers is a natural number. This is a different binary operation than the
previous one since the sets are different.

• On the set M (2, 2) of 2 x 2 matrices with real entries, f(A, B) = A + B is a binary

operation since the sum of two such matrices is another 2 x 2 matrix.

• On the set M (2, 2) of 2 x 2 matrices with real entries, f(A, B) = AB is a binary operation
since the product of two such matrices is another 2 x 2 matrix.

• For a given set C, let S be the set of all functions h:C → C. Define f: S x S → S by f(h1,
h2)(c) = h1(h2(c)) for all c  C, the composition of the two functions h1 and h2 in S. Then
f is a binary operation since the composition of the two functions is another function
on the set C (that is, a member of S).

Many binary operations of interest in both algebra and formal logic are commutative,
satisfying f(a, b) = f(b, a) for all elements a and b in S, or associative, satisfying f[f(a, b), c] =
f[a, (b, c)] for all a, b, and c in S. Many also have identity elements and inverse elements. The
first three examples above are commutative and all of the above examples are associative
(Binary operations, 2017).

E. Elementary Logic

Logic is the science of formal principles of reasoning or correct inference. It is the study of
the principles and methods used to distinguish valid arguments from those that are not valid.
Logic has vital applications in various fields of human endeavor.

Mathematical logic is the study of reasoning in mathematics. Mathematical reasoning is

deductive, meaning it consists of drawing conclusions from given hypotheses. Hence, the
basic concept is that a statement is a logical consequence of some other statements. The use
of therefore customarily indicates that a statement is a consequence of preceding statements.

Logic is the expression of ordered thoughts starting rom axioms and resulting in a
conclusion. There are many rules and formalities for mathematical logic which ensure that
truth is maintained throughout the logical argument. Once a conclusion is successfully built it
can be used with confidence as an axiom in another different logical argument (Beginning
Mathematics/What is Mathematics, 2014).

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In logic, an argument is defined as any group of statements or propositions, one of which

is claimed to follow from the others, which are then alleged to provide basis for the truth of
that one. In categorical syllogism, an argument involves two premises and a single conclusion.

F. Formality

Formality is a relational concept: an expression can be more or less formal relative to

another expression, entailing an ordering of expressions; yet, no expression can be absolutely
formal or absolutely informal. All linguistic expressions are somewhere in amidst these two
extremes: absolute formality and absolute informality.

A formal expression is completely formal when it is context-independent, non-fuzzy and

precise, that is, it represents a clear distinction which is invariant under changes of context.

Testing the validity of knowledge requires formal expression of that knowledge. Formality
of an expression is defined as the invariance, under changes of context of the expression’s
meaning, i.e. the distinction which the expression represents. This encompasses both
mathematical formalism and operational determination. The main advantages of formal
expression are storability, universal communicability and testability. However, formality can
never be complete, as the context cannot be eliminated. Primitive terms, observation set-
ups, and background conditions are inescapable parts of formal or operational definitions,
that all refer to a context beyond the formal system. It is concluded that formality is not an
absolute property, but a context-dependent one: different people will apply different
amounts of formality in different situations or for different purposes (Heylighen, 1999).

Generalizations

1. Mathematics is a language in itself. Hence, it is useful in communicating important

mathematical ideas. Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and
rules.
2. Mathematical language is precise, concise and powerful. Likewise, it is clear and
objective.
3. Precise mathematical words or terms, expressions and sentences can help students
achieve better understandings and deeper appreciation of mathematics.
4. Language conventions are necessary in mathematics for it to be understood by all. To
understand the meaning of math symbols, there are two things to consider, namely:
context and convention.

ASSESSMENT 1: Natural Language and Mathematical Language

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Essay: One difference between natural language and mathematical language is the degree of
precision necessary in communication. Slight errors in the use of natural language do not
totally destroy the effectiveness of a communication. Explore this idea and compare the effect
of slight errors committed in natural language and in mathematical language. (20 points)

ASSESSMENT 2: Functions and Relations

A. Given the function f(x) = 2x2 and g(x) = 3x + 1, find:

1. f(x) + g(x)
2. f(x) – g(x)
3. f(g(x))
4. f(x)2
5. f(x)3 – g(x) + g(x)2

B. Given the function f(y) = 2y + 7 and g(x) = 3x, find:

1. f(y) + g(x)
2. f(2) – g(x)
3. f(g(x))
4. f(3) + g(-3)
5. (f(5))2 – (g(2))3

ASSESSMENT 3: Sets

I. Identify the type of set (finite, infinite, or empty) as described by the following:
1. A = {stars in the galaxy} __________________
2. B = { } __________________
3. C = {1, 2, 3, …} __________________
4. D = {set of negative integers} __________________
5. E = {x  x > 5} __________________
6. F = { 0 } __________________
7. G = {multiples of 9} __________________
8. H = {Greek letters} __________________
9. I = {w, x, y, z} __________________
10. J = {numbers less than 11} __________________

II. Given: A = {integers between 1 and 10}

B = {even numbers less than 25}
C = {odd numbers less than 10}

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Find:

1. AC= _____________________________________________________
2. BC= _____________________________________________________
3. A  (B  C) = _____________________________________________________
4. A–C= _____________________________________________________
5. B–A= _____________________________________________________

III. Twenty (20) faculty members were asked regarding their preferred field trip
destination. Results show that 8 chose Palawan, 7 chose Batanes, and 5 preferred both
Palawan and Batanes. How many of them would like to go to:

1. Palawan and Batanes ________

2. Exactly one place ________
3. Batanes only ________
4. Neither Palawan nor Batanes ________
5. Either Palawan or Batanes ________

IV. Let:
A = {integers from 1 to 10}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
D = {vowels in the English alphabet}

Determine whether the pairs of sets are joint, disjoint, equal, or equivalent.

1. Sets A and B ________________

2. Sets C and B ________________
3. Sets C and D ________________
4. Sets B and D ________________
5. Sets A and C ________________

ASSESSMENT 4: Binary Operation

Below is a matrix of binary operation on a finite set, whose elements are:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

* 1 2 3 4
1 4 3 2 1
2 3 1 4 2

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3 2 4 1 3
4 1 2 3 4

1. What is 1 * 2? ________

2. What is 2 * 3? ________

3. What is 4 * 4? ________

4. What is (2*3) * 2? ________

5. What is the identity element for the operation? Prove your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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ASSESSMENT 5: Binary Numbers

1. Convert 11111111112 to decimal number by completing the table below:

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 64
1 0 0 0 0 0 25 32
1 0 0 0 0 24 16
1 0 0 0 23 8
1 0 0 22 4
1 0 21 2
1 20 1

Therefore, 11111111112 equals _____________.

2. Convert the following decimal to binary numbers by completing the table below:

Decimal Expanded Form Binary

1 20 12
3 21 + 1 112
5 22 + 0 + 1 1012
7 22 + 21 + 1 1112
8
12
100

ASSESSMENT 6: Language and Symbols

Write the word or group of words identifying the following descriptions:

Set Function Relation Logic

Argument Binary Operation Convention Inequality
Algebraic Expression Formal Expression Equation Mathematical Logic

1. Quantity that contains numbers and variables __________________________________

2. Any group of statements or propositions ______________________________________
3. A rule for combining two values to produce a new value __________________________
4. A technique in which each particular symbol has particular meaning ________________

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5. Characterized by context-independent and precise expressions

_____________________
6. Mathematical entity that give unique output to a particular input
____________________
7. Science of formal principles of reasoning or correct inference ______________________
8. Study of reasoning in mathematics ___________________________________________
9. Correspondence between two sets of variables
__________________________________
10. A collection of distinct objects ______________________________________________

REFERENCES:

Algebra II. Functions (2017). Sparknotes. Retrieved 13 July 2017 from

http://www.sparknotes.com/math/algebra2/functions/section1.html
Andrews, Peter B. (2002). An Introduction to Mathematical Logic and Type Theory: To Truth
Through Proof (2nd ed.). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Binary Operations (2017). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 27 July 2017 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_operation
Chard, D. (n.d.). Vocabulary Strategies for the Mathematics Classroom. Retrieved 21 July 2017
from https://www.eduplace.com/state/pdf/author/chard_hmm05.pdf
Developing Mathematical Language (2016). Think Math. Retrieved 11 July 2017 from
http://thinkmath.edc.org/resource/developing-mathematical-language
Enderton, Herbert (2001). A mathematical introduction to logic (2nd ed.). Boston, MA:
Academic Press
Fibonacci Sequence (2016). Math is un. Retrieved 01 July 2017 from
https://www.mathisfun.com/numbers/fibonacci-sequence.html
Functions (2017). Retrieved 13 July 2017 from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/algebra-functions
Heylighen, F. (1999). Advantages and limitations of formal expression. Foundations of
Science. Retrieved 29 July 2017 from
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1009686703349?L1=true
Jamison, R. E. (2000). Learning the Language of Mathematics. Retrieved 01 July 2017 rom
https://www.wac.colostate.edu/llad/v4n1/jamison.pdf
Kenny, J.M., Hancewicz, E., Heuer, L., Metsisto, D. & Tuttle, C.L. (2005). Literacy Strategies for
Improving Mathematics Instruction. Retrieved 13 July 2017 from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/105137/chapters/Mathematics-as-
Language.aspx
Reyes, J.L. et. al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Sucat, Muntinlupa City: Panday-
Lahi Publishing House, Inc.

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Chapter III
Problem Solving and Reasoning
After the students have gone through Chapter 3, they should be able to:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts
2. Write clear and logical proofs
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four
steps; and
4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

Mathematics seeks to understand patterns that permeate the world and human mind.
Even if the language of mathematics is based on rules, it is important to motivate students to
move beyond rules to be able to convey things in the language of mathematics. This
transformation implies changes which involve revitalized effort to focus on seeking solutions,
not just memorizing procedures; exploring patterns, not just memorizing formulas; and
formulating inferences, not just doing exercises. Learners will have opportunities to study
mathematics as an exploratory, dynamic, evolving discipline rather as an absolute and rigid
closed body of laws to be memorized. They will be encouraged to perceive mathematics as a
science and to appreciate mathematics as a discipline about patterns and not merely about
numbers.

Mathematics consists of skills and processes. The skills include the basic arithmetical
processes and the algorithms that go with them while the processes are the ways of applying
these skills. Problem-solving is a mathematical process and problem-solving contributes to
mathematics itself.

A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Mathematical Reasoning enables a student to use all other mathematical skills. With
mathematical reasoning, students recognize that mathematics is indispensable, that it makes
sense and it can be understood. They then learn how to evaluate situation, opt for
appropriate problem-solving strategies, draw logical conclusions, develop and describe
solutions, and identify when those solutions can be applied. Mathematical reasoners are able
to reflect on solutions to problems and determine whether or not they make sense. They
appreciate the all-encompassing use and influence of reasoning as a part of mathematics.

Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental types of reasoning for
mathematicians. Today’s formal theorems and proofs originated with these two forms of
reasoning. Inductive reasoning refers to the process of making generalized decisions after
observing, and/or witnessing repeated specific instances of something. Conversely, deductive

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COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

reasoning refers to the process of taking the information gathered from general observations
and making specific decisions based on that information. Mathematicians are still using these
types of reasoning to discover new mathematical theorems and proofs.

Inductive reasoning is a process of reaching conclusions based on a series of observations

while deductive reasoning is a process of reaching conclusions based on previously known
facts. Inductive reasoning usually leads to deductive reasoning. A conclusion reached by
inductive reasoning may or may not be valid. The conclusions reached by deductive reasoning
are correct and valid. Inductive reasoning is used to form hypotheses, while deductive
reasoning is used to prove ideas.

Whereas inductive reasoning draws general principles from specific instances, deductive
reasoning draws specific conclusions from general principles or premises. A premise is a
previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows as a conclusion.
Unlike inductive reasoning, which always involves uncertainty, the conclusions from
deductive inference are certain provided the premises are true. Scientists use inductive
reasoning to formulate hypotheses and theories, and deductive reasoning when applying
them to specific situations (Herr, 2007). Even if all of the premises are true in a statement,
inductive reasoning may still yield false conclusion.

Examples of deductive reasoning:

1. 1st Premise: All numbers ending in 0 and 5 are divisible by 5.

2nd Premise: The number 35 ends with a 5.
Conclusion: Therefore, 35 is divisible by 5.

2. 1st Premise: All squares are rectangles.

2nd Premise: All rectangles have four sides.
Conclusion: Therefore, all squares have four sides.

3. 1st Premise: Cacti are plants.

2nd Premise: All plants perform photosynthesis.
Conclusion: Cacti perform photosynthesis.

4. 1st Premise: All men are mortal.

2nd Premise: Math teachers are men.
Conclusion: Math teachers are mortal.

5. 1st Premise: Some students of Cavite State University are taking up BS Applied
Mathematics.
2nd Premise: Students of this University are scholars.
Conclusion: Therefore, students taking up BS Applied Mathematics in this
University are scholars.

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COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Examples of inductive reasoning:

1. 1st Premise: John is an excellent swimmer.

2nd Premise: John’s family has a swimming pool.
Conclusion: John’s sister Mary must also be an excellent swimmer.

2. 1st Premise: Elijah is good-looking.

2nd Premise: Elijah is well-behaved.
Conclusion: Therefore, all good-looking are well-behaved.

3. 1st Premise: The coin pulled from a bag is a penny.

2nd Premise: A second coin from the bag is a penny.
Conclusion: Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.

4. 1st Premise: Children in the day-care center are playful.

2nd Premise: Children in the day-care center like to play with Legos.
Conclusion: Therefore, playful children like to play Legos.

5. 1st Premise: Anne is taking up BS Psychology at Saint Louis University.

2nd Premise: Peter is also taking up BS Psychology at Saint Louis University.
Conclusion: Therefore, Anne and Peter must be classmates in the same University.

B. Intuition, Proof and Certainty

Intuition is the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for
conscious reasoning. It is instinctive knowledge, meaning the state of being aware of or
knowing something without having to discover or perceive it, or the ability to do this. It is the
instinctive belief, meaning that something is known or believed instinctively, without actual
evidence for it.

In the traditional way of dealing with mathematics, mathematicians use their intuition
and imagination to come up with theorems. Then, they do a lot of work to try to fill in the
proofs and check what is true.
A mathematical proof is an argument which convinces other people that something is
true. Proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement. It is a conclusive
evidence or an argument that serves to establish a fact or the truth of something. Proof
consists of a test or trial of something to establish that it is true.

In direct proof, the conclusion is established by logically combining the axioms, definitions
and earlier theorems.

For example, direct proof can be used to establish that “the sum of two even integers is
always even”. Consider two even integers x and y. Since they are even, they can be written

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COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

as x = 2a and y = 2b, respectively, for integers a and b. Then the sum x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b).
Therefore x + y has 2 as a factor and, by definition, is even. Hence, the sum of any two even
integers is even. This proof uses the definition of even integers, the integer properties of
closure under addition and multiplication and distributivity (Mathematical Proof, 2017).

Certainty is total continuity and validity of inquiries to the highest degree of precision.
Certainty is a conclusion or outcome that is beyond doubt. A mathematical certainty is
something that is certain or most likely to happen.

C. Polya’s Four Steps to Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is an artistic science! There is no single approach in problem-solving that

works all the time each problem is slightly different. George Polya (1887 – 1985), known as
the father of modern problem-solving who did extensive studies and wrote papers and books
about problem-solving, formulated the four-step approach to problem-solving. Polya’s four-
step approach to problem-solving aims to make individuals as better problem solvers.

Given below is a detailed framework for thinking, Polya’s four-step approach to problem-
solving:

1. Preparation: Understand the problem.

a. Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts.
b. Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:
▪ What sort of a problem is it?
▪ What is being asked?
▪ What do the terms mean?
▪ Is there enough information or is more information needed?
▪ What is known and unknown?
c. Rephrase the problem in your own words.
d. Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.

2. Thinking time: Devise a plan.

a. You must start somewhere, so try something. How are you going to attack the
problem?
b. Possible strategies (i.e. reach into your bag of tricks):
▪ Draw pictures.
▪ Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns.
▪ Be systematic.
▪ Solve a simpler version of the problem.
▪ Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test. (Guessing is OK.)
▪ Look for a pattern or patterns.
▪ Make a list.

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Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

c. Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the
problem aside for a while. Your subconscious mind may keep working on it.
d. Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and creative
rather than becoming tense, frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve the
problem.

3. Insight: Carry out the plan.

a. Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately. When you have
time, try it out and see if it leads to a solution.
b. If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another approach.
Often the first approach does not work. Do not worry, just because an approach does
not work, it does not mean you did it wrong. You actually accomplished something,
knowing a way does not work is part of the process of elimination.
c. Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you will often
have a flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new perspective on how to approach
solving the problem.
d. The key is to keep trying until something works.

4. Verification: Look back.

a. Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.
▪ Did you answer the question?
▪ Is your result reasonable?
▪ Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem are
satisfied.
▪ Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.
b. If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake. Try
to fix or modify your current attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried.
It is likely that at least part of it will end up being useful.
c. Is there another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You need to
become flexible in your thinking. There is no one right way, usually.)
d. Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future problems?

D. Problem-Solving Strategies

Problem-solving strategies may be developed in many ways. First, the ability to use
strategies develops with experience and practice. Second, strategies themselves can become
more abstract and complex.

There are simple and common problem-solving strategies, to mention a few:

▪ Guess (This includes guess-and-check and guess-and-improve.)

▪ Act it out. (Act it out and use equipment.)
▪ Draw (This includes drawing pictures and diagrams.)

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Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

▪ List/Tabulate (This includes making a table.)

Guess-and-check is a classic technique. While it may not be very efficient or reliable,

sometimes it is all one has to work with. One nice thing about this technique is the low level
of effort it requires. It can be a great way to relax the mind. Guess-and-check is one of the
simplest strategies. Anyone can guess an answer. If they can also check that the guess fits the
conditions of the problem, then they have mastered guess and check. Guess-and-improve is
slightly more sophisticated than guess-and-check. The idea is that you use your first incorrect
guess to make an improved next guess. In relatively straightforward problems like that, it is
often fairly easy to see how to improve the last guess. In some problems though, where there
are more variables, it may not be clear at first which way to change the guessing. Jigsaw and
crossword puzzles are usually solved using guess-and-check and guess-and-improve.

There are pros and cons for Act-it-Out strategy. It is an effective strategy for
demonstration purposes and to have a better grip of the problem on hand. Devices used to
act out the problem are considered equipment. Act-it-Out strategy has limited application.
Simple division operation problem can be solved by this strategy. A class of 32 elementary
graders may be asked: To effectively do the task, we shall divide the class. How many groups
of five can you make? Then, they can act-it-out by forming groups of five.

To draw pictures, Venn diagrams, sketches, maps and other representations help solve
mathematical problems, as well as problems in mechanics (Physics). Problems concerning
vector addition, in fact, are solved in two ways: graphical or drawing methods and analytical
or mathematical method. In doing so, precise measurements and careful drawing lead to
accurate solution.

Creating systematic lists and organized tables helps discover some hidden hints towards
solutions of some problems. To help solve logic problems, tables with ticks and crosses are
often used. Tables can also be an efficient way of finding number patterns. Work and age
problems are easier solved by tabulating the known facts and relations. Lists may be
organized following rules like highest to lowest, most frequent to less frequent, excellent to
very unsatisfactory, etc. Scores may be listed in an array in decreasing manner for item
analysis purposes. Problems in statistics may be solved by listing, tallying, and tabulating data.

E. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

Finding patterns is an important problem-solving strategy because many problems are

similar and fall into predictable patterns. A pattern is a regular, systematic repetition and may
be numerical, visual, or sequential. Patterns show how things are connected, how things work
and how a group of objects acts in the same way.

Examples of find-a-pattern problem-solving strategy:

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Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

1. Suppose you decided to sign up for a half marathon (13.1 miles) race. After a long and
rigid three months of training with a coach, race day is here! The gun goes off, and you
embark on attempting a really impressive feat. Your coach records your elapsed time, in
minutes, for the first five miles of the race, and the results are as follows:

Mile Elapsed Time

1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50

Solution:
Do you notice any patterns in this chart? A pattern can be defined as a repeated
occurrence, or as something that follows a specific rule. Hmm, well there are quite a few in
there! For example, here are a few that you may have observed.

1. Every time the miles go up by 1, the elapsed time goes up by 10.

2. The elapsed time can be found by multiplying the mile number by 10.
3. There is a difference of 1 between each mile in the chart, and there is a difference of
10 between each elapsed time in the chart.

Before the race, you made a goal of finishing the race in under 2.5 hours, or 150 minutes.
Your coach is trying to figure out if you are on track to do that or if you need to speed up. I've
got great news! Your coach can use the patterns in the chart to solve this problem.

There are a number of ways that your coach can use patterns to figure this out. He could
extend the pattern out until the end of the race and see if your time is under 150 minutes at
that point. He could also use the second pattern we named; that the elapsed time can be
found by multiplying the mile number by 10 to set up the equation

T = 10m

where T is the elapsed time and m is the number of miles you've run.

Since he wants to know what your elapsed time would be at 13.1 miles, if you continue at
the pace you are at, he can simply plug m = 13.1 into the equation and solve for T. Therefore,
T = 10 x 13.1 = 131 minutes.

2. Can you find the sum of the first 100 even positive numbers? Find a pattern.

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Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Solution:

The sum of first 1 even positive number is 2 or

1(1 + 1) = 2

The sum of the first 2 even positive numbers is

2 + 4 = 6 or 2(2 + 1) = 2(3)

The sum of the first 3 even positive numbers is

2 + 4 + 6 = 12 or 3(3 + 1) = 3(4)

The sum of the first 4 even positive numbers is

2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20 or 4(4 + 1) = 4(5)

Therefore, following the pattern above, the sum of the first 100 even positive numbers is
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + … + 200 = 100(100 + 1) = 100 (101) or 10,100.

F. Recreational Problems Using Mathematics

Recreational mathematics involves problems, riddles, puzzles, brain-teasers and games

carried out for recreation or leisure rather than as a research or application-based
professional activity. Recreational mathematics employs creative problem-solving, logical
reasoning approaches, reflective thinking and algebra techniques.

Mathematical games are multi-player games whose rules, strategies, and outcomes can
be studied and explained using mathematics. The players of the game may not need to use
explicit mathematics in order to play mathematical games. Recreational mathematics include
magic squares, chessboard problems, logical puzzles, paradoxes, Sudoku, Pythagorean triples,
polyominoes, shapes and symmetry, origami, fractals, Pascal’s triangle, probability, prime
numbers, number bases, Fibonacci numbers, knots, shapes and colors.

Solving mathematical puzzles require mathematics. There are specific rules, as do multi-
player games, but mathematical puzzles do not usually involve competition between two or
more players. In order to solve such a puzzle, the solver must find a solution that satisfies the
given conditions. Logic puzzles and classical ciphers are common examples of mathematical
puzzles.

Generalizations

1. Mathematics requires not only facility with numbers but also the ability to critically
think through situations, to reason and argue logically and to creatively solve
problems.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

2. Mathematics is an active human endeavor. We can create the mathematics we need

to solve problems. Mathematics is for everyone and anyone who cares to learn it.

ASSESSMENT 1: Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

On the space provided before each number, write DR if the conclusion is reached through
deductive reasoning, and write IR if the conclusion is reached through inductive reasoning.

1. A quadrilateral has four sides.

A square has four sides.
Therefore, a square is a quadrilateral.

2. If A = B and B = C, then A = C.
3. My English teacher this semester is skinny.
My English teacher last semester was skinny.
Therefore, English teachers are skinny.

4. All even numbers are divisible by 2.

18 is an even number.
Therefore, 18 is divisible by 2.

5. Angles A, B, and C are angles inside a triangle.

The sum of the angles of any triangle equals 180o.
Therefore, the sum of angles A, B, and C equals 180o.

6. Acute angles are less than 90o and angle  is 42o, so this angle  is acute.

7. All numbers ending in 0 and 5 are divisible by 5.

80 ends with 0 and 45 ends in 5.
Therefore, 80 and 45 are divisible by 5.

8. Sets A and B are equal.

Equal sets are equivalent.
Therefore, sets A and B are equivalent.

9. Mass and weight are directly proportional.

Mass is directly proportional to force.
Therefore, weight is directly proportional to force.

10. The symbols x and * indicate the multiplication operation.

The symbols / and  indicate the division operation.
Therefore, x, *, /, and  are operation symbols.

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COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

ASSESSMENT 2: Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

Answer the following questions by writing the letter of the best answer on the space provided
before each number.

1. A problem is already solved but is solved again by using a different method to see if it
yields the same answer. In which step of Polya’s problem-solving approach is it?
a. First c. Third
b. Second d. Fourth

2. Which step of Polya’s process consists of identifying all relevant and irrelevant
information in a problem?
a. First c. Third
b. Second d. Fourth

3. Which of Polya’s four steps makes use of strategies like drawing pictures; using
variable and choosing helpful names for variables or unknowns; and looking for
patterns?
a. First c. Third
b. Second d. Fourth

4. Which of Polya’s our steps double checks to make sure that all of the conditions
related to the problem are satisfied and double checks computations involved in
finding the solution?
a. First c. Third
b. Second d. Fourth

5. Does the second step of Polya’s four-way approach require understanding of the
problem by considering the necessary underlying mathematical concepts, as well as
the terminology and notation used in the problem?
a. Yes c. Maybe
b. No d. Sometimes

ASSESSMENT 3: Problem-Solving Strategies

Problem #1

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 Tarlac State University
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Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Four siblings, namely: Amy, Jenn, Chard and Sonny watch their Dad’s basketball game. Like
others, they are sometimes childish and there moments of tantrums. Consider the following
to guess their seating arrangement:
a. Amy does not like to sit near Chard.
b. The boys want to sit together.
c. Jenn does not like to sit near Chard either.
d. Sonny is sitting between a boy and a girl.
e. Amy is sitting on the seat at the far left of the group.

Seat #1 Seat #2 Seat #3 Seat #4

Problem #2

Problem #3

ASSESSMENT 4: Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

Problem #1

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
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The first batch of state scholars composed of three students. The second batch had 5 scholars.
The third batch had 8 students and the ourth batch had 12. If this pattern continues, how
many students will be granted scholarship for the ninth batch?

Batch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Students 3 5 8 12

Problem #2

Explain the pattern.

Problem #3

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
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Explain the pattern.

Problem #4

Circle the shape that comes next.

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COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
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Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

ASSESSMENT 5: Recreational Mathematics

Problem #1

Problem #2

Solve the puzzle.

Problem #3

Ninety-two percent fail simple test. Choose the correct answer among the options. Do you
belong to the 92%. Prove it.

7 + 7  7 + 7 x 7 – 7 = ______
a. 0
b. 8
c. 50
d. 56

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Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Problem #4

Draw a stick man holding your answer.

If: 2 = 6
3 = 12
4 = 20
5 = 30
6 = 42

Then, 9 = _______

Problem #5

What letter should replace the question mark in order to logically complete the equation?
Draw a snowman and write your answer in his tummy.

𝐄 𝐃 𝐍 ?
= = =
𝐑 𝐒 𝐔 𝐖

Problem #6

In a magic square, each row, column, and diagonal add up to the same total. Can you fill in
the missing numbers in these magic squares?

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
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Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Problem #7

How many squares are in this picture? Count well to get the correct answer.

For Problems 8, 9, and 10, solve the puzzles.

Problem #8

Problem #9

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Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

Problem #10

REFERENCES:

Bradford, A. (2017). Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning. In Live Science. Retrieved
30 July 2017 rom https://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning in Geometry: Definition and Uses (2017). Retrieved 29 July
2017 from http://study.com/academy/lesson/inductive-and-deductive-reasoning-in-
geometry.html
Mathematical Proof. (2017). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 29 July 2017 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_proof#Methods
Problem-Solving. (n.d.). Polya’s four-step approach to problem-solving. Retrieved 29 July
2017 from http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/M110/Worksheet/PolyaProblemSolve.pdf
Problem-Solving Strategies (n.d.). Retrieved 31 July 2017 from
https://nzmaths.co.nz/problem-solving-strategies
Reyes, J.L. et. al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Sucat, Muntinlupa City: Panday-
Lahi Publishing House, Inc.

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Chapter IV
Data Management
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data
2. Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable
given certain conditions; and
3. Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions

Data management is the development, execution and supervision of plans, policies,

programs and practices that control, protect, deliver and enhance the value of data and
information assets. It is an administrative process by which the required data is acquired,
validated, stored, protected, and processed, and by which its accessibility, reliability, and
timeliness is ensured to satisfy the needs of the data users.

The process is actually what statistics is all about. Statistics is a branch of mathematics
dealing with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
Statistical treatment of data is essential in order to make use of data in the right form. Raw
data collection is only one aspect of any experiment; the organization of data is equally
important so that appropriate conclusions can be drawn. This is what statistical treatment of
data is all about. There are many techniques involved in statistics that treat data in the
required manner. Statistical treatment of data is essential in all experiments, whether social,
scientific or any other form. Statistical treatment of data greatly depends on the kind of
experiment and the desired result from the experiment (Kalla, 2009).

A. Gathering, Organizing, Representing and Interpreting Data

An investigation should always be based on accurate data which requires good

management. Correct methods of collecting data, right way of organizing them and good data
presentation will result to a precise analysis and interpretation.

1. Data Gathering

There are different methods used in gathering or collecting data. These are:

• Direct or Interview method is a person-to-person encounter between the source of

information, the interviewee, and the one who gathers information, the interviewer.
Interview can be done personal, through phone or internet access.

• Indirect or questionnaire method is the technique in which a questionnaire is used to

elicit the information or data needed.

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• Registration method obtains data from the records of government agency authorized
by law to keep such data or information and made these available to researchers.

• Observation method is the technique in which data particularly those pertaining to

the behaviors of individuals or group of individuals during the given situation are best
obtained through observations.

• Experimental method is a system used to gather data from the results of performed
series of experiments on some controlled and experimental variables. This is
commonly used in scientific inquiries.

2. Data Organization and Presentation

Data collected or obtained from whatever manner are called raw data. Data collected can
be classified according to the scale of measurement used. There are four levels of
measurement, from lowest to highest scale: the nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.

• Nominal scale assigns names or labels to observation in purely arbitrary sequence.

The labels are used to classify the respondents or objects without ordering. For
instance, if we need to classify the respondents’ preferences on cell phone brands,
such as Apple, Samsung, LG, Oneplus, Vivo, Oppo, etc. we measure on the nominal
scale and data gathered is a nominal data.

• Ordinal scale assigns numbers or labels to observations with implied ordering. Ranking
the respondents’ preferences means measuring responses in the ordinal scale and the
data obtained is called ordinal data.

• Interval scale assigns real numbers to observations to reflect distance between rank
position of the respondents or objects in equal units. This scale gives the distance
between any two numbers of known sizes, has a zero point and has a unit of
measurement. The data collected can be manipulated algebraically by addition or
subtraction but not division or multiplication. Examples are expenses, distance,
weight, etc.

• Ratio scale assigns numbers to observations to reflect the existence of true absolute
zero point as its origin. The ratio of two scale point is independent of the unit of
measurement. The data collected has all the properties of an interval data and can be
manipulated algebraically by multiplication and division. Examples are data on birth
rate, unemployment rate, etc.

Take note that the data set obtained using the interval and ratio scales is called measured
data.

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An effective presentation of data is necessary in any investigation. Data, which have been
collected and organized well, but not presented properly and clearly would become of little
use. Data presentation should give a clear picture of various relationships among the different
data presented. Proper presentation of the gathered data is important in order to decide what
tool or tools of analysis should be employed to come up with an intelligent judgement.

There are different ways or forms to present data. These are: textual, tabular, and
graphical.

• Textual form makes use of words, sentences and paragraphs in presentation. It is

commonly used when there are only few numerical data to be enumerated or to be
compared with other data.
• Tabular form is a systematic presentation of data in rows and columns. It is used when
related numerical facts need to be classified in arrays.
• Graphical form shows numerical values or relationships in a pictorial form. It makes
use of graphs, symbols or visual aids.

Organizing collected numerical data can be done in two ways:

1. Array is an arrangement of the numerical data/values according to order of magnitude

either ascending or descending.

2. Frequency distribution table is a condensed version of an array. It categorizes the

numerical data into intervals or classes. It has the following parts:
• Classes are mutually exclusive categories defining the lower limit and the upper
limit with equal intervals.
• Class frequency is the number of observations in each class.
• Class mark or class midpoint is used in computing the mean and some measures
of variability.
• Cumulative frequency tells the sum of frequencies in a particular class of interest.
• Relative frequency tells the percentage of observations in a particular class of
interest.

Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution with Equal Class Size

1. Determine the range R of the numerical data.

R = Highest value – Lowest value

2. Determine the number of classes K to which the data are to be grouped using the
Sturges’ Approximation: K = 1 + 3.322 log N, where N is the total number of values to
be grouped.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

3. Determine the class size C, using the formula C = R/K.

4. Determine the lower limit of the first class.

Note: There is no fixed rule in determining the lower limit of the first class. For the
purpose of uniform result, the lowest value in the data set should be the lower limit
of the first class.

5. Construct the class intervals and determine the class frequencies.

Remarks:

1. Sturges’ Approximation is just a guide and a flexible rule.

2. The number of classes should be large enough to demonstrate the major

characteristics of the data yet not so large as to result in losing the advantage of
summarizing raw data. For instance, where the highest observed value fails to be
included in the last class constructed, the number of classes should not be increased
just to accommodate the highest value. Instead, increase the class size.

3. The number of classes is usually taken between 5 to 20, depending on the nature of
the data without using the Sturges’ Approximation.

4. Class intervals are chosen so that the class marks coincide with actually observed data.
However, class boundaries should not coincide with actually observed data.

Example: Raw scores of 50 students in a 200-item test.

144 112 156 122 168 172 141 159 127 154
156 145 134 137 123 149 144 160 136 139
142 138 159 151 147 150 126 152 147 136
135 132 146 133 150 122 139 149 152 129
131 155 116 140 145 135 160 125 172 163

1. The range R = 172 – 112 = 60

2. K = 1 + 3.322 log 50 = 6.643978  7
3. C = 60/7 = 8.571428571  9
4. The lower limit is 112.
5. Construct the Frequency Distribution Table.

Class Class Class Relative <CF >CF

Intervals Frequency Mark Boundary Frequency

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

112 – 120 2 116 111.5 – 120.5 4% = .04 2 50

121 – 129 7 125 120.5 – 129.5 14% = .14 9 48
130 – 138 10 134 129.5 – 138.5 20% = .20 19 41
139 – 147 12 143 138.5 – 147.5 24% = .24 31 31
148 – 156 11 152 147.5 – 156.5 22% = .22 42 19
157 – 165 5 161 156.5 – 165.5 10% = .10 47 8
166 – 174 3 170 165.5 – 174.5 6% = .06 50 3
Total 50 100% = 1.00

3. Data Analysis and Interpretation

Data analysis and interpretation is the process of making sense of numerical data that has
been collected, analyzed, and presented. A common method of describing the characteristics
of individual objects or group of individuals under study is known as descriptive statistics,
while the analyzing and interpreting data is known as inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics give a single value which represents the set of values. There are three
methods of describing a set of values: the measures of central tendency, measures of
dispersion and measure of skewness and kurtosis. Measures of central tendency refer to a
value where the set of values differ from each other; while skewness and kurtosis measures
the symmetry and flatness/peakedness of the distribution.

Inferential statistics are techniques wherein samples can be used to make generalizations
about the populations from which the samples were drawn. It is important that the sample
accurately represents the population. The process of achieving this is called sampling.
Inferential statistics arise out of the fact that sampling naturally incurs sampling error and
thus a sample is not expected to perfectly represent the population. There are two methods
of inferential statistics: the estimation of parameter(s) and the hypothesis testing.

B. Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency are measures indicating the center of a set of data which
are arranged in order of magnitude. It is described as the point about which the scores tend
to cluster, hence, regarded as a sort of average in the series. It is the center of the
concentration of the scores. It is a single number which describes the totality of the set of
data collected. It refers to the parameters of the sample.

There are three measures of central tendency commonly used. These are: the mean,
median and mode.

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

1. Mean or arithmetic mean (or average) is the most popular and well-known measure of
central tendency. It can be used with both discrete and continuous data (although it is
used most often with continuous data).

For Ungrouped Data: The mean is the most frequently used measure of central tendency. The
mean is denoted by a symbol  (read as “myu”) and 𝑋̅ (read as “x bar”) for the population and
sample, respectively.

The mean of a series of values is equal to the sum of the set of values divided by the
number of values. Symbolically, the mean is

∑ 𝑋𝑖 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + … + 𝑋𝑛
𝜇= =
𝑁 𝑁
where:
 – population mean
𝑋𝑖 – ith observed value in the sample
 – sum of all values
N – total number of observations

∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + … + 𝑥𝑛
𝑋̅ = =
𝑛 𝑛
where:
𝑋̅ – sample mean
𝑥𝑖 – ith observed value in the sample
 – sum of all values
n – total number of observations

Example 1: The items listed below represent the scores of seven BS Applied Statistics students
during the final examination. Compute the mean score.

89, 75, 90, 85, 78, 87, and 80

∑ 𝑥𝑖 89 + 75 + 90 + 85 + 78 + 87 + 80 584
𝑋̅ = = = = 83.43
𝑛 7 7

Example 2: Suppose BS Applied Math program has 10 students and the height (in cm) are as
follows: 170, 165, 155, 160, 150, 149, 152, 161, 163, 175. Find the mean height of the
students.

∑ 𝑋𝑖 170 + 165 + 155 + 160 + 150 + 149 + 152 + 161 + 163 + 175
𝜇= =
𝑛 10

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

∑ 𝑋𝑖 1600
𝜇= = = 160 𝑐𝑚
𝑛 10

For Grouped Data: The mean for grouped data is denoted by G or XG for population and
sample, respectively.

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑓1 𝑋1 + 𝑓2 𝑋2 + 𝑓3 𝑋3 + … + 𝑓𝑘 𝑋𝑘
𝜇𝐺 = =
𝑁 𝑁
where:
𝜇𝐺 – mean
𝑋𝑖 – class mark of the ith class
𝑓𝑖 – frequency of the ith class
 – sum of all values
N – total number of observations

Example: The table below represents the scores of 64 students in a long quiz.

Class Interval Frequency Class Mark 𝒇 𝒊 𝑿𝒊

5–9 7 7 49
10 – 14 10 12 120
15 – 19 13 17 221
20 – 24 18 22 396
25 – 29 8 27 216
30 – 34 5 32 160
35 – 39 3 37 111
Total N = 64 ∑ 𝒇𝒊 𝒙𝒊 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟑

Note: From the frequency distribution table, add another column to represent the product of
the ith frequency and ith class mark. Then take the sum under this column.

Weighted Mean

The weighted mean is denoted by w or xw for population and sample, respectively.

∑ 𝑊𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑤1 𝑋1 + 𝑤2 𝑋2 + 𝑤3 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑤𝑘 𝑋𝑘
𝜇𝑤 = =
∑ 𝑊𝑖 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤3 + ⋯ + 𝑤𝑘

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 Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics
Lucinda Extension Campus, Tarlac City

where:
𝜇𝑤 – weighted mean
Xi – ith quantity
wi – weight of the ith class
 – sum of all values

Example: Consider the grade of a freshman student during the first semester.

Subject Units Grade 𝒘𝒊 𝑿𝒊

Purposive Comm. 3 2.25 6.750
STS 3 1.75 5.250
MMW 3 2.00 6.000
Panitikan 3 2.00 6.000
PHED 1 2 1.50 3.000
Military Science 1.5 1.25 1.875
Total  wi = 15.5  wi Xi = 28.875

Properties of the Mean

1. The sum of the deviations of the observations from the mean is zero. The deviation of
the ith observation from the mean is denoted by
2. The sum of the squared deviations of the observations from the mean is minimum.
3. The mean reflects the magnitude of every observation, since every observation
contributes to the value of the mean.
4. The mean can be easily affected by the presence of an extreme value, hence not a
good measure of central tendency when an extreme value do occur.

Measures of Dispersion
C. Measures of Relative Position
D. Probabilities and Normal Distributions
E. Linear Regression and Correlation

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